UNIT 2.

1
Spatial & Non Spatial Data: Forms & Formats
Introduction:

‘Spatial analysis or spatial statistics includes any of the formal techniques which study entities using their
topological, geometric, or geographic properties’. Spatial analysis is the technique applied to structure at the
human scale, most notably in the analysis of geographic data.

History of spatial statistics:

In early attempted in the field in modern cartography and surveying but this type of techniques firstly used
in field of botanical and ecological studies for the analyze the spatial distribution of plants and animals on
the earth surface .

Now statistics has contributed greatly through work in spatial statistics. Geographic Information System is
currently a major contributor due to the importance of geographic software in the modern analytics toolbox.

Type of Spatial Statistics:

It is difficult to classify the types of spatial analysis-

1. Spatial data analysis.

2. Spatial autocorrelation
3. Spatial stratified heterogeneity
4. Spatial interpolation
5. Spatial regression
6. Spatial interaction
7. Simulation and modeling
8. Multiple-point geostatistics.

Spatial and Non Spatial Data

Spatial Data:

‘Spatial data, also known as geospatial data, is information about a physical object that can be represented
by numerical values in a geographic coordinate system.’

Characteristics of Spatial Data:

 It is the data or information that identifies the geographic location of features and boundaries on
earth.
 Spatial data represents natural or constructed features, oceans and more.
 Spatial data is usually stored as coordinates and topology, and is data that can be mapped.
 Spatial data is often accessed, manipulated or analyze through Geographic Information System(GIS)
 Most spatial database allows representing simple geometric objects such as points, lines and
polygons.

Form of Spatial Data:

Spatial data means the natural feature data with latitude and longitude. Such as Google image, Satellite
Image, Air Photo etc.
Non Spatial Data:

‘A non spatial database or traditional database lacks spatial capabilities, i.e. ability to store and query data
defined in a geometric space.’ Non spatial data means the data that cannot be used to identify absolute space
with coordinate system.

Characteristics of Non Spatial Data:

Non spatial data that cannot be used to identify a location. A dataset that does contain direct spatial data
(latitude, longitude, elevation) or indirect spatial data. Non spatial data represents basically socio-economic
information of an absolute space.

Form of Non Spatial Data:

Non spatial data represents the socio-economic data of an absolute space. The forms of these type of data
are-demography data, agriculture data industrial data, social data (poverty, caste, ethnic people, race etc),
cultural data (linguistic data, religious data), political data (such as area boundary length) etc of any absolute
space that determine with specific coordinate system.

Point Pattern:

In spatial statistics the pattern data, characteristics, there distribution, relation are analyze in different
methods using the Geographical Information System. These analyzing techniques are Quadrant Analysis,
Kernel Estimation, Neighbor Analysis, K Function etc.

UNIT 2.2
Point Pattern: Nearest Neighbor Analysis & K Function

Nearest neighbor Analysis:

In Spatial Statistics for the analyze the dispersion pattern among the points are emphasized in a specific
space. The average nearest neighbor distance tool measures the distance between each feature centric and its
nearest neighbor’s centroid location. It Then averages all these nearest neighbor distances. GIS is very useful
in analyzing spatial relationship between features are closest to a given feature. In this tutorial, we will use 2
datasets and find out which points from one layer are closest to which point from the second layer.

Objective:

How the points of any parameter are distributed in a specific space. To show the dispersion among them,
and for the testing of probability by P value. Basically it is it is done to see the dispersion by the Z value.

Methodology:

Nearest neighbor Analysis is done manually and by using GIS software through computer. The steps, are as
follows-
Steps:

Search option→ Average nearest neighbor →Input Feature class→ Distance Method (Euclidence distance)
→ Check Generate Report→ OK

Fig: Steps Of Nearest Neighbor Analysis

Fig: Result of Nearest Neighbor Analysis

Interpretation:

If the index (Average Nearest Neighbor ratio) is less than 1, the pattern exhibits clustering. In this
calculation result of Average Nearest Neighbor ratio is 0.961642 , it indicates clustering pattern. Here the Z
score is -0.715242 it means the standard deviation is -0.715242 from the mean and P value is 0.474460 that
represents that there is 0.4744660 probability.
K Function:

K function is a measuring criterion for showing clustering of settlement. The rate of clustering means high
clustering and low clustering is measured. The Multi-Distance spatial cluster Analysis (Ripley’s K-function)
tool determines whether a feature class is clustered at multiple different distances. The tool outputs the result
as a table and optionally as a pop up graphic. If the expected value is greater than observed value that will be
high clustered and vice versa.

Objective:

To analyze the clustering pattern of a feature class and to justify the pattern of clustering it can be high
clustering or low clustering.

Methodology:

To estimate the K function GIS software is used followed by different steps, these steps are given below –

Steps:
Search→ Spatial Statistics→ Multi Distance Spatial Cluster Analysis (Ripleys K-Function) →Input Feature
Class→ Output Table→ Number of Distance Bands (10) → Compute Confidence Envelope (optional) →
Check Results Graphically→ Weighted Field (optional) → Study area
Method( USEP_provided_study_Feature class) → ok

Fig: Steps of K Function

 Fig: Result of K function

Interpretation:

If the observed line locate above the expected line it indicates clustered pattern, and if the observed line
locate below the expected line it means dispersed pattern. So here the result shows most of the portion of the
observed line indicates clustered pattern and few portion indicates dispersed pattern.
 UNIT 2.3
Area Data: Spatial Autocorrelation & Median Center Analysis

Spatial Autocorrelation:

The Measures spatial Autocorrelation based on feature locations and attribute values. A measure of the
degree to which a set of spatial features and their associated data values tend to be clustered together in
space (positive spatial autocorrelation) or dispersed (negative spatial autocorrelation in GIS helps understand
the degree to which one object is similar to other nearby objects. Moran’s I (index) is used to measure
spatial autocorrelation.

Objective:

1. To see the distribution pattern of variable data in a single parameter.

2. To find out the relationship among the dataset of a particular variable.
3. To show the degree of association of data values of a specific variable that to be clustered or
dispersed in space.

Methodology:

Search →Spatial statistics → Spatial Autocorrelation → Input Feature class → Input Field → Check
Generate Report → Conceptualization of spatial Relationships (Zone of Indifference) → Distance Method
(Euclidean distance) → Standardization (none) → ok.

Fig: Steps of Spatial Autocorrelation

 Fig: Result of Spatial Autocorrelation

Interpretation:

Here the Moran’s I index value is 0.182282.It indicates Random pattern of distribution. And the Z score is
3.553207 it means the variation is high and Auto correlation is low. And P value is 0.000381.

Median Centre Analysis:

It Identifies the location that minimizes overall Euclidean distance to the features in a dataset .

Objective:

To find out the middlemost location of any specific space for various purposes such as service distribution,
central place identification, Marketing centre formation, industrialization etc.

Methodology:

Median centre is done by following steps- Search→ Spatial statistics → (page 2) → Median centre (spatial
statistics) → Input Feature class → Check Attribute field → ok
 Fig: Steps of Median centre

Fig: Median Centre

Interpretation:

Here the map shows the median centre of this settelement distribution. The middle most point or location of
this distribution.
 UNIT 2.4
Conversion of Data: Interpolation
Interpolation:

Interpolation predicts the values for cells in a raster from a limited number of sample data points.
Interpolation is useful where the data surrounding the missing data is available and its trend, seasonality and
longer term cycles are known.

Objectives:

To predict the unknown points on the basis of known point such as temperature, elevation, rainfall, chemical
concentration, noise levels etc.

Methodology:

Search →Interpolation → IDW → Input Point Feature → Sound Level → Z value field → Sound Level→
Output → Search Radius→ variable →ok.

Interpretation:

The IDW map represents population and settlement is prepared from the map no. 72 l/14. There are several
classes based on their values, each individual class represents individual zone indicated by different colors
and numerical ranges.