Metallurgy of Welding Regions

Structure of Fusion Welded Regions

Simulation of
Weld Pool
Solidification

The morphology of grains in the weld pool at different time, a)

Temperature filed of welding; b) t = 0.25 s; c) t = 0.7 s; d) t = 1 s.
The weld pool can be
characterized as a mixture
of completely molten base
metal (and filler metal if
consumable electrodes are
in use) with high degree of
homogeneity .

Solidification starts at the boundary of between weld pool and

base metal. Crystals grow towards a certain direction. This kind
of structure is called columnar, which is typical for for weld
metals.
Weld Metal
Composition of Weald Seam is related to compositions of the
base metal, electrode wire and flux
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
 Principles of …..
Cold working and Precipitation Hardening
Recrystalization Annealing
HAZ of Cold Worked and Precipitation Hardened Alloys

Cold Worked Precipitataion Hardened

 Weld Decay

Austenitic Stainless Steel

304 (l8%Cr-8%Ni) Stainless Steel Pipe

HAZ Microstructure of Cold and Hot Rolled Steels (C< 0.1%)
HAZ of Hot Rolled Steels

Fine grained ultra-low C Steel

HAZ of Structural Steels
 Preheating
Preheating involves heating the base metal, either in its entirety or just the region surrounding the
joint, to a specific desired temperature, called the preheat temperature, prior to welding.

• Preheating slows down the cooling rate of weld

metal, HAZ and adjacent base metals, which
yields a good microstructure to the metal,
prevents martensite formation at microstructural
level and prevents from cracking of the weld
metal and HAZ.
• Preheating removes the diffusible Hydrogen from
the base metal and hence prevents the chances of
Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC).
• It helps in reducing the expansion and contraction
rate.
• It Burns the unwanted material or impurities (if
any) present on the joint surface.
• Preheating also helps in achieving better
mechanical properties such as notch toughness.
Preheating temperature increases with
increasing carbon content and thickness of steel
 Post heating
Post Weld Heat Treatment is a type of thermal
treatment which is employed after welding, with
aim of diffusing hydrogen from the welding
region, softening the hard HAZ, reducing the
residual stress and preventing brittle fracture
Temperature of post heating shounde be in the
range of 200-250C to avoid hydrogen
embrittlement or 600-700 C to reduce residual
stress.
This technique is a common practice for carbon
and high alloy steels, which are exercised, in
industries to adjust the mechanical properties of
weldment. Zone I – ultra low carbon and low alloy steel
Zone II – low carbon low alloy steels
(only preheating)
ZoneIII - high carbon and high alloy steels.
(preheating + post heating)
Welding Defects
 Porosity
Porosity is the result of weld metal contamination. The trapped gases create a
bubble-filled weld that becomes weak and can with time collapse.
Causes: Inadequate electrode deoxidant, using a longer arc, presence of
moisture, improper gas shield, incorrect surface treatment, use of too high gas
flow, contaminated surface, presence of rust, paint, grease or oil.
Remedies: Clean the materials before you begin welding,
use dry electrodes and materials, use correct arc distance, check the gas flow
meter and make sure that it’s optimized as required with proper with pressure
and flow settings, reduce arc travel speed, which will allow the gases to
escape, ,use the right electrodes ,use a proper weld technique
 Undercut
This welding imperfection is the groove formation at the weld toe, reducing the
cross-sectional thickness of the base metal. The result is the weakened weld and
workpiece.
Causes: Too fast weld speed; use of an incorrect angle, which will direct more
heat to free edges; electrode is too large; incorrect usage of gas shielding;
incorrect filler metal; poor weld technique.
Remedies: use proper electrode angle; reduce the arc length; reduce the
electrode’s travel speed, but it also should not be too slow; choose shielding gas
with the correct composition for the material type you will be welding; use of
proper electrode angle, with more heat directed towards thicker components; use
of proper current, reducing it when approaching thinner areas and free edges;
choose a correct welding technique that does not involve excessive weaving, use
the multipass technique
 Lack of Fusion
This type of welding defect occurs when there is a lack of proper fusion between
the base metal and the weld metal. It can also appear between adjoining weld
beads. This creates a gap in the joint that is not filled with molten metal.
Causes: Low heat input; surface contamination; electrode angle is incorrect,.
electrode diameter is incorrect for the material thickness you are welding, travel
speed is too fast, weld pool is too large and it runs ahead of the arc.
Remedies: use a sufficiently high welding current with the appropriate arc voltage;
before you begin welding, clean the metal; avoid molten pool from flooding the
arc; use correct electrode diameter and angle; reduce deposition rate.
 Lack of Penetration
Incomlete penetration occurs when the groove of the metal is
not filled completely, meaning the weld metal does not fully
extend through the joint thickness.
Causes: there was too much space between the metal you’re
welding together; you’re moving the bead too quickly, which
doesn’t allow enough metal to be deposited in the joint, you’re
using a too low amperage setting, which results in the current
not being strong enough to properly melt the metal; large
electrode diameter,; misalignment, iImproper joint.
Remedies: use proper joint geometry, use a properly sized
electrode, reduce arc travel speed, choose proper welding
current, heck for proper alignment.
 Slag Inclusions
Slag inclusion is one of the welding defects that are usually easily visible in
the weld. Slag is a vitreous material that occurs as a by product of stick
welding flux-cored arc welding and submerged arc welding. Is can occur
when the flux, which is the solid shielding material used when welding,
melts in the weld or on the surface of the weld zone.
Causes: Improper cleaning; weld speed is too fast; not cleaning the weld
pass before starting a new one; incorrect welding angle; weld pool cools
down too fast; welding current is too low.
Remedies: Increase current density, reduce rapid cooling, adjust the
electrode angle, remove any slag from the previous bead, adjust the
welding speed.
 Sputter
Spatter occurs when small particles from the weld attach themselves to the
surrounding surface. It’s an especially common occurrence in gas metal arc
welding. No matter how hard you try, it can’t be completely eliminated.
However, there are a few ways you can keep it to a minimum.
Causes: The running amperage is too high; Voltage setting is too low; Work
angle of the electrode is too steep, Surface is contaminated, Arc is too long;
Incorrect polarity; Erratic wire feeding.
Remedies: Clean surfaces prior to welding; Reduce the arc length; Adjust the
weld current, Increase the electrode angle; Use proper polarity; Make sure
you don’t have any feeding issues.
Cracks

Hot Crack Cold Crack

 Hot Cracks
• Hot cracks develop at elevated temperatures during or just after solidification of the weld metal.
• They propagate between the grains.
Hot cracking is mainly due to high Hot cracking can be prevented by employing adequate
precautions as discussed below, except for some alloys that
amounts of elements with low melting are inherently very susceptible to hot cracking in arc welding.
1.Use lower heat input
temperatures in the base material. Some The use of lower heat input increases the cooling speed of the
elements used in steel making like sulfur weld metal, which minimizes the time spent in the brittle
temperature range. It also increases the width-to-depth ratio
and phosphorus have low melting of weld metal, thereby decreasing the susceptibility to hot
cracking.
points. Because of these low melting 2.Use larger groove radius
points these elements are pushed to the The use of welding joints with a larger groove radius
increases the width-to-depth ratio of weld metal, which
center of the weld bead as it is prevents hot cracking, see Fig. 3.
3.Use ferrite-controlled filler metals
solidifying. These elements can then get When welding austenitic stainless steels, use filler metals
trapped in the middle of the weld when the containing ferrite (normally 3-10% in weld metal) in the
austenitic matrix. For special purposes (e.g. cryogenic
puddle does not stay in a molten state long temperature uses) where a fully austenitic weld metal is
required, use a filler metal containing low sulfur and
enough. When this occurs we get a phosphorus with increased manganese content.
centerline crack as the one pictured below.
Hot cracking (solidification cracking) refer to the formation of shrinkage cracks
during the solidification of weld metal, although hot cracking can also refer
to liquation cracking
The principal causes of cracking are: Strain on the weld pool is too high and/or
Liquid cannot reach the regions where it is needed due to inadequate supply or
blockage/ narrow channels between solidifying grains
All welds can be susceptible to solidification cracking.
To control solidification cracking, three principal factors need to be manipulated:
weld metal composition; weld solidification pattern; strain on the solidifying
weld metal.
 Hot Shortness of Steels
Hot shortness is a tendency for some alloys to separate
along grain boundaries when stressed or deformed at
temperatures near the melting point. In metallurgy, it is
brittleness, usually of steel or wrought iron, when the
metal is hot, due to high sulfur content.
The term is used for the character of steel, which becomes
brittle at hot working temperatures above 0.6 Tm
(recrystallization temperature, where strain hardening is
removed). Hot shortness hinders hot-working operations.
Sulfur causes hot shortness in steel unless sufficient
manganese is added. Sulfur has a greater affinity for
manganese than iron and forms manganese sulfide, which
has a melting point above the hot rolling temperature of
steel, which eliminates hot shortness. Hot shortness means
that the steel literally breaks apart during hot rolling,
resulting in a scrapped product.
 Cold Cracks
• Cold cracks develop after solidification as a result of stresses. Cold cracks are often delayed and
associated with hydrogen embrittlement
• They propagate both between and through grains.
• Cold cracking is much worse than hot cracking simply Preventing Hydrogen Assisted Cold Cracking
because it may accur in hours or days after welding, Reduce the level of hydrogen: Bake the electrodes, clean the
while welded assembly may already in service. metal surface.
• Cold cracking refers to the fact that cracking only Apply a relatively high pre-heat to the material to be
takes place when the weld is relatively cold (< 200- welded: Lower the cooling rate of the weld and HAZ to
300°C) toughen the microstructure.
• Analogeous terms are; Hydrogen Assisted Cold •Maintain a relatively high inter-pass temperature: If the
Cracking, Hydrogen cracking, Delayed cracking, Heat temperature of the weld and heat affected zone is
affected zone cracking maintained above about 100°C, for typical structural steels,
even during the time between weld runs, then the
Occurs when all of the following conditions are met temperature does not get low enough to allow “cold
cracking” to occur. For higher strength steels, the
i. The presence of atomic hydrogen: Penetration of temperature may need to be increased to 150°C.
hydrogen into the weld pool . •Apply a post-heat: In this method, a high pre-heat and
interpass temperature is maintained during welding. Once
ii. The presence of a tensile stress: Residual and(or welding is completed, the temperature is still maintained for
externally applied a period of time. This is called a “post heat”. During this post
heat, the offending hydrogen is given time to “bake out” of
iii. A susceptible microstructure: Martensitic the material, reducing the levels of hydrogen available to
iv. A low enough temperature: RT - 100°C result in hydrogen cracking.
•Use of an austenitic filler metal:
 Hydrogen Embrittlement
Hydrogen can enter and diffuse through steel even at room
temperature during various manufacturing and assembly
operations or operational use – anywhere that the metal comes
into contact with atomic or molecular hydrogen
Processes for which there is a possibility of absorption of
hydrogen include acid pickling (used to remove oxide scale from After a certain time, the hydrogen diffuses to the defects in
the structure (such as grain boundaries) and forms bubbles
the surface of steel= and electroplating (used to deposit zinc on at these defects. These bubbles exert pressure on the metal
steel nuts, bolts, screws and other fasteners for galvanic corrosion grains. The pressure can increase to levels where the metal
protection of the steel). has reduced ductility and strength.

Hydrogen absorption can also occur when a component is in

service if the steel is exposed to acids or if corrosion of the steel
occurs.
Three requirements for failure due to hydrogen embrittlement
* A susceptible material.
* Exposure to an environment that contains hydrogen.
* The presence of tensile stress on the component.
Intergranular cracking occurs when cracks form and grow along
High-strength steels with tensile strength greater than about 1000 weakened grain boundaries in a metal. In the case of hydrogen
embrittlement, the hydrogen bubbles at the grain boundaries weaken
MPa are the alloys most vulnerable to hydrogen embrittlement. the metal.
 Heat Affected Zone Cold Cracking in Fillet Weld:
Incomplete penetration and uneven leg length has
increased stresses in the smaller leg.

Macrosection of fillet weld showing coarse-grained HAZ

(with hydrogen cracking), dark-etching fine-grained HAZ
and lighter-etching intercritical region.
Cold crack or weld metal, hydrogen crack.
 Distorsion after Welding
Distortion in a weld results from the expansion and contraction of the weld metal and adjacent base metal during
the heating and cooling cycle of the welding process. Doing all welding on one side of a part will cause much
more distortion than if the welds are alternated from one side to the other. During this heating and cooling cycle,
many factors affect shrinkage of the metal and lead to distortion, such as physical and mechanical properties that
change as heat is applied
 Minimizing Distortion
1. Do not overweld
The more metal placed in a joint, the greater the shrinkage forces. Correctly sizing a weld for the
requirements of the joint not only minimizes distortion, but also saves weld metal and time. The amount of
weld metal in a fillet weld can be minimized by the use of a flat or slightly convex bead, and in a butt joint by
proper edge preparation and fitup. The excess weld metal in a highly convex bead does not increase the
allowable strength in code work, but it does increase shrinkage forces.
When welding heavy plate (over 1 inch thick) bevelling or even double bevelling can save a substantial
amount of weld metal which translates into much less distortion automatically.
In general, if distortion is not a problem, select the most economical joint. If distortion is a problem, select
either a joint in which the weld stresses balance each other or a joint requiring the least amount of weld
metal.
2. Use intermittent welding
Another way to minimize weld metal is to use intermittent rather than continuous welds where possible, as in
Fig. 3-7(c). For attaching stiffeners to plate, for example, intermittent welds can reduce the weld metal by as
much as 75 percent yet provide the needed strength.
3. Use as few weld passes as possible
Fewer passes with large electrodes, Fig. 3-7(d), are preferable to a greater number of passes with small
electrodes when transverse distortion could be a problem. Shrinkage caused by each pass tends to be
cumulative, thereby increasing total shrinkage when many passes are used.
4. Place welds near the neutral axis
Distortion is minimized by providing a smaller leverage for the shrinkage forces to pull the plates out of
alignment. Figure 3-7(e) illustrates this. Both design of the weldment and welding sequence can be used
effectively to control distortion.
5. Balance welds around the neutral axis
This practice, shown in Fig. 3-7(f), offsets one shrinkage force with another to effectively minimize distortion of the
weldment. Here, too, design of the assembly and proper sequence of welding are important factors.
6. Use backstep welding
In the backstep technique, the general progression of welding may be, say, from left to right, but each bead
segment is deposited from right to left as in Fig. 3-7(g). As each bead segment is placed, the heated edges
expand, which temporarily separates the plates at B. But as the heat moves out across the plate to C, expansion
along outer edges CD brings the plates back together. This separation is most pronounced as the first bead is laid.
With successive beads, the plates expand less and less because of the restraint of prior welds. Backstepping may
not be effective in all applications, and it cannot be used economically in automatic welding.
7. Anticipate the shrinkage forces
Presetting parts (at first glance, I thought that this was referring to overhead or vertical welding
positions, which is not the case) before welding can make shrinkage perform constructive work.
Several assemblies, preset in this manner, are shown in Fig. 3-7(h). The required amount of preset
for shrinkage to pull the plates into alignment can be determined from a few trial welds.
Prebending, presetting or prespringing the parts to be welded, Fig. 3-7(i), is a simple example of the
use of opposing mechanical forces to counteract distortion due to welding. The top of the weld
groove - which will contain the bulk of the weld metal - is lengthened when the plates are preset.
Thus the completed weld is slightly longer than it would be if it had been made on the flat plate.
When the clamps are released after welding, the plates return to the flat shape, allowing the weld to
relieve its longitudinal shrinkage stresses by shortening to a straight line. The two actions coincide,
and the welded plates assume the desired flatness.
Another common practice for balancing shrinkage forces is to position identical weldments back to
back, Fig. 3-7(j), clamping them tightly together. The welds are completed on both assemblies and
allowed to cool before the clamps are released. Prebending can be combined with this method by
inserting wedges at suitable positions between the parts before clamping.
In heavy weldments, particularly, the rigidity of the members and their arrangement relative to each
other may provide the balancing forces needed. If these natural balancing forces are not present, it
is necessary to use other means to counteract the shrinkage forces in the weld metal. This can be
accomplished by balancing one shrinkage force against another or by creating an opposing force
through the fixturing. The opposing forces may be: other shrinkage forces; restraining forces
imposed by clamps, jigs, or fixtures; restraining forces arising from the arrangement of members in
the assembly; or the force from the sag in a member due to gravity.
8. Plan the welding sequence
A well-planned welding sequence involves placing weld metal at different points of the assembly so that, as
the structure shrinks in one place, it counteracts the shrinkage forces of welds already made. An example of
this is welding alternately on both sides of the neutral axis in making a complete joint penetration groove
weld in a butt joint, as in Fig. 3-7(k). Another example, in a fillet weld, consists of making intermittent welds
according to the sequences shown in Fig. 3-7(l). In these examples, the shrinkage in weld No. 1 is balanced
by the shrinkage in weld No. 2.

Clamps, jigs, and fixtures that lock parts into a desired position and hold them
until welding is finished are probably the most widely used means for
controlling distortion in small assemblies or components. It was mentioned
earlier in this section that the restraining force provided by clamps increases
internal stresses in the weldment until the yield point of the weld metal is
reached. For typical welds on low-carbon plate, this stress level would
approximate 45,000 psi. One might expect this stress to cause considerable
movement or distortion after the welded part is removed from the jig or
clamps. This does not occur, however, since the strain (unit contraction) from
this stress is very low compared to the amount of movement that would occur
if no restraint were used during weldin
9. Remove shrinkage forces after welding
Peening is one way to counteract the shrinkage forces of a weld bead as it cools. Essentially, peening the bead stretches it
and makes it thinner, thus relieving (by plastic deformation) the stresses induced by contraction as the metal cools. But this
method must be used with care. For example, a root bead should never be peened, because of the danger of either
concealing a crack or causing one. Generally, peening is not permitted on the final pass, because of the possibility of
covering a crack and interfering with inspection, and because of the undesirable work-hardening effect. Thus, the utility of
the technique is limited, even though there have been instances where between-pass peening proved to be the only solution
for a distortion or cracking problem. Before peening is used on a job, engineering approval should be obtained.
Another method for removing shrinkage forces is by thermal stress relieving - controlled heating of the weldment to an
elevated temperature, followed by controlled cooling. Sometimes two identical weldments are clamped back to back,
welded, and then stress-relieved while being held in this straight condition. The residual stresses that would tend to distort
the weldments are thus minimized.
10. Minimize welding time
Since complex cycles of heating and cooling take place during welding, and since time is required for heat transmission, the
time factor affects distortion. In general, it is desirable to finish the weld quickly, before a large volume of surrounding metal
heats up and expands. The welding process used, type and size of electrode, welding current, and speed of travel, thus,
affect the degree of shrinkage and distortion of a weldment. The use of mechanized welding equipment reduces welding
time and the amount of metal affected by heat and, consequently, distortion. For example, depositing a given-size weld on
thick plate with a process operating at 175 amp, 25 volts, and 3 ipm requires 87,500 joules of energy per linear inch of weld
(also known as heat input). A weld with approximately the same size produced with a process operating at 310 amp, 35
volts, and 8 ipm requires 81,400 joules per linear inch. The weld made with the higher heat input generally results in a
greater amount of distortion. (note: I don't want to use the words "excessive" and "more than necessary" because the weld
size is, in fact, tied to the heat input. In general, the fillet weld size (in inches) is equal to the square root of the quantity of
the heat input (kJ/in) divided by 500. Thus these two welds are most likely not the same size.
 Other Techniques for Distortion Control
Water-Cooled Jig
Various techniques have been developed to control distortion on specific weldments. In sheet-metal
welding, for example, a water-cooled jig (Fig. 3-33) is useful to carry heat away from the welded
components. Copper tubes are brazed or soldered to copper holding clamps, and the water is circulated
through the tubes during welding. The restraint of the clamps also helps minimize distortion.
Strongback
The "strongback" is another useful technique for distortion control during butt welding of plates, as in Fig.
3-34(a). Clips are welded to the edge of one plate and wedges are driven under the clips to force the
edges into alignment and to hold them during welding.

Thermal Stress Relieving

Except in special situations, stress relief by heating is not used for correcting distortion. There are
occasions, however, when stress relief is necessary to prevent further distortion from occurring before
the weldment is finished.