Introduction to Computer Technology

Chapter three
Data and information
Data
Raw facts and figures.
is the product of symbols or representations of an event or facts about the world, like number,
letter, pictures, lines graphs, etc.
Represents facts or figures obtained from experiments or surveys, used as basis for making
calculations or drawing conclusions.
In and of itself, data has no meaning.
If I count the number of cars that stop at the stop sign on my block per hour for a week, that's
data. It may be useful or not, depending on the context.
It has no meaning until it is placed in a context.
It is like an event out of context, without a meaningful relation to other things.
It doesn't have a meaning of itself and simply it exists and has no significance beyond its
existence
If we are given a certain data, we can associate it to different things and give it different
meanings.
e.g. 1: If we take number "5", it can be associated with Cardinal number and has one meaning,
and A number greater than 4 and less than 6 with another meaning
Therefore: Data without a context has no meaning. But this doesn't mean that data are useless.
They are the elements that are inputted, stored and manipulated by the computer.
The validity of a data (how far they reflect the reality or represent the real world) is very
important.
They are valid as far as they accurately represent the real world.
Information
When you put a whole lot of data together that is related to one subject it yields information.
e.g. Take a telephone book, it is developed by bringing different data together (Name, Address
and Telephone number
Thus: (Sets of data) + (relational connection among data sets) = information
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Information is data that has been given a meaning by way of relational connection.
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This relational connection converts data in to information.

In computer system for instance, a relational database makes for information from the data
stored within it.
Examples:
The temperature dropped to 15 degrees and then it started raining. The data are: 15 degrees and
it is raining.
It is the cause and effect relationship between the two that provides information
A red traffic light is a form of data. The meaning we attach to this data (i.e., STOP) is the
information.
Information should be valuable to the user. Valuable information should be accurate, complete,
flexible, reliable, relevant, and accessible .It should be also timely and economical.

Sources of information: information can be obtained from documentary sources and non-
documentary sources.

1. Documentary sources are documented or recorded sources of information in different

forms. Documentary sources are again classified as primary, secondary and tertiary
sources in the order which they are available to the public use.
 Primary documentary sources are the first published records of original
research i.e. if a document represents unfiltered and original idea it is a
primary documentary sources of information. Examples periodicals, reports,
etc
 Secondary documentary sources of information are those sources which are
either compiled from or referred to primary documentary sources. The
secondary sources of information contain filtered, organized, digested and
repackaged knowledge rather than new knowledge. Example reference
books, periodicals, etc...
 Tertiary documentary sources of information contain information refined
or distilled from primary and secondary sources of information.
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2. Non documentary sources are those that are not properly recorded or documented for
public use.

Non documentary sources also classified as formal and informal.

To use formal non documentary sources the user formally consults professionals to get the
required information.

Informal non documentary sources include conversation with colleagues.

System
A system is an inter-related set of components that work together with in an identifiable boundary
to achieve some overall or common objects (purposes).
A system is a collection of parts which are related to each other and which may depend on each
other and whish work together as a coherent whole.
A system has components, boundary, Purpose, environment, Inter-relationship among the
components, interface, input, output, constraints
Characteristics of system
The majority of systems share the similar regular characteristics. These common characteristics
comprise the following
 Systems are concepts of reality.
 Systems have arrangement which is described by its parts as well as their composition.
 Systems have performance involving inputs, processing and outputs of material, energy or
data.
 The different parts of a system have functional as well as structural relationships between
each other.

Elements of system
 A component: - is an irreducible part or an aggregate part, also called subsystem or
elements.
Example: - University  FacultiesDepartment etc.
 Inter-relationship among the components implies that the function of one is somehow
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Example- Registrar, Department etc.

Production, Marketing, Finance, HRM etc.

 A boundary: - is a line that marks the inside and the outside of the system and which states
off or separates the system from its environment. It establishes the limits of the system.
 A purpose: - is the objective or overall goal of the system. Purpose is the main reason for
the existence of the system.
 An environment: - consists of everything out side of the system and interact with the
system.
 Interface: - is a point of contact where a system meets its environment or where a sub
system meets each other.
Interface has the following function:
Securityprotecting the system from undesirable elements that may want to infiltrate it.
Filtering unwanted data both for elements leaving the system and entering it.
Buffering  providing a layer of slack b/n the system and its environment to compromise the
speed and cycle of the system and the environment. Summarizing raw data and creating
information.
 Input: - consists of whatever the system takes in from the environment in order to fulfill
its purpose.
 Output:- is whatever returns to the environment as a product (goal or service)
 Constraints: - are limits or restrictions to what the system can accomplish.

Components

Boundary
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Subsystem Output

System
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Systems are hierarchical in structure, i.e. a system is made up of sub-systems and each sub-system
is made up of further sub-system.

Example: CourseDepartmentFacultyUniversity
Sub-system need to work towards the goal of the system to which they belong and not pursue their
own goal independently.

Important System Concepts

 Decomposition
The process of breaking down a system in to smaller components.
Allows the system analyst to:
Break a system in to small, manageable subsystems.
Focus on one area at a time.
Concentrates on component pertinent (important) to one group of users
Build different components at independent time.
 Modularity
Process of dividing a system in to modules of a relatively uniform size.
Modules simplify system design making.
It make easy to understand, redesign and rebuild.
 Coupling
Subsystems that are dependent on each other are coupled.
Subsystems should be as independent as possible to protect the failure of the other subsystems due
to the malfunctioning of one component.
 Cohesion
Extent to which a subsystem performs a single function.
 Logical System Description
Portrays (describe in a particular way) the purpose and function of the system.
 Physical System Description
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Focuses on how the system will be materially constructed.

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Information System
An information system (IS) is an arrangement of people, data, processes, communication, and
information technology that interact to support and improve day-t- day operations in a business as
well as support the problem solving and decision making needs of management and users.

Information system (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software that
people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data. The study
bridges business and computer science using the theoretical foundations of information and
computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes within a computer
science discipline.

Computer Information System(s) (CIS) is a field studying computers and algorithmic processes,
including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact
on society while IS emphasizes functionality over design.

An Information System (IS) is the system of persons, data records and activities that process the
data and information in a given organization, including manual processes or automated processes.

An information system is the basis for interaction between the user and the analyst. It is an open
system that allows the inputs and facilitates the interaction with the user. It can be defined as a set
of devices, procedures and operating systems designed around the user to produce information and
communicate it to the user for planning, control and performance.

Information systems deal with the development, use and management of an organization's IT
infrastructure.

A key point to be always remembered when considering a new alternative system is to be designed
to improve planning, control and performance. In the post-industrial, information age, the focus of
companies has shifted from being product oriented to knowledge oriented. Without keeping this
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in mind there would not be any ROI.

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Manual information system

A system which does not use any computer devices. All data would be kept in other ways, mainly
paper. As a few examples: Before accounts, payroll and spreadsheet applications, people would
have worked out this kind of information on paper. People would have handwritten letters or used
typewriters instead of word processors. Graphs and diagrams would have been drawn by hand
instead of using computer software to do them.

Support a specific task or a process (such as execute the payroll) or, in some cases, another
application program.

There are dozens of applications in each functional area. For instance, in managing human
resources, it is possible to find one application for screening job applicants and another for
monitoring employee turnover. Some of the applications might be completely independent of each
other, whereas others are interrelated. The collection of application programs in a single
department is usually considered a departmental information system, even though it is made up of
many applications. For example, the collection of application programs in the human resources
area is called the human resources information system (HRIS).

Information systems are usually connected by means of electronic networks. The connecting
networks can be wire line and/or wireless. Information systems can connect an entire organization,
or even multiple organizations. If the entire company is networked and people can communicate
with each other and access information throughout the organization, then the arrangement is
known as an enterprise wide information system. An inter-organizational information system, such
as FedExNet, involves information flow among two or more organizations, and is used primarily
in e-business applications.

Information System Activities

1. Input of data resources

Data and other events must be captured and prepared for processing by the input activity. Input
typically takes the form of data entry activities such as recording and editing. End uses typically
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record data about transactions on some type of physical medium such as paper form, or enter it
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directly into a computer system. This usually includes a variety of editing activities to ensure that
they have recorded data correctly. Once entered, data may be transferred onto a machine-readable
medium such as a magnetic disk until needed for processing. For example, data about sales
transactions can be recorded on source documents such as paper sales order forms. (A source
document is the original formal record of a transaction). Alternately, salespersons can capture sales
data using computer keyboards or optical scanning devices; they are visually prompted to enter
data correctly by video displays. This provides them with a more convenient and efficient user
interface, that is, methods of end user input and output with a computer system. Methods such as
optical scanning and displays of menus, prompts, and fill-in-the-blanks formats make it easier for
end users to enter data correctly into an information system.

2. Processing of data into information

Data is typically subjected to processing activities such as calculating, comparing, sorting,

classifying, and summarizing. These activities organize, analyze and manipulate data, thus
converting them into information for end users. The quality of any data stored in an information
system must also be maintained by a continual process of correcting and updating activities.

3. Output of information products

Information in various forms is transmitted to end-users and made available to them in the output
activity. The goal of information systems is the production of appropriate information
products for end users. Common information products messages, reports, forms, and graphic
images, which may be provided by video displays, audio responses, paper products, and
multimedia. For example, a sales manager may view a video display to check on the performance
of a salesperson, accept a computer-produced voice message by telephone, and receive a printout
of monthly sales results.

4. Storage of data resources

Storage is a basic system component of information systems. Storage is the information system
activity in which data and information are retained in an organized manner for later use. For
example, just as written text material is organized into words, sentences, paragraphs, and
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documents; stored data is commonly organized into fields, records, files, and database. This
facilitates its later use in processing or its retrieval as output when needed by users of a system.

5. Control of system performance

An important information system activity is the control of its performance. An information

system should produce feedback about its input, processing, output, and the system is meeting
established performance standards. Then appropriate system activities must be adjusted so that
proper information products are produced for end users. For example, a manager may discover
that subtotals of sales amounts in a sales report do not add up to total sales. This might mean that
data entry or processing procedures need to be corrected. Then changes would have to be made to
ensure that all sales transactions would be properly captured and processed by a sales information
system.

Information technology (IT)

Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and telecommunications

equipment to store, retrieve, transmit and manipulate data, often in the context of a business or
other enterprise. The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks,
but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and
telephones. Several industries are associated with information technology, such as computer
hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, e-commerce
and computer services.

Information Technology is a contemporary term that describes the combination of computer

technology (hardware and software) with telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice
network)

Classes of Information
 transaction processing system (TPS)
 management information system (MIS)
 decision support system (DSS)
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 expert system

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 office automation system

 communications and collaboration system
1) A transaction processing system (TPS) is an information system that captures and
processes data about business transactions.
Transactions:- is an exchange of property or service.
2) A management information system (MIS) is an information system that provides for
management-oriented reporting based on transaction processing and operations of the
organization.
3) A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that either helps to identify
decision making opportunities or provides information to help make decisions.
4) An expert system is an information system that captures the expertise of workers and then
simulates that expertise to the benefit of non-experts.
5) A communications and collaboration system is an information system that enables more
effective communications between workers, partners, customers, and suppliers to enhance
their ability to collaborate.
6) An office automation system is an information system that supports the wide range of
business office activities that provide for improved work flow between workers.
Office automation includes:
 word processing
 electronic message
 workgroup computing
 Fax processing etc.
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