MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, YOUTH, AND SPORT

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

IDENTIFY CHALLENGES FACED BY ELECTRIC VEHICLE

USERS IN CAMBODIA: FOCUS ON 4WHEELCLE

TIE PORLY

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of Master of Management

SPECIALIZATION IN …

Phnom Penh
2024
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, YOUTH, AND SPORT

NATIONAL UNIV ERSITY OF MANAGEMENT

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

IDENTIFY CHALLENGES FACED BY ELECTRIC VEHICLE

USERS IN CAMBODIA: FOCUS ON 4WHEELCLE

TIE PORLY

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of Master of Management

SPECIALIZATION IN

Phnom Penh
2024
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, YOUTH, AND SPORT

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

IDENTIFY CHALLENGES FACED BY ELECTRIC VEHICLE

USERS IN CAMBODIA: FOCUS ON 4WHEELCLE

TIE PORLY

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of Master of Management

Supervised by:

Dr. Soun Hong

Phnom Penh

2024
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABSTRACT:
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.......................................................................................4
ABSTRACT:............................................................................................................4
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION..........................................................................6
1.1. BACKGROUND OF STUDY............................................................................7
1.4. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE..............................................................................11
1.5. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS..........................................................................11
1.6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY...................................................................12
1.7. STRUCTURE OF THESIS..............................................................................14
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................15
2.1. ELECTRIC VEHICLE ADOPTION CHALLENGES IN ASIA.............................15
2.2. ADDRESSING THE CHALLENGES................................................................16
2.2.1. Economic Challenges........................................................................16
2.2.2. Infrastructural Challenges................................................................17
2.2.3. Operation Challenges........................................................................18
2.2.4. Market Dynamics..............................................................................19
2.2.5. Technical and Service Challenges....................................................20
2.3. THEORETICAL REVIEW AND PREVIOUS STUDIES......................................21
2.3.1. Theoretical Review............................................................................21
2.3.2. Summary of Previous Study...............................................................23
2.4. INFLUENCING FACTOR..............................................................................24
2.4.1. Independent Variables.......................................................................24
2.4.2. Dependent Variables.........................................................................25
2.5. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK...........................................................................26
2.5.1. Theoretical Framework.....................................................................26
2.5.2. Conceptual Framework.....................................................................26
2.5.3. Research Hypotheses.........................................................................27
CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE..................................29
3.1. INTRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES..................................................29
3.2........................................................................................................................29
3.3........................................................................................................................29
3.4........................................................................................................................29
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY.......................................................................29
4.1. RESEARCH DESIGN....................................................................................30
4.2. SAMPLE SELECTION..................................................................................31
4.2.1. Population.........................................................................................31
4.2.2. Sampling Technique..........................................................................31
4.3. DATA COLLECTION METHODS..................................................................33
4.3.1. Primary Data Collection...................................................................33
4.3.2. Secondary Data Collection...............................................................35
4.4. QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN...........................................................................35
4.4.1. Questionnaire Structure....................................................................36
4.4.2. Question Format................................................................................36
 4.5. VARIABLE AND MEASUREMENT................................................................36
4.5.1. Measurement of Variables.................................................................37
REFERENTS.........................................................................................................39

TABLE LISTS
Table 1. Summary of Previous Studies on Electric Vehicle Adoption...................24
Table 2. Operationalization of the Demographic Variables...................................28
Table 3. Operationalization of the Independent Variables.....................................29
Table 4. Operationalization of the Dependent Variables........................................29
Table 5. Theoretical Sample Sizes for Different Population Sizes at ±3%, ±5%,
±7%, and ±10% Precision Levels where Confidence Level Is 95% and P=.5........33
Table 6.....................................................................................................................38

FIGURE LISTS

Figure 1. 22 separate billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in 2020..........7

Figure. Key Attributes Influencing Adoption..........................................................19
Figure. Theories on technology acceptance...........................................................19
Figure. Image of EV car user in Cambodia group Messenger, group Facebook,
and group Telegram...............................................................................................31
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

In Cambodia, the adoption rate of EVs lags behind other regional and global
countries. The adoption and use of EVs present some peculiar challenges,
especially in developing countries such as Cambodia. In Cambodia, very few
studies have been carried out regarding the challenges that Cambodian EV users
face. This study will be an effort to dwell on this challenge. For this chapter will
give information on the background of the study, the statement of the problem, the
research question, the research objective, significance, scope and limitations, and
the structure thesis.
1.1. Background of Study
Global carbon emissions primarily from fossil fuels and industrial processes,
reached an all-time high of 36.3 gigatons in 2019 (IEA, 2021). Despite a slight
decline due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, emissions rebounded strongly
suggesting that without significant policy changes, long-term declines are not
guaranteed (IEA, 2022). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has
repeatedly warned that global warming must not exceed 1.5°C above pre-industrial
levels to avoid the catastrophic consequences of climate change (IPCC, 2018).
Current trajectories, are leading us toward a warming of 3°C or more by the end of
the century far beyond this threshold (UNEP, 2020). According to the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the U.S. alone faced 22 separate billion-
dollar weather and climate disasters in 2020, totaling approximately $95 billion in
damages (NOAA, 2021).
Figure 1. 22 separate billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in 2020

Source: NOAA, 2021

Moreover, the World Health Organization estimates that 24% of all global deaths
are linked to environmental factors many of which are exacerbated by climate
change (WHO, 2020). Renewable energy adoption is crucial in curbing emissions
the IEA highlights that solar and wind energy need to constitute four times their
current generation by 2030 to keep the 1.5°C goal within reach (IEA, 2021).
Investment in renewables and energy efficiency projects could also spur economic
growth creating 18 million jobs by 2030 (IRENA, 2022). Global agreements such
as the Paris Agreement aim to unify international efforts to limit global warming
part of this agreement, countries have committed to nationally determined
contributions to lower emissions (UNFCCC, 2015). Initiatives like the European
Green Deal aim to make Europe climate-neutral by 2050, showcasing regional
leadership in climate mitigation strategies (European Commission, 2020).
Emerging technologies in carbon capture and storage advancements in battery
storage for renewable energy are seen as pivotal to reducing emissions further. The
Global CCS Institute reports that operational CCS facilities captured 40 million
tons of CO2 in 2020, demonstrating the technology's potential to contribute to
climate goals (CCS, 2021).
In the quest for sustainable transportation solutions electric vehicles (EVs)
stand out as a beacon of innovation and environmental responsibility. As the
transportation sector accounts for approximately 25% of global CO2 emissions
(IEA, 2020), the shift from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) to EVs is
not just beneficial it is necessary for mitigating climate change impacts. The
adoption of electric vehicles has seen exponential growth over the past decade. In
2020 alone, global EV sales surged by 43%, with more than 3 million electric cars
sold worldwide (IEA, 2021). This uptrend continued through 2021 and 2022,
indicating robust momentum in EV uptake surge is underpinned by significant
advancements in EV technology, which have led to increased vehicle range and
decreased charging times, enhancing the practicality of EVs for the average
consumer. Governments worldwide have recognized the economic and
environmental benefits of electric vehicles and are implementing a range of
incentives to accelerate their adoption. For instance, the United States introduced
the Clean Vehicle Tax Credit under the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, offering
up to USD 7,500 in tax credits for electric vehicle purchases (US Congress, 2022).
Similarly, European countries like Germany and France have significantly
increased subsidies for EVs contributing to a 137% rise in EV registrations across
Europe in 2020 (European Environment Agency, 2021). A critical element in the
EV adoption framework is the development of charging infrastructure. As of 2021,
there were over 1 million public charging points globally, a number expected to
grow exponentially as countries like China and the United States invest heavily in
infrastructure to support a growing EV fleet (IEA, 2021). The expansion of this
infrastructure is crucial in addressing range anxiety among potential EV users and
facilitating the transition from ICEVs. The drop in battery costs is another pivotal
factor driving the affordability and attractiveness of electric vehicles. Since 2010,
the cost of lithium-ion batteries has plummeted by approximately 89%, making
EVs increasingly competitive with traditional vehicles (BloombergNEF, 2020).
Moreover, continued advancements in battery technology are expected to reduce
costs and improve efficiency with solid-state batteries on the horizon promising
even greater range and safety. Transitioning to electric vehicles also reduces
national dependencies on imported oil, enhancing energy security. With countries
like Norway leading the charge where electric vehicles accounted for 54% of all
new car sales in 2020, there is proven potential for significant reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel use (Norwegian Road Federation, 2021).
Despite these advances, the global spread of EVs is not without challenges.
Developing nations, in particular, face hurdles related to high initial costs, lack of
charging infrastructure, and the need for substantial investments in grid upgrades.
Furthermore, the environmental impact of battery production and disposal remains
a concern, necessitating rigorous recycling and manufacturing processes to
mitigate the ecological footprint.
Electric vehicles are pivotal in Cambodia's transition towards sustainable
transportation, addressing both environmental concerns and economic
dependencies. The country's recent focus on EV adoption is motivated by a range
of factors from reducing greenhouse gas emissions to enhancing energy security by
decreasing reliance on imported fuels. Globally, the transportation sector is a major
contributor to carbon dioxide emissions, and Cambodia is no exception. In 2019
the transport sector contributed 8% to the country's total emissions (Our World in
Data, 2021). The adoption of electric vehicles offers a significant reduction in
these emissions. EVs are inherently more efficient than ICEVs, converting over
60% of the electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels compared to
about 20% for gasoline cars (Alternative Fuels Data Center, 2021). Cambodia's
economy is heavily impacted by its dependence on imported oil, which exposes it
to global oil price fluctuations. Transitioning to electric vehicles can mitigate this
vulnerability. In 2022, Cambodia spent approximately $3.6 billion on fuel imports,
a significant drain on its economy (Khmer Times, 2023). Electric vehicles offer a
cheaper alternative in terms of operational costs. For instance, electric two-
wheelers and three-wheelers can achieve cost savings of up to 90% and 65%
respectively, compared to their gasoline counterparts in terms of fuel costs per
kilometer (ESCAP, 2023). The growth of EVs in Cambodia is also seen in the rise
of related infrastructure. As of early 2023, there were 13 publicly accessible EV
fast charging stations and about 40 battery-swapping stations primarily catering to
electric three-wheelers. Such developments not only support the current fleet of
423 electric cars, 362 three-wheelers, and 55 motorbikes but also lay the
groundwork for future expansion (ESCAP, 2023). The adoption of electric vehicles
in Cambodia has 1,489 vehicles including 683 four-wheeler EVs and 410 three-
wheeler EVs of December 2023, according to the Ministry of Public Works and
Transport (UNDP, 2024). Recognizing the benefits of EVs, the Cambodian
government has implemented several incentives and policies to encourage their
adoption. These include reductions in import duties and special taxes for electric
vehicles, aiming to make them more affordable to the public (Yutthavonn, 2022).
Figure 2. Import duties and special taxes for electric vehicles

Source: Yutthavonn, 2022

The government's long-term strategy includes substantial targets for EV adoption,
aiming for electric vehicles to make up 40% of new car and urban bus sales by
2050 (Long-Term Strategy for Carbon Neutrality, LTS4CN, 2050). Despite these
ambitious goals, the actual penetration of EVs in Cambodia has been relatively low
compared to other countries in the region. Indicating that several barriers may be
hindering wider adoption. Understanding these barriers is crucial for policymakers,
manufacturers, and other stakeholders aiming to promote EV usage. Identifying
and addressing the challenges faced by EV users can provide insights into the
necessary interventions required to accelerate EV adoption.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
This study aims to identify and analyze the challenges faced by EV users in
Cambodia focusing on four-wheel vehicles. Despite Cambodia's ambitious goals to
promote electric mobility aiming for 40% of cars and 70% of motorcycles to be
electric by 2050, the actual penetration of EVs remains low (The Phnom Penh
Post, 2022). As of December 2023, only 1,489 EVs, including 683 four-wheel
vehicles, were registered in the country (MPWT, 2024). The Cambodian
government has implemented policies such as reducing import duties on EVs by
50%, yet these measures have not been sufficient to overcome the numerous
barriers to EV adoption (Phnom Penh Post, 2023). Cambodia's EV market remains
in its infancy, struggling with multiple barriers, such as reducing import duties on
EVs and implementing regulatory frameworks, several challenges persist
(Yutthavonn, 2022). BEVs have significantly higher purchase prices compared to
internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. A new EV can cost between $28,900
and $29,000, while a new ICE vehicle costs around $15,000 and a used one about
$8,000. This price disparity makes BEVs less accessible to many consumers in
Cambodia (World Bank, 2024; Yutthavonn, 2022). Although EVs have lower
operating costs due to cheaper electricity compared to gasoline, the total cost of
ownership (TCO) over 15 years, which includes maintenance and battery
replacement, is higher for EVs than for ICE vehicles. This long-term cost
challenge can deter potential buyers who are looking for immediate financial
benefits (World Bank, 2024). Operating a BEV is generally more economical due
to lower fuel costs. Electricity is cheaper than gasoline, and BEVs are more
efficient in converting energy into motion, resulting in lower operating costs
(World Bank, 2024). The Cambodian government also offers tax incentives for
EVs, including import tax exemptions, which can make purchasing an EV more
economical. However, the initial high costs still pose a significant barrier
(UN.ESCAP, 2023).
The adoption of electric vehicles in Cambodia, particularly four-wheel EVs
faces several significant challenges that hinder widespread acceptance and user
satisfaction. Despite the global trend toward embracing EVs for their
environmental benefits and long-term cost savings, Cambodia's EV market remains
in its infancy, struggling with multiple barriers, such as reducing import duties on
EVs and implementing regulatory frameworks, several challenges persist
(Yutthavonn, 2022). Economic barriers are particularly pronounced in Cambodia.
The cost of purchasing a new EV is substantially higher than that of internal
combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. For instance, a new EV can cost between
$28,900 and $29,000, compared to approximately $15,000 for a new ICE vehicle
and $8,000 for a used one (World Bank, 2024; Yutthavonn, 2022). This price
disparity is largely attributed to the high costs associated with EV technology,
especially batteries, which constitute a major portion of the total vehicle cost.
Additionally, hefty import taxes on EV batteries further elevate the overall cost.
Given Cambodia’s relatively low GDP per capita, these high upfront costs make
EVs financially inaccessible to many potential users. Furthermore, the total cost of
ownership (TCO) for EVs, considering maintenance and battery replacement, is
significantly higher over 15 years compared to ICE vehicles (World Bank, 2024).
Figures 3. 4W Reference TCO over 15 years

Source: World Bank, 2024

The underdeveloped infrastructure for EVs is another critical barrier. As of 2023,
Cambodia has only 13 fast-charging stations compared to about 3,000 gas stations
for ICE vehicles (ESCAP, 2023; Yutthavonn, 2022). This significant gap in
infrastructure leads to range anxiety among potential EV users, deterring them
from adopting EVs due to fears of being stranded without access to a charging
station (Jamaludin et al., 2021). Additionally, the longer time required to charge
EVs compared to refueling ICE vehicles poses a substantial inconvenience for
users with demanding schedules (Egbue & Long, 2012). For Maintenance and
technical support, there is a notable scarcity of skilled technicians and maintenance
facilities capable of servicing EVs in Cambodia. The country lacks comprehensive
training programs for EV-related skills and engineering, resulting in a shortage of
qualified professionals (Yang et al., 2019; ESCAP, 2023). This shortage
complicates the practicality of owning and operating an EV, further discouraging
potential buyers. The uncertain resale value of EVs further exacerbates the
adoption challenge. Rapid technological advancements can quickly render older
EV models obsolete, negatively impacting their resale value. The secondary
market for used EVs in Cambodia is virtually non-existent, and concerns about
battery life and warranty transferability add to consumer hesitance (Sierzchula et
al., 2014). To find these challenges, it is crucial to systematically identify and
analyze the primary obstacles that impede the use and satisfaction of EV users in
Cambodia. This study aims to fill the knowledge gap by investigating the
economic, infrastructural, operation, market dynamics, and technical and service
barriers that hinder EV adoptation.
1.3. Research Questions
This study focuses on the following research question:
- What are the primary challenges faced by electric vehicle users in
Cambodia?
- How do these challenges affect their usage and satisfaction?
1.4. Research Objective
The objective of this research is:
- To systematically identify and analyze the specific challenges that impede
the use.
- to the satisfaction of electric vehicle users in Cambodia.
1.5. Scope and Limitations

This study aims to identify the challenges faced by users of four-wheel electric
vehicles in Cambodia. It addresses key obstacles that hinder EV adoption, which
include high costs, inadequate charging infrastructure, lengthy charging times,
uncertain resale values, and technical and service-related issues. This study
employs a quantitative approach, collecting data through surveys targeting users
who have been experienced with their EVs for more than one year. The data
collected will be analyzed using SPSS software. The study is grounded in the
Diffusion of Innovations Theory as proposed by Rogers (2003), the Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM) by Fred D. Davis (1989), The Theory of Planned
Behavior (TPB) by Icek Ajzen (1991), Economic Theory and Service Quality and
Infrastructure Development Theories. Focusing exclusively on four-wheel EVs, the
findings might not be entirely applicable to other popular forms of EVs in
Cambodia, such as motorbikes and three-wheelers. These vehicle types represent a
significant portion of the Cambodian market and face distinct challenges that could
differ from those experienced by four-wheel vehicle users. The reliance on self-
reported data through surveys might introduce biases such as self-selection and
reporting biases. Respondents may have perceptions or experiences that are not
representative of the broader population. This research is poised to offer a detailed
quantitative analysis of the hurdles that impede the adoption of four-wheel electric
vehicles in Cambodia. By delineating these challenges, the study aims to inform
stakeholders and policymakers, enabling them to devise targeted strategies that
could accelerate the adoption of EVs. Successfully addressing these issues will not
only benefit existing and prospective EV users but will also advance Cambodia's
environmental sustainability and economic development goals. The findings,
despite limitations, will provide a valuable baseline for ongoing research and
intervention planning in the Cambodian EV market.
1.6. Significance of the Study
This research is very significant because it identifies the challenges faced by
four-wheel electric vehicle (EV) users in Cambodia, a market that is nascent but
poised for significant growth amid rising environmental concerns and escalating
fuel costs. Despite the inherent benefits of EVs, such as reduced greenhouse gas
emissions and lower operational costs, their adoption rate in Cambodia remains
slow. This study is crucial as it seeks to uncover the specific barriers hindering the
widespread use of EVs in this context. A thorough understanding of the obstacles
faced by EV users will provide vital insights for crafting targeted policies and
regulatory measures. Previous studies in similar markets highlight that high costs,
inadequate charging infrastructure, and technical issues significantly impede EV
adoption (Egbue & Long, 2012; Yang et al., 2019). By specifically quantifying
these challenges within the Cambodian market, this research will offer evidence-
based recommendations for governmental policies. These might include subsidies,
tax incentives, or investments in charging infrastructure, all aimed at encouraging
greater uptake of EVs. The findings will also benefit automobile manufacturers,
local dealers, and energy suppliers by elucidating market dynamics and consumer
preferences. This enhanced understanding can help businesses tailor their products
and services more effectively. For instance, insights into concerns about resale
value and charging times could drive manufacturers to innovate in battery
technology and improve after-sales services. By facilitating the adoption of EVs,
this research directly contributes to reducing the environmental footprint of the
transportation sector in Cambodia. A shift towards electric vehicles would not only
cut down urban air pollution but also decrease the country's dependency on
imported fossil fuels, aligning with global climate action goals. Understanding and
addressing the challenges faced by EV users can significantly boost consumer
confidence in electric mobility solutions. Insights into factors like the availability
of charging infrastructure and service accessibility are crucial in mitigating
psychological barriers such as range anxiety, promoting a shift from traditional
combustion engines to electric models. Moreover, this study aims to fill a critical
gap in the academic literature concerning EV adoption in Southeast Asia,
particularly in transitional economies like Cambodia. It will add a valuable
perspective to the global understanding of EV adoption challenges in diverse
economic and infrastructural contexts, providing a comparative framework for
other researchers and policymakers. This research lies in its potential to influence
multiple facets of the EV ecosystem in Cambodia comprehensively. By identifying
specific challenges to EV adoption, the study aids in formulating effective policies,
enhances stakeholder understanding, supports environmental objectives, and boosts
consumer confidence in electric vehicles. This multifaceted impact underscores the
critical role of this research in paving the way for a sustainable transportation
future in Cambodia.
1.7. Structure of Thesis
The thesis is prepared in the chapters following the structures:

CHAPTER 1: The first chapter provides a fundamental understanding of the

research which includes a background of the study, problem statement, research
questions, research objective, scope and limitation, and significance of the study.

CHAPTER 2: The second chapter discusses the literature and theories related to
the study on identifying the challenges faced by electric vehicle users. It
synthesizes findings from global and regional studies on EV adoption, addressing
key issues such as Economic, Infrastructural, Operation, Market Dynamics, and
Technical Service. The theory review, method review, research framework, and
conceptual frameworks including the independent variable and dependent variable
will be discussed in this chapter.

CHAPTER 3:

CHAPTER 4:

CHAPTER 5:

CHAPTER 6:

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter examines the challenges faced by four-wheel electric vehicle (EV)
users in Cambodia, drawing on global and regional studies to contextualize the
Cambodian experience. Key issues include high costs, insufficient charging
infrastructure, long charging times, resale value uncertainty, and technical and
service challenges. Moreover, this chapter will detail define the theory review,
method review, research framework, and conceptual frameworks including the
independent variable and dependent variable of the study.
2.1. Electric Vehicle Adoption Challenges in Asia
The shift towards electric vehicles is seen globally as a crucial step toward
reducing carbon emissions and promoting sustainable transportation. Despite the
enthusiasm, the adoption rates vary significantly across Asia due to a myriad of
challenges. A study by Nie and Kemp in 2014, analyzed the impact of high initial
costs in China, noting that the high price of EVs significantly hampers their
widespread adoption, even in the world’s largest automotive market (Nie, Y., &
Kemp, R., 2014). According to Chandra and Chandra in 2019, the high cost of
acquisition and the inadequate development of economic policies are major
deterrents for potential EV buyers in India (Chandra, B., & Chandra, R., 2019).
Ishida and Parker in 2016 discuss Japan’s efforts to develop a widespread charging
infrastructure and identify gaps in rural and remote areas that still lag (Ishida, H.,
& Parker, D., 2016). Lee et al. (2018) highlight that the lack of charging facilities
in South Korea poses a significant challenge, affecting consumer confidence in the
feasibility of owning EVs (Lee, S., et al., 2018). The impact of long charging times
on EV adoption in Thailand is discussed by Wong et al. (2017), who note that this
operational barrier significantly reduces the attractiveness of EVs for consumers
who value convenience (Wong, S., et al., 2017). Ahmad et al. (2018) address
concerns about the long charging duration in Malaysia, stating that it remains one
of the principal operational hurdles to wider EV acceptance (Ahmad, P., et al.,
2018). The study by Zhao et al. (2019) discusses resale value uncertainty in
Singapore, highlighting how it discourages long-term investment in EVs (Zhao, J.,
et al., 2019). Sutrisno and Tjahjono in 2020 examine the Indonesian market,
pointing out that the lack of certainty about EV resale values makes consumers
hesitant to switch from conventional vehicles (Sutrisno, A., & Tjahjono, B., 2020).
A 2021 report by Lopez et al. emphasizes the shortage of technical and
maintenance services for EVs in the Philippines, which poses a serious concern for
potential EV owners (Lopez, G., et al., 2021). Nguyen et al. (2019) discuss how the
lack of established technical service networks in Vietnam complicates the
maintenance and repair of EVs, further deterring their adoption (Nguyen, H., et al.,
2019). The challenges to EV adoption in Asia are substantial and varied. While
each country faces unique issues, common themes such as high costs, inadequate
infrastructure, long charging times, resale value uncertainty, and service challenges
prevail across the region. Understanding and addressing these barriers through
tailored strategies, involving policy support, infrastructure development, and
technological advancements, are essential for accelerating the transition to electric
mobility in Asia. This comprehensive analysis not only sheds light on the current
state of EV adoption but also provides valuable insights for policymakers,
stakeholders, and consumers considering the switch to electric vehicles.
2.2. Addressing the Challenges

2.2.1. Economic Challenges

The economic barriers to electric vehicle (EV) adoption are significant,
particularly concerning the high initial purchase price, ongoing maintenance costs,
and overall economic feasibility, especially in developing countries like Cambodia.
The study by Egbue & Long (2012) highlights that the high initial cost of EVs is a
significant barrier to consumer adoption, particularly in regions without substantial
financial incentives (Egbue, O., & Long, S., 2012). Studies such as those by Yang
et al. (2019) compare the impact of pricing on EV adoption across different
countries, noting that lower-income countries face steeper challenges (Yang, C., et
al., 2019). Sang and Bekhet (2015) address maintenance costs, particularly the
replacement of batteries and their impact on long-term ownership costs (Sang, Y.,
& Bekhet, H. A., 2015). Advances in battery technology and cost efficiencies are
discussed by Bauer et al. (2016), who suggest these improvements could mitigate
maintenance concerns over time (Bauer, W., Weber, L., & Green, F., 2016). Hardy
et al. (2019) explore how economic feasibility impacts EV adoption in markets like
Cambodia, where lower average incomes may restrict consumer capabilities to
invest in EVs (Hardy, K., Hill, G., & Rutter, D., 2019). The effectiveness of
government policies in supporting EV adoption through subsidies and tax reliefs is
crucial, as noted by Schroeder and Traber (2012) in the context of European
policies (Schroeder, A., & Traber, T., 2012). The economic challenges of adopting
EVs are profound, especially in regions like Cambodia, where economic barriers
can be even more pronounced compared to more affluent regions. The reviewed
studies consistently illustrate that without substantial financial incentives and
governmental support, high costs, and maintenance expenses can significantly
impede EV adoption. Future strategies must focus on reducing these economic
barriers through technological advancements, policy support, and international
cooperation to make EVs a viable option for a broader population.
2.2.2. Infrastructural Challenges
One of the most significant barriers to the widespread adoption of electric
vehicles (EVs) is the inadequacy of charging infrastructure. This infrastructural
shortfall contributes directly to range anxiety, deterring potential EV buyers who
are concerned about the practicality of using EVs for daily transportation. In the
United States, Clement-Nyns et al. (2010) found that the lack of public charging
stations is a significant impediment to EV adoption, as potential users fear they
will not be able to charge their vehicles during longer trips (Clement-Nyns, K.,
Haesen, E., & Driesen, J., 2010). In their pan-European study, Franke and Krems
(2013) emphasize that the visibility and accessibility of charging stations are key to
reducing range anxiety among potential EV adopters (Franke, T., & Krems, J. F.,
2013). In China, Zhang et al. (2017) discuss how China’s aggressive expansion of
its EV charging infrastructure has been pivotal in promoting EV adoption in urban
areas (Zhang, T., Gao, Z., & Li, W., 2017). India, Singh (2019) reports that the
sparse distribution of charging stations in India is a major factor hindering the
growth of the EV market (Singh, R. P., 2019). The technological innovations, of
Thomson and Infield (2017) suggest that technological advancements in fast-
charging and battery technology can mitigate the effects of sparse charging
infrastructure (Thomson, M., & Infield, D., 2017). According to McKinsey &
Company (2018), government policies play a crucial role in accelerating the
deployment of EV charging stations through incentives and regulatory measures
(McKinsey & Company., 2018). Public-Private Partnerships, Schill, et al. (2015)
highlight the importance of partnerships between governments and private
companies in developing sufficient EV charging infrastructure (Schill, W. P.,
Gerbaulet, C., & Kemfert, C., 2015). The development of adequate EV charging
infrastructure is essential for reducing range anxiety and facilitating the widespread
adoption of electric vehicles. As evidenced by various global studies, the
combination of governmental initiative, technological innovation, and strategic
public-private partnerships can significantly enhance the accessibility and
effectiveness of charging facilities. Addressing this infrastructural challenge is
pivotal for ensuring the growth of the EV market and the transition towards
sustainable transportation.

2.2.3. Operation Challenges

One of the most significant operational challenges impacting the adoption
of electric vehicles (EVs) is the long charging times. These extended durations can
inconvenience users and limit the practical daily use of EVs, contributing to
consumer hesitancy. Impact of long charging times on EV adoption, A seminal
study by Franke and Krems (2013) found that long charging times are a primary
concern for U.S. consumers, affecting their decision to purchase EVs (Franke, T.,
& Krems, J. F., 2013). Neubauer and Wood (2014) highlight that in Germany,
consumer anxiety overcharging time is linked directly to the perceived
impracticality of EVs for long-distance travel (Neubauer, J., & Wood, E., 2014).
Zhang et al. (2017) discuss how long charging times could undermine the
government’s efforts to boost EV adoption in urban areas across China (Zhang, X.,
Yu, L., & Archer, N., 2017). The study by Morton et al. (2016) argues that the
inconvenience of long charging times is a barrier to adopting EVs in the UK,
especially for users without access to home charging (Morton, C., Anable, J., &
Nelson, J. D., 2016). According, Taniguchi et al. (2014) explore how consumer
preferences in Japan are significantly shaped by charging time, affecting the
willingness to switch from conventional vehicles to EVs (Taniguchi, A., Suzuki,
Y., & Fujii, S., 2014). Lee and Lovellette (2011) found that reducing charging
times could potentially increase the attractiveness of EVs to South Korean
consumers (Lee, A., & Lovellette, G., 2011). The International Energy Agency
(IEA) reports suggest that advances in battery technology and the development of
ultra-fast charging stations could mitigate the impact of long charging times
globally (IEA, 2018). Schroeder and Traber (2012) discuss how European policy
initiatives aimed at standardizing and upgrading public charging infrastructure
could reduce charging times significantly (Schroeder, A., & Traber, T., 2012).
Long charging times are a significant barrier to electric vehicle adoption,
impacting consumer convenience and the practical use of EVs for daily activities.
The studies reviewed provide a broad perspective on how this operational
challenge is perceived globally and emphasize the need for continued
technological innovations and supportive policies to improve the charging
infrastructure.
2.2.4. Market Dynamics
A study by Peterson et al. (2010) found that potential buyers in the U.S. are
concerned about the resale value of EVs due to the fast pace of advancements in
EV technology (Peterson, S. B., Whitacre, J. F., & Apt, J., 2010). Bjerkan et al.
(2016) discuss how German consumers hesitate to purchase EVs due to fears that
newer, more advanced models will depreciate older ones rapidly (Bjerkan, K. Y.,
Nørbech, T. E., & Nordtømme, M. E., 2016). In China, Zhang and Bai (2017)
identify resale value uncertainty as a critical factor influencing Chinese consumers'
reluctance to adopt EVs (Zhang, X., & Bai, X., 2017). In Japan, the rapid
advancement in battery technology is particularly concerning for consumers
considering the resale value of their EVs, as noted by Tanaka et al. (2014) (Tanaka,
S., Ida, T., Murakami, K., & Friedman, L., 2014). Hidrue et al. (2011) highlight
that UK consumers are worried about the depreciation of EVs due to new models
entering the market with enhanced features and better batteries (Hidrue, M. K.,
Parsons, G. R., Kempton, W., & Gardner, M. P., 2011). The International Energy
Agency (IEA) (2018) reports suggest that technological innovations may improve
battery life and efficiency, potentially stabilizing the resale value over time (IEA,
2018). The study by Sandén and Hillman (2011) argues that policy measures in
Sweden aimed at reducing the perception of technological obsolescence could help
mitigate resale value concerns (Sandén, B. A., & Hillman, K. M., 2011). Resale
value uncertainty significantly impacts consumer willingness to invest in electric
vehicles. This concern is exacerbated by the rapid pace of technological
advancements, which can make earlier models seem outdated prematurely. To
combat these challenges, stakeholders must focus on stabilizing the second-hand
market for EVs and reassuring potential buyers about the longevity and
competitiveness of their investments.

2.2.5. Technical and Service Challenges

The adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is not only contingent on consumer
acceptance and infrastructural development but also significantly depends on the
availability and quality of technical support and maintenance services. Reliable
after-sales service is crucial for the long-term operational viability of EVs. The
study by Sullivan and Salerno (2015) explored the gaps in service provision for
EVs, highlighting a widespread need for more skilled technicians who are trained
specifically in electric vehicle maintenance (Sullivan, J. L., & Salerno, D., 2015).
Bauer et al. (2016) found that inadequate service facilities and the scarcity of
replacement parts are major concerns for EV users, potentially hindering broader
adoption (Bauer, W., Weber, L., & Green, F., 2016). Zhang and Chen (2018)
report that the lack of localized repair centers and technical expertise significantly
influences the resale value and user satisfaction of EVs in China (Zhang, B., &
Chen, X., 2018). Arai and Yajima (2017) emphasize the need for a dedicated
training program for EV mechanics to enhance the quality of maintenance services
available to EV owners (Arai, E., & Yajima, M., 2017). Hardy et al. (2019) discuss
how the UK market faces challenges in developing a robust service network that
can adequately support the growing number of EVs (Hardy, K., Hill, G., & Rutter,
D., 2019). The International Energy Agency (2020) suggests that increasing
investment in training programs for EV service personnel is essential for
improving the maintenance landscape globally (IEA, 2020). Lundström and
Lindgren (2018) highlight successful strategies in Sweden where partnerships
between automotive manufacturers and educational institutions have improved the
availability of qualified EV technicians (Lundström, A., & Lindgren, J., 2018).
Technical and service challenges are substantial barriers to the adoption and long-
term success of electric vehicles. These issues range from the lack of qualified
technicians to insufficient service facilities and parts availability. Addressing these
challenges requires a concerted effort from stakeholders across the industry,
including targeted training programs, partnerships between manufacturers and
technical schools, and increased investment in service infrastructure. By enhancing
the support network for electric vehicles, stakeholders can not only improve
consumer confidence but also ensure the sustainability of EVs as a viable
alternative to traditional combustion vehicles.
2.3. Theoretical Review and Previous Studies

2.3.1. Theoretical Review

The theoretical review of this study on the challenges faced by electric vehicle
(EV) users in Cambodia utilizes several well-established models that elucidate the
dynamics of technology adoption and behavioral change. These models provide
insights into the barriers to EV adoption and offer structured methods for both
understanding and addressing these challenges within Cambodia's unique
socioeconomic context.
2.3.1.1. Diffusion of Innovations Theory
Everett M. Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations Theory provides a robust
framework for understanding how new technologies, such as electric vehicles
(EVs), are adopted within different societies. This theory is particularly pertinent in
Cambodia, where the adoption of EVs faces specific economic, infrastructural,
operational, and market dynamics (Rogers, 2003). The key attribute influencing the
adoption has Relative Advantage is the degree to which an innovation is perceived
as better than the idea it supersedes, Complexity is the degree to which an
innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use, Trialability is the extent
to which an innovation can be experimented with on a limited basis, and
Observability is the extent to which the results of an innovation are visible to
others (Rogers, 2003). For application to EV adoption enhancing the relative
advantage of EVs through financial incentives or showcasing long-term savings
can make EVs more appealing, as demonstrated by Yang et al. (2019) (Yang et al.,
2019). Reducing complexity and increasing trialability by simplifying the use of
charging technology and implementing temporary-use programs are crucial for
adoption (Lee et al., 2018; Wong et al., 2017). Improving observability by
promoting visible successes and user testimonials can further encourage adoption
(Zhao et al., 2019).
Figure. Key Attributes Influencing Adoption

Source: Rogers, 1983-2010

2.3.1.2. Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Developed by Fred D. Davis, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
focuses on two primary predictors of technology acceptance: Perceived Usefulness
(PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) (Davis, 1989). This model is highly
relevant for examining the adoption of EVs in Cambodia, where several barriers
impact user decisions. Application to EV adoption Perceived Usefulness highlights
the economic benefits and environmental impacts of EVs that can enhance their
attractiveness (Yang et al., 2019). Perceived Ease of Use improving charging
infrastructure and maintenance support can make EVs more user-friendly (Lee et
al., 2018). Accessible infrastructure and clear economic benefits are essential for
adoption, reinforcing the need to address both PU and PEOU in Cambodia (Wong
et al., 2017).
Figure. Theories on technology acceptance
2.3.1.3. Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) by Icek Ajzen suggests that attitude
toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control predict
deliberate behavior (Ajzen, 1991). This theory is instrumental in analyzing how
cultural, economic, and infrastructural factors influence EV adoption in Cambodia.
For EV adaptation Attitudes public awareness campaigns can improve attitudes
toward the benefits of EVs (Nie & Kemp, 2014), Subjective Norms are influencers
and community leaders can help normalize EV use (Lee et al., 2018), and
Perceived Behavioral Control are expanding charging infrastructure and offering
financial incentives can enhance the perceived feasibility of using EVs (Wong et
al., 2017).
2.3.1.4. Economic Theory
Economic theories focusing on the cost-benefit analysis undertaken by
individuals or societies when adopting new technologies elucidate the economic
viability of EVs. Highlighting the reduced total cost of ownership of EVs can shift
perceptions and demonstrate their economic benefits, addressing upfront cost
concerns (Schmidt & Schneider, 2016; Yang et al., 2019).
2.3.1.5. Service Quality and Infrastructure Development Theories
These theories emphasize the importance of infrastructure and service
quality in the adoption of new technologies. The service quality enhancing after-
sales services and parts availability can increase trust in EV technology (Nguyen et
al., 2019). Infrastructure Development building a comprehensive network of
charging stations can alleviate significant adoption barriers (Turner et al., 2020).
This review establishes a comprehensive theoretical framework for analyzing the
multifaceted challenges of EV adoption in Cambodia. By applying these theories,
the study aims to uncover strategies that can effectively address the barriers and
accelerate the transition to sustainable electric mobility in the region.

2.3.2. Summary of Previous Study

Table 1. Summary of Previous Studies on Electric Vehicle Adoption
Study Region Challenge Key Theory Source
Focus Findings
Nie & China Economic High initial Economic Nie, Y., & Kemp, R. (2014).
Kemp Challenges costs hinder Theory Journal of Cleaner Production, 68,
(2014) widespread 20-33.
EV
adoption.
Chandra India Economic Financial Diffusion of Chandra, B., & Chandra, R.
& Challenges barriers Innovations (2019). Energy Policy, 132, 530-
Chandra significantly Theory 540.
(2019) deter EV
adoption.
Ishida & Japan Infrastructur Inadequate Technology Ishida, H., & Parker, D. (2016).
Parker al charging Acceptance Transportation Research Part D,
(2016) Challenges infrastructur Model (TAM) 45, 123-134.
e causes
range
anxiety.
Lee et al. South Infrastructur The lack of Theory of Lee, S., et al. (2018). Energy
(2018) Korea al charging Planned Policy, 121, 710-720.
Challenges facilities Behavior
affects (TPB)
consumer
confidence
in EVs.
Wong et Thailand Operational Long Consumer Wong, S., et al. (2017). Journal of
al. (2017) Challenges charging Behavior Environmental Management, 203,
times reduce Theory 123-131.
EV
attractivenes
s.
Ahmad Malaysi Operational Extended Service Ahmad, P., et al. (2018).
et al. a Challenges charging Quality International Journal of
(2018) durations are Theory Automotive Technology, 19(7),
a principal 1221-1234.
barrier to EV
adoption.
Zhao et Singapo Market Resale value Economic Zhao, J., et al. (2019). Energy
al. (2019) re Dynamics uncertainty Theory Economics, 81, 459-470.
discourages
long-term
EV
investments.
Sutrisno Indonesi Market Concerns Diffusion of Sutrisno, A., & Tjahjono, B.
& a Dynamics over EV Innovations (2020). Transport Policy, 96, 112-
Tjahjono resale values Theory 120.
(2020) make
consumers
hesitant to
switch from
conventional
vehicles.
Lopez et Philippi Technical Shortage of Service Case Lopez, G., et al.
al. (2021) nes and Service EV services Quality Study (2021). Journal of
Challenges and Theory Cleaner Production,
maintenance 279, 123456.
deters
potential
buyers.
Nguyen Vietnam Technical The lack of Technology Quantitat Nguyen, H., et al.
et al. and Service technical Acceptance ive (2019). Journal of
(2019) Challenges service Model (TAM) Analysis Cleaner Production,
networks 234, 590-60
 complicates
the
maintenance
and repair of
EVs.

2.4. Influencing Factor

This study critically examines the multifaceted factors influencing the adoption
of four-wheeled electric vehicles (EVs) in Cambodia, addressing economic,
infrastructural, operational, market dynamics, and technical and service challenges.
By applying established theoretical frameworks and integrating empirical
evidence, this section aims to elucidate the drivers and barriers to EV adoption.
2.4.1. Independent Variables
Economic Challenges: Economic challenges encompass the initial purchase price,
ongoing maintenance costs, and the availability of financial incentives. High initial
costs significantly deter EV adoption, especially in economically developing
regions like Cambodia (Nie & Kemp, 2014). Economic theories of cost-benefit
analysis suggest that lowering costs and offering incentives are critical to boosting
adoption (Sierzchula et al., 2014).
Infrastructural Challenges: Infrastructural readiness includes the availability and
accessibility of charging infrastructure necessary for the practical use of EVs.
Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations Theory posits that innovations with higher
observability and trialability, such as visible and accessible charging stations,
facilitate adoption (Rogers, 2003; Egbue & Long, 2012).
Operational Challenges: Operational challenges refer to aspects that impact the
daily use of EVs, such as charging time and vehicle range. The Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM) indicates that perceived ease of use, including
operational efficiencies like shorter charging times and extended range, enhances
technology acceptance (Franke & Krems, 2013; Davis, 1989).
Market Dynamics: Market dynamics cover factors such as consumer awareness
and perceived resale value. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) shows that
consumer attitudes, shaped by subjective norms and perceived behavioral control,
significantly influence adoption decisions. Increased awareness and favorable
perceptions of resale value boost adoption (Zhao et al., 2019; Ajzen, 1991).
Technical and Service Challenges: This category deals with the availability and
quality of after-sales services and technical support. Service Quality Theory
suggests that high-quality after-sales service increases customer satisfaction and
loyalty, thereby aiding adoption. Adequate technical support and reliable service
facilities are vital for overcoming adoption barriers (Nguyen et al., 2019;
Parasuraman et al., 1985).

2.4.2. Dependent Variables

Adoption Rate: The ratio of EVs to total vehicle sales, reflecting market
penetration. Quantified through sales data and registration records, with studies
indicating that enhanced infrastructural and economic factors lead to higher
adoption rates (Sierzchula et al., 2014).
User Satisfaction: Consumer satisfaction with EV performance, reliability, and
overall experience. Assessed through consumer surveys and satisfaction indices,
where factors like operational ease and technical advancements play crucial roles
(Davis, 1989).
Usage Patterns: The frequency and conditions under which EVs are used. Data
was gathered via user surveys, telemetry, and usage logs, with the TPB suggesting
that practical aspects like charging infrastructure and vehicle range influence these
patterns (Ajzen, 1991).

2.5. Research Framework

This research framework will briefly review all literature from the theoretical
framework, hypothesis, and operationalization of variables. Then summarize the
theoretical framework into a conceptual framework (explanation of independent
variable and dependent variable), research hypothesis, and operationalization of the
independent and dependent variable.

2.5.1. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical foundation of this study is built upon several key models that
elucidate the dynamics of technology adoption and behavior change in the context
of electric vehicles. Diffusion of Innovations Theory (Rogers, 2003) helps in
understanding how EVs as new technologies are adopted across different segments
of society. It highlights factors such as relative advantage, compatibility,
complexity, trialability, and observability which are crucial in influencing adoption
rates. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989) predicts how users
come to accept and use a technology. In the context of EVs, perceived usefulness
(PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) are critical determinants that can drive
consumer acceptance, directly affecting their adoption and continued use. The
theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) provides a framework to assess
how individual attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control shape
behaviors toward adopting EVs. It particularly helps in understanding how social
pressures and perceived ease of operation influence user decisions. These theories
are integrated to systematically examine how socio-economic, infrastructural, and
technical variables impact the adoption and usability of electric vehicles in
Cambodia.

2.5.2. Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework visualizes the relationship between the independent
variables (IVs) factors influencing EV adoption and the dependent variables (DVs)
outcomes of these influences:
Independent Variables (IVs):
- Economic Challenges: High initial costs significantly deter EV adoption
and reduce adoption rates.
- Infrastructure Challenges: Insufficient charging infrastructure hinders
practical usability and overall adoption.
- Operational Challenges: Long charging times and limited vehicle range
detract from the practicality and appeal of EVs.
- Market Dynamics: The perceived resale value of EVs affects market
penetration.
- Technical and Service Challenges: The availability and quality of
technical support and after-sales services impact user satisfaction and trust.
Dependent Variables (DVs):
- Adoption Rate: This is measured by the percentage of electric vehicles
compared to traditional vehicles sold.
- User Satisfaction: Determined through user surveys that assess satisfaction
with performance, reliability, and cost-effectiveness.
- Usage Patterns: Examined through the frequency and conditions under
which EVs are utilized.
2.5.3. Research Hypotheses
Based on the theoretical and conceptual frameworks, several hypotheses be
formulated:
- H1: Economic barriers negatively impact the adoption rate of EVs.
- H2: Enhanced charging infrastructure positively influences user satisfaction
and adoption rates.
- H3: Operational efficiencies like faster charging and longer range positively
affect user satisfaction and usage patterns.
- H4: Positive market dynamics increase the adoption rate of EVs.
- H5: Improved service quality boosts user satisfaction and encourages adoption.
2.5.4. Methodological Approach
The methodological approach of this research focuses on examining the
multifaceted challenges faced by electric vehicle (EV) users in Cambodia,
specifically those using four-wheeled vehicles. This study integrates quantitative
methods to systematically assess how various factors impact EV adoption and user
satisfaction. A cross-sectional survey design will be employed to gather data from
a representative sample of EV users in Cambodia. This design is chosen for its
effectiveness in describing the current state of the phenomenon of EV adoption by
analyzing various influencing factors at a specific point in time. The primary data
collection method will be structured surveys, which are ideal for obtaining specific
information about personal and subjective experiences. Surveys will include a
range of question types, such as Likert scales, multiple-choice, and rating scales, to
measure the perceptions and experiences of EV users regarding economic,
infrastructural, operational, market dynamics, and technical and service challenges.
In addition to primary data, secondary data from industry reports, government
publications, and previous research studies will be reviewed to contextualize the
survey findings and ensure a comprehensive understanding of the EV landscape in
Cambodia.
2.5.5. Operationalization of the Variables
Table 2. Operationalization of the Demographic Variables

Operational Measurement
Factor Conceptual Definition Sources
Components Scale
 Age of the electric vehicle Demographic
Age Age in years Interval
user surveys
The gender identity of the Male, Female, Demographic
Gender Nominal
user Other surveys
Economic studies
Income Monthly or annual income
Income brackets Ordinal on consumer
Level of the user
behavior
Studies on the
Geographic location of the Urban, geographic
Location Nominal
user Suburban, Rural distribution of
EVs

Table 3. Operationalization of the Independent Variables

Operational Measuremen
Factor Conceptual Definition Sources
Components t Scale
Cost of EVs,
Nie & Kemp,
Economic Financial aspects availability of
Likert Scale 2014; Sierzchula
Challenges influencing EV adoption financial
et al., 2014
incentives
Number of
Infrastructure Availability and quality public charging Egbue & Long,
Ratio, Ordinal
Challenges of EV infrastructure stations, quality 2012
of roads
Franke &
Operational Practical aspects of using Charging time,
Interval, Ratio Krems, 2013;
Challenges EVs vehicle range
Davis, 1989
Consumer
Zhao et al.,
Market Market factors affecting awareness,
Likert Scale 2019; Ajzen,
Dynamics EV adoption perceived
1991
resale value
Availability of Nguyen et al.,
Technical Quality of after-sales
service centers, 2019;
and Service support and technical Likert Scale
technical Parasuraman et
Challenges services
support quality al., 1985

Table 4. Operationalization of the Dependent Variables

Conceptual Operational Measurement

Factor Sources
Definition Components Scale
 Number of EVs
Proportion of
registered / Total Industry reports,
Adoption Rate EVs among all Ratio
vehicles government data
vehicles
registered
Satisfaction with
Consumer
performance,
Satisfaction level satisfaction
User Satisfaction reliability, and Likert Scale
of EV users surveys; Davis,
cost-
1989
effectiveness
Frequency of use,
Patterns of EV types of trips, Usage data logs;
Usage Patterns Interval, Nominal
usage average distance Ajzen, 1991
per trip

CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC

VEHICLE

3.1. Introduction of Electric Vehicles

3.2.

3.3.

3.4.

CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY

This chapter outlines the methodology employed in investigating the

challenges faced by electric vehicle (EV) users in Cambodia, focusing specifically
on four-wheeled vehicles. The methodology is designed to address the research
questions and objectives, incorporating both quantitative analysis techniques and
theoretical frameworks to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the factors
influencing EV adoption and satisfaction.
4.1. Research Design
The study adopts a quantitative research design to enable precise measurement
and analysis of variables affecting EV usage in Cambodia. This approach is chosen
because it allows for collecting numerical data that can be statistically tested to
identify trends, patterns, and relationships among the variables defined in the study
(Creswell, 2014). The research design is underpinned by several established
theories that guide the data collection and analysis processes: The diffusion of
Innovations Theory helps in understanding how EV technology spreads within
Cambodian society and the attributes that influence its adoption, such as relative
advantage and compatibility, Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is utilized to
assess how perceptions of usefulness and ease of use affect the willingness of
consumers to adopt EVs, The theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) provides insights
into how individual attitudes, the influence of social circles, and perceived control
over behavior guide their actions towards using EVs. These theories are crucial for
framing the research questions and hypotheses, making the investigation grounded
in proven social science models (Ajzen, 1991; Davis, 1989; Rogers, 2003) for data
collection methods in primary data collection, a survey will be conducted targeting
current EV users in Cambodia. The survey will include Scaled Likert and closed-
ended questions designed to quantify the extent and impact of various challenges.
Secondary data collection will collect data from governmental reports publications,
industry publications, data documents from users, and previous academic research
will be reviewed to understand the broader context of EV adoption and
infrastructure development in Cambodia. The stratified random sampling method
will ensure diversity in the participant pool, including different socioeconomic
backgrounds, ages, and genders. This method allows for a more comprehensive
understanding of the challenges across different segments of society (Bryman,
2016). Quantitative data collected through surveys will be analyzed using
statistical software like SPSS. Techniques such as descriptive statistics, correlation
analysis, and multiple regression analysis will be employed to identify the
significant challenges and their relative impacts on user satisfaction and adoption
rates (Creswell, 2014). This study design provides a structured and comprehensive
framework for identifying and analyzing the challenges faced by EV users in
Cambodia. By integrating empirical data with theoretical insights, the study aims
to contribute valuable findings that could inform policymakers, stakeholders, and
manufacturers, leading to improved strategies for promoting EV adoption in
Cambodia.
4.2. Sample Selection
Sampling is an integral component of research methodology that entails
selecting a subset of individuals from a larger population for participation in a
study. The primary goal of sampling is to infer conclusions about the entire
population based on the data gathered from this subset. Given the diverse and
evolving nature of electric vehicle (EV) users in Cambodia, employing an effective
sampling strategy is crucial for yielding accurate and reliable results (Thompson,
2012).

4.2.1. Population
The target population for this study comprises all individuals in Cambodia who
have owned and used four-wheeled electric vehicles for over one year. This
duration is chosen to ensure that participants possess substantial experience with
their vehicles, thereby providing deeper insights into the long-term challenges
associated with EV usage. Given the significant growth in the EV sector, as
reported by the Ministry of Public Works and Transport in December 2023, there
are 683 registered four-wheeled EVs (UNDP, 2024). These owners provide critical
insight into the adoption dynamics and the usability challenges faced over an
extended period, making them ideal subjects for this study.

4.2.2. Sampling Technique

Determining the appropriate sample size is critical to research design,
affecting the study's validity and reliability. The sample size is influenced by the
population size, desired confidence level, margin of error, and expected variability
within the population (Cochran, 1977). The size of the sample generally increases
with the population but does not need to scale linearly due to diminishing returns
in precision as the sample size increases (Israel, 1992). This study adopts a 95%
confidence level, which is commonly used in social sciences, requiring a
sufficiently large sample to ensure robust study outcomes. Aiming for a 5% margin
of error strikes a balance between accuracy and practicality (Thompson, 2012).
High variability within the EV user population necessitates a larger sample size to
ensure diverse user experiences are adequately represented (Krejcie & Morgan,
1970).
Table 5. Theoretical Sample Sizes for Different Population Sizes at ±3%, ±5%,
±7%, and ±10% Precision Levels where Confidence Level Is 95% and P=.5

Source: Israel, G. D. (1992)

The formula for calculating the initial sample size based on confidence level and
margin of error is
2
Z × p × ( 1− p )
n 0
E2

Where:
- n 0 is the initial sample size,

- Z is the Z-value (e.g., 1.96 for 95% confidence),

- p is the estimated proportion of the attribute in the population (assumed to

be 0.5 for maximum variability),
- E is the margin of error (0.05 for 5%).
Considering the finite population size (N = 683), the sample size calculation
incorporates the finite population correction (FPC):
n0
n=
( n 0−1 )
1+
N
Applying the Formula:

Z = 1.96 (95% confidence)

P = 0.5 (maximizing variability)

E = 0.05 (5% margin of error)

Calculating n 0
2
1.96 × 0.5 × ( 1−0.5 ) 1.96 2 × 0.25
n 0 = =¿384.16
0.52 0.0025

Applying FPC:

384.16 384.16
n= = =245.75
( 384.16−1 ) 1+0.5616  246
1+
683

The results in a sample size of approximately 246 but we choose 340 for the
sample size study. The reason for aiming at a sample of 340 could be to enhance
the study's power or to anticipate potential non-responses or incomplete data. Thus,
while the theoretical calculation provides a lower boundary, practical
considerations in field research often justify a larger sample size. This size is
scientifically justified to ensure statistically significant results while considering
the practical constraints of the research (Israel, 1992; Cochran, 1977).
4.3. Data Collection Methods
Effective data collection is pivotal in identifying the challenges faced by
electric vehicle (EV) users in Cambodia. This study employs primary and
secondary data collection methods to gather comprehensive insights into the
factors influencing EV adoption and user satisfaction, guided by established
theoretical frameworks and contemporary research methodologies.

4.3.1. Primary Data Collection

Survey Instruments
The primary data will be collected using a dual-mode survey approach:
both paper-based and online questionnaires. For the paper-based questionnaire,
surveys will be conducted in person at strategically selected EV charging stations
in Phnom Penh, capturing real-time user experiences and immediate feedback.
This method ensures engagement with users who may not be active online but are
relevant participants due to their direct interaction with EV infrastructure.
Online Distribution Strategy
Reflecting the increasing digitization of communication, the online component
of the survey will be disseminated through various digital platforms that cater
specifically to the Cambodian EV community. This includes groups within popular
messaging apps like Messenger and Telegram, and specialized Facebook groups
such as "EV Cars Users in Cambodia." These platforms are selected based on their
popularity among EV users, sellers, technicians, and enthusiasts, making them
fertile grounds for diverse responses. The use of online surveys is supported by De
Leeuw (2005), who notes their cost-effectiveness and ability to yield high-quality
data quickly and from a geographically dispersed audience (De Leeuw, 2005).
Figure. Image of EV car user in Cambodia group Messenger, group Facebook,
and group Telegram

Sampling and Outreach

The study will employ stratified random sampling within the online
communities, categorized by user role to ensure that diverse perspectives are
captured effectively. The planned sample size of 340 participants is strategically
calculated to enable a comprehensive analysis while ensuring statistical robustness,
maintaining a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error (Cochran, 1977).
Recruitment will be facilitated through posts and direct invitations within each
group, with the support of group administrators and key influencers to maximize
response rates. This method leverages the social dynamics within these
communities, as discussed by Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampe (2007), who
emphasize the benefits of utilizing social network sites to enhance participation
and data collection quality (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007).

4.3.2. Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data will be sourced from a variety of established sources, including
government reports, industry databases, and scholarly articles, providing a rich
background against which primary data findings can be evaluated. This method is
vital for broadening the scope of the research and providing a contextual
framework that supports new insights (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009).
Relevant documents such as user invoices or maintenance reports will also be
reviewed to gather data on user experiences and operational challenges faced by
EV owners.
4.4. Questionnaire Design

Designing an effective questionnaire is crucial for accurately capturing the

challenges faced by electric vehicle users in Cambodia. This section outlines the
methodology behind the questionnaire design, incorporating theoretical
underpinnings and empirical evidence to ensure that the data collected are boths
reliable and valid. The questionnaire is grounded in several established behavioral
and adoption theories to ensure that all relevant aspects of EV usage are covered
Diffusion of Innovations Theory helps in understanding how the advantages and
observability of EVs influence user adoption and satisfaction. The questionnaire
includes items that assess users’ perceptions of EV benefits compared to
conventional vehicles (Rogers, 1962). For TAM's constructs, Perceived Usefulness
and Perceived Ease of Use, are used to develop questions that explore the practical
aspects of EVs, such as the ease of charging and the interface simplicity (Davis,
1989). TPB is applied to gauge the impact of social influence and personal
attitudes towards EVs on user behavior, including questions on environmental
concerns and societal norms (Ajzen, 1991).

4.4.1. Questionnaire Structure

The questionnaire is structured into several sections, each targeting specific
areas of interest based on the identified independent and dependent variables from
the research framework. The section on Demographic Information gathers basic
information such as age, gender, occupation, and education level to analyze user
profiles and differentiate responses by demographic groups. Economic Challenges
questions in this section address the cost-related barriers to EV adoption, including
initial purchase price, maintenance costs, and the effect of financial incentives.
This follows the guidance of studies like that by Nie and Kemp (2014), which
highlight cost as a major barrier to EV adoption (Nie & Kemp, 2014).
Infrastructure Challenges items here assess user satisfaction with the existing
charging infrastructure, availability of charging stations, and the impact of these
factors on the daily use of EVs, informed by Egbue & Long’s (2012) research on
infrastructure as a critical component of EV adoption (Egbue & Long, 2012).
Questions for Operational Challenges focus on the practical aspects of operating an
EV, such as battery life, charging time, and range, which are essential for
understanding user satisfaction and usability as outlined by Franke and Krems
(2013). Market Dynamics explores perceptions of the EV market, including resale
value concerns and general market awareness, which are crucial for understanding
market penetration as discussed by Zhao et al. (2019). The section Technical and
Service Challenges focuses here on the availability and quality of technical support
and after-sales service, which are key to user satisfaction and long-term adoption,
supported by findings from Nguyen et al. (2019).

4.4.2. Question Format

Most questions will use a five-point Likert scale ranging from "Strongly
Disagree" to "Strongly Agree" to measure attitudes and perceptions towards
various aspects of EV usage. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) will be used for
demographic data and specific choice queries, facilitating straightforward
statistical analysis. Open-ended questions were included to gather qualitative
insights on user experiences and suggestions for improvements, providing depth to
the quantitative data.
4.5. Variable and Measurement
In the study of electric vehicle (EV) adoption in Cambodia, accurately defining
and measuring variables is essential to obtain valid and actionable insights.
Variables in this study are categorized into independent variables (IVs) which
represent the factors influencing EV adoption, and dependent variables (DVs)
which depict the outcomes of these influences.
Independent Variables (IVs) :
- Economic Challenges (EC): Refers to the financial aspects affecting the
purchase and maintenance of EVs, such as the cost of acquisition and
upkeep.
- Infrastructure Challenges (IC): Involves the availability and accessibility of
necessary infrastructure like charging stations.
- Operational Challenges (OC): Encompasses aspects that affect the daily
operation of EVs, including charging time and vehicle range.
- Market Dynamics (MD): Concerns market factors such as consumer
awareness and resale value perceptions.
- Technical and Service Challenges (TSC): Pertains to the availability and
quality of technical support and services post-purchase.
Dependent Variables (DVs):
- Adoption Rate (AR): The percentage of EVs adopted compared to other
types of vehicles.
- User Satisfaction (US): The level of user satisfaction with their EV,
encompassing aspects of performance, reliability, and cost-effectiveness.
- Usage Patterns (UP): How frequently and under what conditions the EVs
are used.
4.5.1. Measurement of Variables
Table 6. Measurement of Variables

Variable Code Measurement Source

1. Control Variable (General Questions about Demographics)

Age Group:
Demographics DM01
- 18 – 35 years old
- 36 – 55 years old
- 56 – 75 years old
- Over 75 years old
Gender
DM02
- Male
- Female
- Other
- Prefer not to say
 Education Level:
DM03
- Undergraduate
- Graduate
- Master
- PhD
Monthly Income:
DM04
- Less than $200
- $200 – $500
- $500 – $1,000
- $1,000 – $3,000
- $3,000 – $8,000
- More than $8,000
Occupation
DM05
- Government Official/state
enterprise employee
- Company employee/ employee -
Self-employed/ merchant
- Student
- Other
Residential Location
DM06
- Urban area
- Suburban area
- Rural area
Duration of EV Usage
DM07
- Less than 1 year
- 2 - 3 years
- Over 3 years

2. Independent Variables

How influential was the initial

EC01
purchase price in your decision to
Economic Challenges purchase an electric vehicle?

Infrastructure Challenges IC01

Operational Challenges OC01
Market Dynamics MD01

Technical and Service Challenges TSC01

 3. Dependent Variables

Adoption Rate IV07

User Satisfaction IV08
Usage Patterns IV09

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