ANAND INSTITUTE OF HIGHER TECHNOLOGY

An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University

CHENNAI -603 103
B.E/B.TECH. DEGREE END SEMESTER EXAMINATIONS NOV/DEC 2024
V Semester
B.E / B.TECH - ?
EE3032 - ENEGY STORAGE STSTEMS
(Regulation 2021)

Answer Key

PART A
1.What is the necessity of energy storage in modern energy systems?
the necessity of energy storage in modern energy systems is to capture
energy when it is available and supply it during demand. The aim is
1. To improve grid reliabiility
2. Support renewable energy sources
3. Provide backup power and
4. Increase energy efficiency

1. What are the roles of converter in energy storage system?

A converter converts one form of electricalenergy to another. Eg Power
conversion systems convert DC power from batteries to AC power.

2. What is TRNSYS used for?

TRNSYS is a simulation program used in renewable energy for solar design.
It perform dynamic simulation of the behaviour of a solar hot water system for
a year so that the long-term cost savings of such a system could be
determined.

3. What are the advantages of using phase change materials in thermal

storage systems?
The advantage of using phase change materials for thermal storage is
 provides a greater density of energy storage
 There is a smaller temperature difference between storing and releasing
heat when compared to the sensible heat storage method.

4. What is the role of an electrolyte in a battery?

An electrolyte in a battery transfers ions between the anode and cathode of a
battery , causing the battery to charge and discharge.

5. How can power density be increased in battery design?

 Stacking more cells in the battery
 Increasing the active anode material

6. Explain the basic working principle of a fuel cell.

 A fuel cell uses a fuel and a suitable oxidiser to produce electricity directly
from the fuel without the process of combustion.

7. What are the environmental benefits of using fuel cells?

There is no combustion of the fuel in a fuel cell. Hence no pollutants are
released into the environment.

9 Provide an example situation where supercapacitors are more suitable than

batteries.

Supercapacitors are more suitable than batteries in applications that require

rapid charge and discharge cycles. For example, in cranes, lifts, regenerative
braking in electric vehicles etc,

10 Describe the concept of hybrid storage systems.

Hybrid storage system combines two or more energy storage technologies
with complimentary benefits. This leads to improved performance, cost
reduction, efficiency, reliability and longer life of the systems.

PART B
11. a. Examine the advantages of integrating renewable energy sources (e.g.,
solar, wind) with energy storage systems. (13)

(4m)

Storage systems are technologies that can capture electricity, store it as

another form of energy (chemical, thermal, mechanical), and then release it
for use when it is needed. Eg Lithium battery

Storage facilities differ in both energy capacity,

 The total amount of energy that can be stored (usually in kilowatt-hours or

megawatt-hours) and

 Power capacity, which is the amount of energy that can be released at a

given time (usually in kilowatts or megawatts).

 Different energy and power capacities of storage can be used to manage

different tasks.

 Short-term storage that lasts just a few minutes will ensure a solar plant /
wind turbine operates smoothly during output fluctuations due to passing
clouds / lesser wind speed

 Long-term storage can help provide supply over days or weeks when
solar / wind energy production is low or during a major weather event.

(8m)

Advantages of Combining Storage and Solar/ Wind energy

 1. Balancing electricity loads – Without storage, electricity must be
generated and consumed at the same time. There may over-
generation and grid reliability issues. Ther may be other times when
there is little solar / wind production but lot of demand for power.
Energy can be stored and dispensed when the load high.
2. Continuous generation – Short-term storage can ensure that quick
changes in generation don’t greatly affect the output of a solar power
plant. For example, a small battery can be used.
3. Providing resilience – Solar/wind and storage can provide backup
power during an electrical disruption. They can keep critical facilities
operating to ensure continuous essential services, like
communications.
4. Small scale - Solar/wind energy generation and storage can also be
used for microgrids and smaller-scale applications, like mobile or
portable power units.
5. Zero emission - Energy storage systems ensure pollution free energy
generation and supply.
6. Economy - Energy supply is reliable and dependence on fossil fuels is
reduced
7. Energy supply is from diverse sources and monopolies are reduced.
8. It is often cheaper as it uses locally available resources.

Disadvantages (1m)

 Energy storage is never 100% efficient—some energy is always lost in

converting energy and retrieving it

11 b Investigate the reliability factors of super capacitors compared to

traditional battery storage systems. (13)
(2 m)
Supercapacitors store energy electrostatically, while batteries store energy
through chemical reactions. This difference in how they store energy gives
supercapacitors several advantages over batteries.

(11 m)

Supercapacitors are generally more reliable than traditional batteries in

several ways:

Lifespan - Supercapacitors can last for millions of charge and discharge

cycles, while batteries typically last only a few years.

Maintenance - Supercapacitors are maintenance-free and come with

balancing circuits to ensure safe operation.

Temperature range - Supercapacitors can operate reliably in a wide

temperature range, from -40°C to 85°C or higher.

Charging - Supercapacitors can recharge in seconds or minutes, while

batteries can take hours.
Environmental sustainability - Supercapacitors are made from environmentally
friendly materials and can be recycled.

Power density - Supercapacitors have a power density that's up to 10 times

better than lithium-ion batteries.

Efficiency - Supercapacitors are more efficient than batteries.

Rapid charge/discharge cycles - Supercapacitors can rapidly charge and

discharge, making them ideal for applications that require quick energy
transfer.

12 a Design a simple water and rock bed thermal storage system, including a
detailed sketch. Analyze its working principle, efficiency, and potential
applications, providing suggestions for optimization.

(7m)
A rock bed thermal storage system is a pile of rocks with air gaps that stores
heat at a specific temperature. It can be used to reduce the need for air
conditioning, which can be more expensive to run and maintain.

Features of a rock bed thermal storage system:

Similar to a rechargeable battery, the system can be charged and discharged.

For example, during the night, air can be drawn through the store to charge it
to the outdoor temperature. During the day, air can be blown through the store
to cool it down and discharge it.

Construction

The system can be built with local materials and a fan.

Rock type
Igneous rocks, such as basalt, sandstone, etc are mechanically and
chemically stable and are recommended for heat storage.

(3m)

Advantages

Rocks are inexpensive and abundant, and the system doesn't require an
additional heat exchanger. The heat transfer between the air and the rocks is
efficient, and the system has a fast response time.

High thermal capacity: Rocks can store more energy as their emperature
increases, and their density remains relatively constant during heating.

Low cost: Solid storage materials like rocks are inexpensive.

No boiling, freezing, or leakage: Solid storage materials don't boil, freeze,

or leak during operation.

(3m)

Disadvantages

Low roundtrip efficiency: Rock bed storage systems have low efficiency.

Low energy density: Rock bed storage systems have low energy density,
which can lead to large structures.

Thermal expansion: Rocks can expand thermally during operation, which

can cause long-term mechanical effects on the container.

Temperature and air flow distribution: It can be difficult to achieve uniform

temperature and air flow distribution, which can affect charge and
discharge efficiency.

Insulation costs: The entire surface area of the rock bed needs to be
thermally insulated, which can be expensive.

Selection of suitable rock: The right rock for a specific temperature range
needs to be chosen.

12 b Examine the effectiveness of a thermal energy storage system using

latent heat. Discuss its advantages, challenges, and potential improvements
for better performance.

A thermal energy storage (TES) system is a technology that stores thermal

energy for later use.
It uses a storage medium that is heated or cooled to store energy, which can
then be used for electricity generation or for domestic and industrial heating
and cooling.
There are two main types of TES systems:

Sensible heat storage

This method uses a solid or liquid storage medium, such as water, rocks,
concrete, or molten salts. The temperature of the storage medium is changed
to store and release thermal energy. The more energy that is put into the
material, the higher its temperature. This type of storage is often used in hot
water storage tanks and concrete thermal mass systems. These systems offer
a storage capacity of 10–50 kWh/t and storage efficiencies of 50–90%.

Latent heat storage

This method uses phase change materials, such as salts and paraffins, to
store energy. The materials absorb or release heat when they change phase,
such as from a solid to a liquid. This type of storage is often used in solar
applications and building materials. These systems can offer higher storage
capacity and storage efficiencies of 75–90%.

Advantages

Energy efficiency

TES systems can improve the overall energy efficiency of energy systems.

Cost savings

TES systems can help consumers save money on electricity costs by storing
energy during off-peak hours when electricity is cheaper.

Reduced emissions

TES systems can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other pollution
by making sure energy is used when it's cheaper and there's more renewable
energy.

Reduced waste

TES systems can reduce waste by storing energy for later use, which can
help reduce the consumption of power.

Energy security

TES systems can help provide energy security by storing surplus energy from
renewable sources like wind or solar.

13 a Provide a detailed explanation of the working principle of a Vanadium

Redox Flow Battery, accompanied by a neat sketch. Discuss the advantages
of this technology.
(3m)
A vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is an energy storage device that
converts electrical energy into chemical energy. It's made up of two
electrochemical half cells separated by an ion exchange membrane. The
energy is stored in a vanadium-containing electrolyte, and the amount of
electrolyte determines the battery's energy storage capacity.

(6m)

The chemical reactions in a vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) occur at the
battery's electrodes and involve changes in the valence states of vanadium:

 Positive electrode: VO2+ + 2H+ + e- ⇌ VO2+ + H2O

 Negative electrode: V2+ ⇌ V3+ + e-
 Overall cell reaction: VO2+ + V2+ + 2H+ ⇌ VO2+ + V3+ + H2O

The reactions occur in the opposite direction during charging and discharging.

Electrolytes

The electrolytes are stored in two tanks and pumped to the electrochemical
cell to generate electricity.

Ion-exchange membrane

The membrane allows only protons to pass through to close the electric
circuit.

Voltage

The standard voltage produced by a VRFB is 1.25 V.

Lifespan

VRFBs have long lifetimes, able to perform over 20,000 charge-and-discharge

cycles.
Advantages (4m)

VRFBs have high energy efficiency, short response time, and independently
tunable power rating and energy capacity.

Disadvantages

Energy storage: VRFBs are a good choice for large-scale energy storage
because they are scalable, modular.

Electrolytes: VRFBs use liquid electrolytes that are stored in tanks. The
electrolytes are not permanently sealed and can have an unlimited life.

Chemical stability: During charging, the positive half cell of a VRFB

produces VO2+ ions, which have a strong oxidizing potential. The
vanadium ion acts as an electron acceptor and falls back into a more
stable oxidation state.

Temperature: VRFBs can maintain a stable cycle life in temperatures up to

50°C.

Non-flammable: VRFBs use non-flammable electrolytes and other

materials.

Maintenance: VRFBs require little maintenance and upkeep.

Disadvantages

VRFBs have some disadvantages compared to other types of batteries,

including:

 High and volatile prices of vanadium minerals

 Relatively poor efficiency
 Heavy weight of aqueous electrolyte
 VRFBs have low volumetric energy storage capacity and complex
construction.

Applications

VRFBs can be used in wind energy, electricity regulations, photovoltaic power

stations, electric vehicles, and uninterruptible power supplies.

13 b Explain how do the charging and discharging cycles affect battery

lifespan and performance?
(Any 13 points)
Charging and discharging cycles can affect a battery's lifespan and
performance in several ways:

Capacity fade

Repeated charging and discharging cycles can cause a battery's capacity to

gradually decrease.

Cycle life

Cycle life is the number of charge-discharge cycles a battery can go through

before its performance declines significantly.

Internal resistance

Monitoring internal resistance can help identify potential battery health issues.
An increase in resistance can indicate wear and tear.

Depth of discharge (DoD)

The percentage of the battery's capacity that has been used relative to its total
capacity. A smaller DoD, or partial charge and discharge, can reduce stress
and prolong battery life.

Thermal management

Batteries generate heat during use, and inadequate thermal management can
lead to overheating, which can shorten the battery's lifespan.

Temperature

Extreme temperatures, both hot and cold, can damage a battery. At very low
temperatures, a battery may stop working temporarily.

Charging habits: Regularly charging a battery to 100% or draining it

completely before charging can accelerate degradation.

Fast charging: Fast charging can contribute to degradation due to the

increased heat generated.

High discharge rates: High discharge rates can accelerate battery

degradation.

Calendar degradation: Batteries naturally degrade over time, even when they
are not in use.

14 a Investigate the advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen-oxygen cells

versus hydrogen-air cells.
Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells have several advantages and disadvantages,

Advantages

 Environmental friendliness: Hydrogen fuel cells produce almost zero

emissions, which can help improve air quality and reduce pollution.
 Energy efficiency: Hydrogen is three times more powerful than fossil
fuels, so less hydrogen is needed to produce the same amount of
power.
 Renewable: Hydrogen can be produced from water, making it a
renewable energy source.
 Clean energy storage: Hydrogen fuel cells can store excess renewable
energy, reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

Disadvantages

 Cost: Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells are expensive to produce.

 Storage: Hydrogen is often stored as a compressed gas or liquid, but it
has specific temperature and other condition requirements that can
make it difficult to store.
 Infrastructure: Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells require substantial
infrastructure development.

Hydrogen air fuel cells have several advantages and disadvantages

Advantages

 Clean emissions: Hydrogen fuel cells are carbon-free and emit zero
greenhouse gas emissions.
 Energy efficiency: Hydrogen fuel cells convert chemical energy into
electrical energy with efficiencies of 40-60%.
 High energy density: Hydrogen fuel cells have a high energy density,
which can improve productivity.
 Non-toxic: Hydrogen is a non-toxic substance, which is rare for a fuel
source.

Disadvantages

 High production costs: Hydrogen fuel cells are expensive to

manufacture due to the high cost of catalysts like platinum.
 Storage challenges: Hydrogen is difficult and expensive to store
compared to petrol because it is very flammable. Hydrogen is most
often stored in liquid form or as compressed gas, but has many
condition requirements that can make it difficult to stock.
 Limited infrastructure: There is a lack of infrastructure to support the
distribution of hydrogen.
 Prototype stage: Much of the currently available fuel cell technology is
in the prototype stage and not yet validated.
When operating with atmospheric oxygen (air), the power of the cell is
somewhat lower than when operating with pure oxygen (Hydrogen and
Oxygen Mode).
When dealing with larger fuel cell systems running fuel cell on Atmospheric
Oxygen (Air) versus pure Oxygen allows is easier and cheaper.
Fuel Cell H2/O2/Air,

• Power in Hydrogen and Oxygen Mode: 500 mW

• Power in Hydrogen and Air Mode: 180 mW

14 b Write a detailed plan to predict how well a alkaline fuel cell will perform
when the load changes.

An alkaline fuel cell (AFC) is a type of fuel cell that uses a potassium
hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte solution to produce electricity, heat, and water.

AFCs use a direct electrochemical reaction to convert hydrogen and oxygen

into electricity. Hydrogen is supplied to the anode, while oxygen is supplied to
the cathode. The electrolyte is a circulating liquid that also helps manage heat
and water.

Advantages

AFCs are efficient, can operate at low temperatures, and are cheaper than
other fuel cell types. They also have good cold start behavior and can use
non-precious metals as catalysts. [

AFCs were used in the U.S. Apollo space program and have been considered
for use in electric vehicles.

Disadvantages

AFCs are susceptible to poisoning by carbon dioxide, which can affect cell
performance and durability.

They also have low power density for terrestrial applications compared to
other fuel cell types.

An alkaline fuel cell (AFC) will perform differently when the load changes:

Voltage

The electrical voltage between the anode and cathode of an AFC varies
between 0.5–0.9 V depending on the load.

Power conditioner
The power conditioner in a fuel cell power plant regulates the voltage and
current output to accommodate load variations.

15 a Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of compressed air energy

storage.
(7m)

CAES is similar to pumped hydro in terms of large-scale applications and

storage capacity. However, instead of pumping water, CAES compresses air.

Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is a technology that stores energy for
later use by compressing air and storing it underground.

It uses a rotary compressor to compress air during low demand periods and
stores it in underground caverns.

It can offer grid-scale energy storage capacity, seasonal load shifting, load
balancing, and peaking reserve.

It can be used to store excess energy generated from renewable energy

sources.

Large-scale applications have greater heat losses because compressing air

creates heat.

Advantages

 Low environmental impact: CAES is a promising technology with zero

pollution and minimal environmental impact.
 Long lifetime: CAES systems can last for 40–50 years.
 Low maintenance: CAES systems require low maintenance.

Disadvantages

 Low efficiency: CAES systems have low energy density and efficiency.
 Developing stage: The CAES industry is still in the developing stage,
with most projects being theoretical or small-scale experiments.
15 b What are the key considerations in determining the feasibility of
deploying flywheel energy storage systems in urban areas?

Flywheel energy storage systems (FESS) are electromechanical systems that

store energy as kinetic energy in a spinning flywheel.

They can be used to:

Store and generate power

An electric motor accelerates the flywheel to store electrical power as

mechanical energy. FES systems work by storing energy as rotational energy
in a flywheel, and then releasing it when needed. The flywheel is accelerated
to a high speed by an electric motor, and then decelerated to extract the
energy. When needed, the flywheel can drive a generator to produce power.

Support microgrids

Flywheels can store power from intermittent renewable sources and handle
sudden demand surges.

Replace lead acid batteries

Flywheels are a promising alternative to lead acid batteries for energy

storage.

Advantages of flywheel energy storage systems:

 High energy density: Flywheels have a high energy density.

 Fast charge and discharge: Flywheels can charge and discharge
quickly.
 Long service life: Flywheels have a long service life.
 Clean and pollution-free: Flywheels are clean and pollution-free.
 Low maintenance: Flywheels require minimal maintenance.
 Wide temperature range: Flywheels can operate in a wide range of
temperatures, so air conditioning is not usually required.
 Save floor space: Flywheels can save up to 90% of the floor space
compared to batteries.

Flywheel energy storage systems are used in a variety of applications,

including rail transit systems and uninterruptible power systems.

Flywheel energy storage (FES) systems are a promising technology for urban
areas because they can help balance electricity supply and demand, and
enhance grid reliability. FES systems can be used in urban areas:

 Grid frequency regulation: FES systems can provide almost

instantaneous response times, making them well-suited for grid
frequency regulation.
  Integrating renewable energy sources: FES systems can help support
the integration of renewable energy sources into the grid.
 Improving power quality: FES systems can help guarantee power
quality.

Limitations

 Low energy density: FES systems have a low energy density.

 High security cost: FES systems can be expensive to secure.
 Not suitable for small scale: FES systems are not suitable for small
scale applications.

16 a Compare the following battery characteristics in detail: (15)

i. Lead-Acid Batteries
ii. Lithium-Ion Batteries

(7.5m)
LEAD - ACID BATTERY
• It consists of a number of voltaic cells connected in series to get 6 to 12 V
battery.
• In each cell, anode is Pb plate and cathode is PbO2 with dil.H2SO4
electrolyte

• A number of lead plates are connected in parallel and a number of PbO2

plates are also connected in parallel. The various plates are separated by
insulators like glass fibre.
• The electrodes are immersed in dil. H2SO4 solution. (38% by mass) having
density of 1.3 gm/mL.
• The concentration of H2SO4 decreases and density decreases, as the
battery gets discharged.
Recharging the battery
• When the density of H2SO4 in the battery falls below 1.2 g/mL, the battery
needs to be recharged.
• Recharging is done by applying a voltage across the electrodes that is
slightly higher than the voltage of the battery.
• When direct current is passed in this cell, the reaction is reversed.
As long as current is supplied to the battery, Pb gets deposited at anode and
PbO2 at cathode.

The concentration of acid increases, when the

battery is recharged.
Advantages
(i) It is made easily.
(ii) It produces very high current.
(iii) Effective at low temperature.
(iv) Self-discharging rate is low.
Disadvantages
(i) Recycling of the battery causes environmental hazards.
(ii) Possibility of leakage, since electrolyte is liquid.
(iii) Mechanical strain and normal bumping reduces battery capacity.
Uses
(i) Used in automobiles like car, bus, van, lorry, etc.
(ii) Used in hospitals, power stations, telephone exchanges, etc.

(7.5m)
(2)
A lithium-ion battery is a rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from
the anode to the cathode during discharge and back when charging.

Construction
The construction of a lithium ion cell is shown
 Lithium - ion rechargeable battery charge mechanism
• A positive electrode, cathode is made with lithium cobalt oxide.
• A negative electrode, anode is made with graphite.
• A separator is a fine porous polymer film. An electrolyte is made with lithium
salt in an organic solvent.
• It has a four-layer structure.
• The electrolyte provides a conductive medium for lithium ions to move
between the electrodes.
(2)
Charging
• During charging Li+ ions flow from the positive electrode (LiCoO2) to the
negative electrode through the electrolyte.
• Electrons flow from the positive electrode to negative electrode in the
external circuit.
• The electrons and Li+ ions combine at the negative electrode to form Li.
LiCoO2 + C ↔Li(1− x)CoO2 + Lix
(2)Discharging
• During discharging the Li+ flow through the electrolyte from negative
electrode to positive electrode.
• Electrons flow from negative electrode to positive electrode in the external
circuit.
• The Li+ ions and electrons combine at the positive electrode and deposit
there as Li.
Li(1 − x) CoO2 + Lix ↔ LiCoO2 + C

(1.5m - 2 points each)

Advantages
• They have high energy density than other rechargeable batteries.
• They are light weight.
• They produce high voltage of 4 V.
• They have improved safety.
• No liquid electrolyte is used so there is no leakage.
• Fast charge and discharge rates.
Disadvantages
• They are expensive.
• They are not available in standard cell types.
• They are extremely sensitive to high temperatures.

Applications
• The Li-ion batteries are used in portable devices: these include mobile
phones, laptops and tablets etc.
• Li-ion batteries are used in tools such as cordless drills, saws and either
equipment.
• Because of their light weight, Li-ion batteries are used for energy storage in
electric vehicles like electric cars and electric bikes.
• They are used in cardiac pacemakers and other implantable devices.

16 b How would you develop a comprehensive plan to integrate pumped

hydro storage into an existing power grid? (15)
(7)

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) is a technology that stores and generates

electricity by moving water between two reservoirs at different elevations.

Working

 Energy storage: When there is excess energy, water is pumped from

the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir.
 Energy generation: When demand is high, water is released from the
upper reservoir and passes through a turbine to generate electricity.

Benefits

 Grid reliability: PSH is the only commercially available technology for

long-duration storage and is vital to grid reliability.
 Clean energy: PSH is a form of clean energy storage.
 Economic benefits: PSH can create jobs and support local economic
growth.

Challenges

 Geographical constraints
 Substantial capital requirements

(8m)

Integrating renewable energy

 Ongoing research and innovation are expected to overcome

challenges and increase efficiency and capacity.
 PSH is expected to play an important role in integrating renewable
energy.

Pumped hydro storage (PHS) can be integrated into an existing power grid to
help balance supply and demand, and to integrate variable renewable energy
sources like solar and wind.
When electricity demand is low, PSH pumps water from a lower reservoir to
an upper reservoir, storing potential energy. When demand is high, the water
is released from the upper reservoir and flows through turbines to generate
electricity.

Benefits

PSH provides a reliable and renewable source of energy, and can help to:

 Balance supply and demand in the power grid

 Integrate variable renewable energy sources
 Provide grid support services like reactive power support, frequency
control, and synchronous or virtual inertia
 Stabilize the grid in case of disturbances

Examples

Solar-pumped hydro storage systems combine solar panels with PSH

reservoirs to generate, store, and distribute electricity. Small-scale PSH
stations can be built in urban areas, using the height differences provided by
buildings.