Unit -1

Pixel - A pixel is the smallest unit of a digital image or graphic that can be
displayed and represented on a digital display device.
A pixel is the basic logical unit in digital graphics. Pixels are combined to form a
complete image, video, text, or any visible thing on a computer display.
Pixel ( x,y, intensity)
Where x,y is the coordinate and intensity represent colours.

Resolution -
You have probably seen that in your own computer settings, you have
monitor resolution of 800 x 600, 640 x 480 e.t.c
In pixel resolution, the term resolution refers to the total number of count
of pixels in an digital image. For example, If an image has M rows and N
columns, then its resolution can be defined as M X N.

If we define resolution as the total number of pixels, then pixel resolution

can be defined with set of two numbers. The first number the width of the
picture, or the pixels across columns, and the second number is height of
the picture, or the pixels across its width.
We can say that the higher is the pixel resolution, the higher is the quality
of the image.

Aspect ratio
Another important concept with the pixel resolution is aspect ratio.
Aspect ratio is the ratio between width of an image and the height of an
image. It is commonly explained as two numbers separated by a colon
(8:9). This ratio differs in different images, and in different screens.
The common aspect ratios are:
1.33:1, 1.37:1, 1.43:1, 1.50:1, 1.56:1, 1.66:1, 1.75:1, 1.78:1, 1.85:1,
2.00:1, e.t.c

Advantage

Aspect ratio maintains a balance between the appearance of an image on

the screen, means it maintains a ratio between horizontal and vertical
pixels. It does not let the image to get distorted when aspect ratio is
increased.

For example
If you are given an image with aspect ratio of 6:2 of an image of pixel
resolution of 480000 pixels given the image is an gray scale image.
And you are asked to calculate two things.
● Resolve pixel resolution to calculate the dimensions of image
● Calculate the size of the image

Solution:

Given:
Aspect ratio: c:r = 6:2
Pixel resolution: c * r = 480000
Bits per pixel: grayscale image = 8bpp
Find:
Number of rows = ? , Number of cols = ? Solution:-
Solving 2nd part:
Size = rows * cols * bpp
Size of image in bits = 400 * 1200 * 8 = 3840000 bits
Size of image in bytes = 480000 bytes
Size of image in kilo bytes = 48 kb (approx).

Pixels Per Inch -

Pixels per inch (PPI) is a measurement used to define the resolution of a computer
display. This metric evaluates the picture/image quality that a particular computing or
output display device is able to display.
Pixels per inch is also known as pixel density.

Computer Graphics
Computer Graphics is used where a set of images needs to be manipulated or the
creation of the image in the form of pixels and is drawn on the computer. Computer
Graphics can be used in digital photography, film, entertainment, electronic gadgets,
and all other core technologies which are required.

Computer Graphics can be used in UI design, rendering, geometric objects,

animation, and many more.

Applications
● Computer Graphics are used for an aided design for engineering and
architectural systems- These are used in electrical automobiles,
electro-mechanical, mechanical, electronic devices. For example gears and
bolts.
● Computer Art – MS Paint.
● Presentation Graphics – It is used to summarise financial statistical
scientific or economic data. For example- Bar chart, Line chart.
● Entertainment- It is used in motion pictures, music videos, television
gaming.
● Education and training- It is used to understand the operations of complex
systems. It is also used for specialised systems such as framing for
captains, pilots and so on.
● Visualisation- To study trends and patterns.For example- Analysing
satellite photos of earth.
advantages of computer graphics

1. Visualization of Complex Data

One of the biggest benefits of computer graphics is the ability to visualize complex
data in a simple and easy-to-understand manner. You can use graphs, pie charts,
and other types of visuals to break down data and present it in a way that is easy to
understand by various audiences. This is especially helpful when you are
communicating information to a non-technical audience.

2. Cost-Effective Design Solutions

With computer graphics, you can create various designs without the need to hire a
designer. This is especially useful for startups or businesses on a budget. You can
create logos, posters, business cards, and other promotional materials using
computer graphics software. This is a great way to save money and create a
compelling visual brand for your company.

3. Enhanced Visual Experience

One of the biggest advantages of computer graphics is the ability to create a

high-quality visual experience for users. You can use 3D models, high-resolution
images, and stunning visual effects to create an engaging, immersive experience for
your users.

This is extremely helpful for businesses that want to create a high-quality visual
experience for their customers, such as the travel industry or the tourism industry.

4. Improved Communication
Another significant benefit of computer graphics is the ability to communicate
complex information in a simple and easy-to-understand manner.

You can create diagrams, flowcharts, and other types of visuals to break down
information and help your audience understand it easily. This is especially helpful in
the business world when you are presenting information to other teams or your
client.

5. Easier Access to Visuals

With computer graphics, you can easily access visuals that can be helpful in various
projects. Whether you are creating a presentation or a poster, or simply need images
for your website, you can easily find or create visuals using computer graphics
software.

This is helpful for designers, marketers, and other individuals in a variety of

industries.

6. Greater Accessibility

Computer graphics are available to everyone, regardless of their location or ability.

You can find computer graphics software available on the internet, as well as on
computers and mobile devices.

Components Of Computer graphics:

Interactive computer graphics consists of three components such as:
1. Digital memory buffer
2. TV Monitor
3. Display controller
Using these components, we are able to see the output on the screen in the
form of pixels.

Components Of Computer graphics:

1. Digital Memory Buffer (Frame Buffer)

This is place where images or pictures are stored as an array (matrix of 0 and
1, 0 represents darkness and 1 represents images or picture).

Frame buffer is the video RAM (V-RAM) that is used to hold or map the image
displayed on the screen. The amount of memory required to hold the image
depends primary on the resolution of the screen image and also the color
depth used per pixel. The formula to calculate how much video memory is
required at a given resolution and bit depth is quite simple.
Components Of Computer graphics:

Usually frame buffer is implemented using rotating random access

semiconductor memory. However, frame buffer also can be implemented
using shift registers.

2. TV Monitor:
Monitor helps us to view the display and they make use of CRT (Cathode Ray
Tube)

3. Display Controller:
It is an interface between digital memory buffer and TV monitor. The main
function of this is to pass the contents of frame buffer to the monitor. The
display controller reads each
Successive byte of data from the frame buffer memory and converts 0’s and
1’s into corresponding video signal. This signal is then fed to the TV monitor to
produce a black and white picture on the screen. Now, display controller is
recognized as display card and one of our choice can be VGA card with a
resolution of 640 x 480.

Numerical :- consider three different raster system with resolution of

 1) 640 ×480

2) 1280× 1024

3) 2560× 2048 ,What size of frame buffer is needed to store a image that
needed 8 bit ,12 bit & 16 but to store a pixel.
Display methods in computer graphics

1) Raster scan method

2) Random scan method or vector method

Raster-Scan Displays- Raster Scan Displays are most common type

of graphics monitor which employs CRT. It is based on television technology.
In raster scan system electron beam sweeps across the screen, from top to
 bottom covering one row at a time.A pattern of illuminated pattern of spots is
created by turning beam intensity on and off as it moves across each row. A
memory area called refresh buffer or frame buffer stores picture definition.
This memory area holds intensity values for all screen points. Stored intensity
values are restored from frame buffer and painted on screen taking one row at
a time.Each screen point is referred to as pixels.

In raster scan systems refreshing is done at a rate of 60-80 frames per second.
Refresh rates are also sometimes described in units of cycles per second /
Hertz (Hz). At the end of each scan line, electron beam begins to display next
scan line after returning to left side of screen. The return to the left of screen
after refresh of each scan line is known as horizontal retrace of electron beam.
At the end of each frame electron beam returns to top left corner and begins the
next frame.

Raster-Scan Display Processor:

 An important function of the display process is to digitize a picture definition
given in an application program into a set of pixel-intensity values for storage in
refresh buffer. This process is referred to as scan conversion. The purpose of
display processors is to relieve the CPU from graphics jobs.

Display processors can perform various other tasks like: creating different line
styles, displaying color areas, etc. Typically display processors are utilized to
interface input devices, such as mouse, joysticks.

ADVANTAGES:

● Real life images with different shades can be displayed.

● Color range available is bigger than random scan display.

DISADVANTAGES:

● Resolution is lower than random scan display.

● More memory is required.
● Data about the intensities of all pixel has to be stored.

Random-Scan Display
 In Random-Scan Display electron beam is directed only to the areas of screen
where a picture has to be drawn. It is also called vector display, as it draws
picture one line at time. It can draw and refresh component lines of a picture in
any specified sequence. A Pen plotter is an example of random-scan device.
The number of lines regulates refresh rate on random-scan displays. An area of
memory called refresh display files stores picture definition as a set of line
drawing commands.

The system returns back to first-line command in the list, after all the drawing
commands have been processed. High-quality vector systems can handle around
100, 00 short lines at this refresh rate. Faster refreshing can burn phosphor. To
avoid this every refresh cycle is delayed to prevent refresh rate greater than 60
frames per second. Suppose we want to display a square ABCD on the screen.
The commands will be:

● Draw a line from A to B

● Draw a line from B to C
● Draw a line from C to D
● Draw a line from D to A
Random-Scan Display Processors: Input in the form of an application
program is stored in the system memory along with graphics package. Graphics
package translates the graphic commands in application program into a display
file stored in system memory. This display file is then accessed by the display
processor to refresh the screen. The display processor cycles through each
command in the display file program. Sometimes the display processor in a
random-scan is referred as Display Processing Unit / Graphics Controller. The
structure of a simple random scan is shown below:

ADVANTAGES:

● Higher resolution as compared to raster scan display.

● Produces smooth line drawing.
● Less Memory required.

DISADVANTAGES:

● Realistic images with different shades cannot be drawn.

● Colour limitations.
Difference between Random scan method and
Raster scan method

Random Scan Raster Scan

1. It has high Resolution 1. Its resolution is low.

2. It is more expensive 2. It is less expensive

3. Any modification if 3.Modification is tough

needed is easy

4. Solid pattern is tough to 4.Solid pattern is easy to

fill fill

5. Refresh rate depends or 5. Refresh rate does not

resolution depend on the picture.

6. Only screen with view 6. Whole screen is

on an area is displayed. scanned.

 7. Beam Penetration 7. Shadow mark

technology come under it. technology came under

this.

8. It does not use 8. It uses interlacing

interlacing method.

9. It is restricted to line 9. It is suitable for realistic

drawing applications. display.

Types of Computer Graphics

● Raster Graphics: In raster, graphics pixels are used for an image to be
drawn. It is also known as a bitmap image in which a sequence of images is
into smaller pixels. Basically, a bitmap indicates a large number of pixels
together.
● Vector Graphics: In vector graphics, mathematical formulae are used to
draw different types of shapes, lines, objects, and so on.

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube. CRT is a technology used in traditional

computer monitors and televisions. The image on CRT display is created

by firing electrons from the back of the tube of phosphorus located

towards the front of the screen.

Once the electron heats the phosphorus, they light up, and they are

projected on a screen. The color you view on the screen is produced by a

blend of red, blue and green light.

Components of CRT:
Main Components of CRT are:

1. Electron Gun: Electron gun consisting of a series of elements, primarily

a heating filament (heater) and a cathode. The electron gun creates a

source of electrons which are focused into a narrow beam directed at the

face of the CRT.

2. Control Electrode: It is used to turn the electron beam on and off.

3. Focusing system: It is used to create a clear picture by focusing the

electrons into a narrow beam.

4. Deflection Yoke: It is used to control the direction of the electron beam.

It creates an electric or magnetic field which will bend the electron beam

as it passes through the area. In a conventional CRT, the yoke is linked to

a sweep or scan generator. The deflection yoke which is connected to the

sweep generator creates a fluctuating electric or magnetic potential.

5. Phosphorus-coated screen: The inside front surface of every CRT is

coated with phosphors. Phosphors glow when a high-energy electron

beam hits them. Phosphorescence is the term used to characterize the

light given off by a phosphor after it has been exposed to an electron

beam.

Beam Penetration Technique in Computer Graphics

The cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor displays with the help of a combination of
phosphorus, as phosphorus exists in multi-color. Beam penetration is a method for
producing color displays with CRT. The beam penetration technique uses
multilayer phosphorus and achieves color by modulating the beam’s accelerating
potential. It uses a random scan system to display color.

The arrangement of beam penetration CRT is similar to the normal CRT. The
only unusual component is the use of multilayer phosphorus inside beam
penetration. In multilayer phosphorus, a layer of red phosphorus is deposited
behind the initial layer of green phosphorus. This method produces four colors
only, red, green, orange, and yellow. The electron beam is produced by using an
electron gun.
 ● If a low potential electron beam strikes the face, it excites only the red
phosphor and produces red traces.
● If a high potential electron beam strikes the tube face, it excites the
green phosphor and produces green traces.
● If an electron beam of intermediate potential and velocity, then it
produces a combination of red and green i.e., orange and yellow.

However, the principle problem with this technique is the need to change the
beam accelerating potential by an adequate amount in order to switch colors.
When the accelerating potential changes, the deflection system must react to
compensate. The hardware and software design must introduce delays between
changes in color.

Advantages :

● It is a cheaper method.
● This method provides high resolution.
● It uses only one electron gun whereas the other method uses three or
more electron guns.
● Easily identifies the type of electron i.e., high, low, or medium potential.
● A reliable method for producing colors.

Disadvantages :

● Produces only four colors.

● Not suitable for producing realistic views.
● Only suitable for the random scan.
● Color changing process takes time.
● The picture quality is quite poor.
Shadow Mask Technique:
Shadow Mask Technique in Computer Graphics is commonly used in raster-scan
systems ( including color TV) because they produce a much wider range of colors
than the Beam Penetration Method.

It has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position. The first phosphor dot emits
a red light, the second one emits a green light and the third emits a blue light. The
phosphor transforms the Kinetic Energy of the electrons into Light Energy

The Shadow Mask Technique involves the usage of three electron guns, one for
each color dot, and a shadow-mask grid just behind the phosphor-coated screen.
configuration for three electron guns is an in-line arrangement in which the three
electron guns and the corresponding red-green-blue color dots on the screen, are
aligned along a single scan line rather than in a triangular pattern. This type of
arrangement of electron guns is convenient to keep in alignment and is generally
used in high-resolution color CRTs.

We get color variations in a shadow mask CRT by varying the intensity levels of the
three electron beams. By turning off red and green guns, we get only the color
coming from the blue phosphor. Other combinations of beam intensities generate a
small light spot for each pixel position since our eyes tend to merge the three colors
into one composite. The color we see depends on the excitation of the red, green
and blue phosphorus. A white (grey) is the result of activating all three dots of equal
intensity. Yellow is generated with the green and red dots only, magenta is generated
with the blue and red dots and cyan shows up when blue and green are activated
uniformly.

Advantages of the Shadow Mask Technique:

● The image is more real as compared to other RGB filtering methods.

● Tailored, that is this technique is customizable.
 ● And is relatively less expensive compared to other techniques.

Disadvantages of the Shadow Mask Technique:

● Use of very limited colors, only three to four colors usage.

● Other methods available provide much better results in terms of the quality
of the picture.
● For picture display it does not require refreshing.
● Display complex pictures at high resolution without any flicker.
● No use of frame buffer or refresh buffer.

Direct View Storage Tube

Direct View Storage Tube (DVST) resembles CRT as it uses electron gun to
draw picture and phosphor coated screen to display it. The phosphor used in
this is of high persistence. DVST does not use refresh buffer or frame buffer to
store picture definition. Picture definition is stored in inside CRT in form positive
charged distribution. Because of this reason DVST is knows as Storage Type
CRT. In DVST no refreshing is required as result picture drawn on DVST will be
seen for several minutes before fading.

Various components of DVST :

1. Electron guns –
Two electron guns are used in DVST : Primary Gun and Flood Gun.
Primary gun is used to store picture pattern. Flood gun is used to
maintain picture display on phosphor coated screen.
2. Phosphor Coated Screen –
In DVST the inner surface of CRT is coated with phosphor crystals is of
high persistence that emit light when beam of electrons strike them.
 3. Storage Mesh –
It is thin and high quality wire that is coated with dielectric and is
located just behind phosphor coated screen. Primary gun deposits
pattern of positive charge on this grid and it is transferred to phosphor
coated screen by continuous flood of electrons produced by flood gun.
Thus Storage Mesh stores picture to be displayed in form of positive
charge distribution.
4. Collector –
This grid is located just behind storage mesh and purpose of this negatively
charged grid is to smooth out flow of flood electrons.

Working principle of DVST:

In DVST similar with CRT electron gun and phosphor coated method is used. But in
this no electron beam is used to directly writing pictures on screen, but instead of this
we can used Storage mesh wire grid is used it is just located behind phosphor
coated screen. There is also another grid located just behind storage mesh is called
Collector and this purpose is to smooth out flow of flood electrons. The flood gun
produce large number of electrons, this negatively charged grid reduces speed of
these electrons. Then electrons pass through collector at low velocity and attracted
by positive charged portions of storage mesh and strike at portions of phosphor
coated screen to display picture. Some electrons get repelled by other portions of
mesh that are negatively charged.

Since the collector has slowly down electrons, in this way they not able to produce
sharpened images. So to reduce this problem, screen itself is maintained at a high
positive potential by means of voltage applied to thin aluminium coating between
tube face and phosphor.
 Figure – Direct View Storage Tube

Advantages of DVST :

● For picture display it does not require refreshing.

● Display complex pictures at high resolution without any flicker.
● No use of frame buffer or refresh buffer.

Disadvantages of DVST :

● Not used for dynamic graphic such as animation.

● These systems do not display colors.
● To erase selected part of an image, entire screen needs to be erased and
modified pictures needs to be redrawn.