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TOPIC FIVE: MOTIVATION IN LEARNING 6 Hours

Welcome to topic five which focuses on the following sections:

Section 1: Definition of motivation

Section 2: Types of motivation & Motivational Process
Section 3: Factors that influence motivation
Section 4: Theories of motivation
Section 5: Application of motivation to Learning

Motives

Motives may be defined as drives or impulses within an individual. It implies something within a
person which prompts him into action. Motives are expressions of a person's needs or wants and hence
they are personal or internal, Motives or needs start and maintain activity and determine the behaviour
of an individual. Motives provide direction to human behaviour as they are directed towards certain
conscious or sub-conscious goals. A goal is an outward stimulus for the motive to work.

Motivation

The term motivation has been derived from the word motive. Motivation therefore refers to the internal
processes and external incentives that inspire an individual to work efficiently to satisfy his needs,
motives and desired ends.
Motivational Process.

Motivational process is the result of an interaction between human needs and incentives. A person feels
motivated when available incentives lead to the satisfaction of his motives or needs. An incentive is
something which an individual perceives in his environment as helpful towards the attainment of his
goal. This could be financial or non-financial.

Steps in the process of motivation are described below

1 Awareness of Needs.

Needs or motives of a person are the starting point in the motivational process. Motives are directed
towards the realization of certain goals which in turn determine the behaviour of individuals. This
behaviour leads to goal-directed behaviour. In other words, awareness of unsatisfied needs creates
tension in the mind of a person

2 Search for Action

In order to relieve his tension and to satisfy his needs, the individual looks for a suitable action. He
develops certain goals and makes an attempt to achieve them.

3 Fulfillment of Need

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In case the individual is successful in his attempt, his need is satisfied and he feels motivated. If the
attempt is unsuccessful the need remains unsatisfied and the individual engages himself in search for a
new action. He will engage himself in constructive or defensive behaviour

4. Discovery of new Need.

Once one need is fulfilled, some other need will emerge and the individual will set a new goal. This
process continues to work within an individual because human needs are unlimited.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation stems from the desire to be effective and to perform certain behaviour for its own
sake. The learner enjoys the activity being performed because it brings a sense of satisfaction. Intrinsic
motivators include; challenge, curiosity, control and fantasy

Extrinsic Motivation

This type depends on rewards that are external to the action itself. The learner does something in order to
earn a reward from a teacher, please the teacher or avoid punishment. Extrinsic motivators include;
feedback (knowledge of results), reward and punishment, cooperation and competition.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT MOTIVATION IN CLASS

Desire for love, approval and appreciation from the teacher and peers. Children strive to succeed in
school to win the confidence and approval of both adults and peers.This approval gives them a measure
of personal worthiness and this increases their level of motivation.

Desire for mastery. Children have the strongest urge towards mastery of a problem and satisfaction of
performing with skill. This desire to increase their knowledge skills, or talent to a set level motivates
them to learn new things.

Desire to be like the teacher. Children at whatever level like identifying themselves with significant
adults in their lives and thus imitate them. This desire motivates them to learn especially when the
teacher is the one in control of the learning environment.

Learning readiness. Children learn easily the things, which they are developmentally ready to learn.
Manageable tasks thus motivate them.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

The underlying basis of these theories

a) All actions performed by an individual are regarded as behavior ; this includes language
b) behavior occurs in response to stimuli which promotes or decreases it
c) Learning occurs in response to reinforcement which is either provided extrinsically by the
environment or intrinsically by the behavior.
d) A positive reinforcement must be carefully selected to be appropriate to the individual and must
be correctly and consistently used.

Abraham Maslow’s Motivational theory as a factor of personality Development

(The Hierarchy of Needs)

Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) believed human beings are born with weak instincts which become
specific needs. If these needs are not satisfied then they will control the individuals’ personalities,
therefore influencing their motivation; for example, if a person is hungry and needs food, he will

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be motivated to look for food. When a need is satisfied, it is no longer a need. For example, if a person
has just eaten hunger as not a need at that time.

Maslow also believed that some needs are stronger than others; that is, there are some needs which have
to be fulfilled before others. He believed that a person does not feel the third need until the second need
has been satisfied. He further argued that psychological needs, that is, the need for water, air, clothing,
shelter and sex were the strongest. These were followed by safety needs, needs for love and affection,
self-esteemed and self- actualization, in that order. He therefore, came up with what is known as
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs which has five classes of needs that can be illustrated using a pyramid as
shown in the figure below:

DIAGRAM

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human needs

SelfActualiza
tion

needs
Power prestige
and other higher
social
needscalled ego
Loveneeds
and belongingness
or esteem
needs

Safety and security needs

Physiological needs and other basic needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

1) Physiological needs.
Physiological needs are the lowest on Maslow's hierarchy and they include food, clothing, sleep, air and
shelter. In a job scenario, these needs can be equated to pay practices and basic working conditions (e.g.,
heat, air conditioning, eating facilities, cleanliness and noise level). The individual moves up the ladder
once these needs are fulfilled.

Relevance In School -A school can help individuals satisfy their needs by providing a conducive learning
environment eg. clean dormitories, enough food of balanced diet. Provide school fees loans or even scholarships
to teaching staff.

2) Safety and Security needs

After fulfilling physiological needs, an employee in an organization will strive to fulfill safety needs which include:
the need to be free from danger either from other people or the environment, job security, security against
diseases, misfortune, old age and against industrial injury. In the workplace, individuals view these needs in
terms of such aspects as safe working conditions, salary increases, job security, and an acceptable level
of fringe benefits to provide for health, and protection.

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Relevance In School -clear school routine, fair school rules, security against diseases, misfortune, and against
injury. safe sleeping conditions, an acceptable level of healthy conditions like clean water and sanitation

3) Social (love and belonging) needs

As an employee moves up the ladder, he feels the need to love and to be loved as well as the need to be
identified and belong to a group. He feels the desire to work in a cohesive group and develop a sense of
belonging and identification with a group. Every employee wants to feel that he is wanted or accepted in a
formal and/or informal group and that he is not an alien facing a hostile group. Belonging to informal work
groups often satisfies social needs.

Relevance In School -Belonging to informal study groups often satisfies social needs.

-Teachers should show sincere interest in students

-Create an environment where students encounter frequent personal interaction
-Create group discussions and numerous clubs/societies

4) Esteem (Ego and status) needs

In an organization, employees reflect these needs in their desire for respect, status and recognition,
prestige in the work- group or work - place, need for achievement, self - confidence and the need for
knowledge and competence. On the job, this means praise for a well- done job or promotion and a feeling by
the employee that at all times, he has the recognition and respect of his supervisor as a person and as a
contributor to the achievement of the organization's goals and objectives.

Relevance In School-- praise for a well done task or promotion to next class
-satisfying such needs through titles, verbal praise and promotion.
-provide variety in work assignments and recognize their accomplishment.
-provide opportunities for students to move up their career ladder.

5 Self - actualization needs

This is the highest need on Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It is the upper most level need which when
satisfied, makes the employee give up dependence on others or environment. He becomes growth-oriented,
self-directed, detached and creative.

Relevance In School:

It is the uppermost level need which when satisfied, makes the student give up dependence on others or
environment. He becomes growth-oriented, self-directed, detached and creative.
Create meaningful challenges like assignments and class projects present creative assignments.
Teachers should help promote self development by providing opportunities for research and application of such
results to what students have learnt in class.

Application of Maslow’s theory to real life and academic situations

According to Maslow, human motivation is described by the hierarchy of needs. First, one requires
food, water, safety, and other basic needs of survival. When these are met, one then seeks meaningful
relationships and prestige. It is only when these are met that one tries to self-actualize.

The satisfaction or non-satisfactions of development is what Maslow calls a syndrome. Syndromes such
as insecurity, lack of self-esteem and self-actualization can be seen in practically everything that a
person does, feels or thinks. When, for example, a person’s need for security has not been met, the
person becomes worried and nervous but when they are met, the individual becomes confident and feels
secure. Another example is when an individual feels esteem needs are satisfied and other people respect

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and recognize him, then he will feel and act in a self-esteem manner. Satisfaction or non-satisfaction of
needs will, therefore, influence individual’s personalities.

When working with young children, we should realize that if the children’s needs have not been met,
then it may be very difficult for them to participate in activities in school and also with other children.
For example, a child who is starving cannot concentrate on what a teacher is teaching in the classroom.
Children’s physiological needs should, therefore, be met. In addition, when safety needs are not met,
then it is useless to try and engage children in activities; for example, if a child is afraid of a teacher and
does not feel safe in the teacher’s presence, then this child will not be able to concentrate on what the
teacher is saying. Consequently, it is important to ensure security at homes and schools and to eliminate
bullying of children and other forms of abuse directed to them.

Children should be made to feel that they are loved and they belong; for example, belonging to a
school, classroom or home. Parents, teachers and guardians should, therefore, try to love all children
equally and avoid treating some children badly. Group work among children should also be encouraged
so that children can interact with one another and feel that they are part of a group that is working
together to achieve a certain goal.

In order to promote self-esteem in children, parents, guardians and teachers should recognize and praise
children who do well. In a school, for example, during the school assembly, teachers can give a present
to a child who has done well. The child will feel happy and prestigious because all his peers saw him
getting the reward. Young children who do well should also be praised as this helps them realize that
their efforts are recognised.

Children can also be made to realize that it is not impossible to self- actualize. Parents, teachers and
guardians should tell children about people who have self-actualized. Children should, essentially, be
told that they also have the potential to be the best in anything they do by being inspired, given hope
and encouraged to engage in socially acceptable and useful tasks.

General Applications of Theories of Motivation

1) Education
Motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in
student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of
education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in
other fields. Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated
motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.
Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation should be used in a school set up. Intrinsic motivation occurs
when students are internally motivated to read because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is
important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant. Extrinsic motivation comes into play
when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or
her (like money or good grades).
Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how they behave towards
subject matter. It can:
i) Direct behavior toward particular goals
ii) Lead to increased effort and energy
iii) Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
iv) Enhance cognitive processing
v) Determine what consequences are reinforcing
vi) Lead to improved performance.

2) Workplace
At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as physiological needs, money is a motivator;
however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period ( in accordance

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with Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation). At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect,
recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as
Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation proposes. Motivated employees always look for better ways to
do a job. Motivated employees are more quality oriented and more productive. The average workplace
is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a
dead-end strategy, and naturally staff is more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve
than the threat side. Motivation is a powerful tool in the work environment that can lead to employees
working at their most efficient levels of production. Nonetheless, there are three common character
types of subordinates: ascendant, indifferent, and ambivalent all of whom react and interact uniquely,
and must be treated, managed, and motivated accordingly. An effective leader must understand how to
manage all characters, and more importantly the manager must utilize avenues that allow room for
employees to work, grow, and find answers independently. Three main orientations in the concept of
orientation to work have been distinguished: instrumental (where work is a means to an end),
bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and solidaristic (which
prioritises group loyalty). Other theories stress cultural differences and the fact that individuals tend to
be motivated by different factors at different times. Scientific management bases human motivation
wholly on extrinsic rewards. Satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental
motivations. Research establishes that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very
important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Further findings
indicate that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel
important. This can be achieved by giving employees freedom to make decisions on the job and paying
greater attention to informal work groups. This model was named the Hawthorne effect and it proposes
the following: Allowing employees to participate, Linking rewards to performance, Rewarding of
nominators

B) MCCLELLAND AND ATKINSON’S THEORIES ON ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

The needs’ theory of motivation

Through this theory, David McClelland with his associates have contributed to the understanding of
motivation by identifying three types of basic motivating needs. These are achievement, power, and af-
filiation. They are mainly arousal- based and socially developed motives.

The relative intensity of these motives varies between individuals. It also tends to vary between
different occupations. The theory has particular reference to industrial enterprises since the motives have
much to do with the success and failure of an enterprise.

They are defined as follows:

1. Need for Achievement

Need for achievement is characterized by the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards,
to strive to succeed.

Some people have a compelling drive to succeed. They strive for personal achievement rather than the
rewards of success per se. They have a desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been
done before.

Categories of high achievers

McClelland identified four characteristics of people with a strong achievement need (n-Ach) as follows;

Moderate task difficulty;

They prefer moderate task difficulty and goals as an achievement incentive. This provides the best
opportunity of proving they can do better. If the task is too difficult or too risky, it would reduce the

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chances of success and of gaining need satisfaction. If the course of action is too easy or too safe, there
is little challenge in accomplishing the task and little satisfaction from success.

Personal responsibility for performance

They prefer personal responsibility for performance. They like to attain success through the focus of
their own abilities and efforts rather than by team work or chance factors outside their control. Personal
satisfaction is derived, from the accomplishment of the task, and recognition needs not to come from
other people.

The need for feedback

They have the need for clear and unambiguous feedback on how well they are performing. Knowledge
of results within a reasonable time is necessary for self-evaluation. Feedback enables them to determine
success or failure in the accomplishment of their goals, and to derive satisfaction from their activities.

Innovativeness

They are more innovative. As they always seek moderately challenging tasks they tend, always to be
moving on to something a little more challenging. There is a constant search for variety and for
information to find new ways of doing things. They are more restless and avoid routine. Some people
rate very highly in achievement motivation. They are challenged by opportunities and work hard to
achieve a goal. Other people rate very low in achievement motivation. They do not care much and have
little urge to achieve.

McClelland believed that a need for achievement can be fostered through appropriate training. Schools need to
create training programmes that teach students to think like high achievers, increase personal feedback to them and
develop a group spirit that reinforces high effort and success.

Because need for achievement drives people to act on the basis of an internally induced stimulus rather than
relying on externally imposed motivators, there are several implications for school managers that:-

i) Since the need for achievement can be taught and have been positively related to higher work performance,
schools can consider having students undergo a training to stimulate this need.
ii) An understanding of the concepts behind the need for achievement and the characteristics that individuals high
on it seek, can assist schools in designing curriculum with maximum motivational properties.

2. Need for affiliation.

Need for affiliation is characterized by the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

It refers to the need for human companionship. Individuals high on affiliation, when compared to those who are low on
affiliation show the following characteristics:-

a) They are generally concerned about the feelings of other people.

b) As a result of their concern, they are able to establish friendship easily.
c) They show socially desired behaviour as they tend to seek reassurance and approval from others.
d) They tend to spend time on making themselves presentable, particularly to those whose friendship they seek.

3. Need for power.

Need for power is characterized by the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have
behaved otherwise

It is a desire by individuals to control one's environment including the human resources. As compared to those who
are low on power, high power individuals:

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(i) Tend to exercise power impulsively.

(ii) Do not hesitate to exploit others.

(iii) Are institutions - minded and tend to get ejected in many offices.

(iv) Like to collect symbols of personal prestige such as latest and fancy cars, flashy clothing, ornamental offices
and so on. Most managers on need for power are generally very demanding in work situations and they like to control
and make unsolicited suggestions to others.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

The productive output of an individual in relation to a task is primarily determined by his motivational structure. This
structure itself is based on various types of needs which are constantly changing.

Students who are in need of power can become successful leaders if they could be trained to develop self - control
so that their desire to control does not interfere with interpersonal relationships.

Besides creating a climate for work, a good teacher needs to be a counselor of students. He has to interact with different
need patterns. He may encounter very efficient students poor students, problem creators, and all kinds of individuals. He
has to be sensitive to these individual differences and motivate individually through guidance and counselling.

INSTINCT THEORY

Psychologist Willam Modougall was one of the first to write about the instinct theory of
motivation. He suggested that instinctive behaviour was composed of three essential elements
including perception, behaviour, and emotion. Instinct means a complex or inherited or
ulearned behaviour pattern characteristics of a species’
Instinct theory is derived from our biological make-up. All creatures are born with specific
innate knowledge about how to survive. Animals are born with the capacity and often time’s
knowledge of how to survive by spinning webs, building nests, avoiding danger, and
reproducing. These innate tendencies are preprogramed at birth, they are in our genes, and even
if the spider never saw a web before, never witnessed its creation, it would still know how to
create one. Humans have the same types of innate tendencies. Babies are born with a unique
ability that allows them to survive; they are born with the ability to cry. Without this, how
would others know when to feed the baby, know when he needed changing, or when she
wanted attention and affection? Crying allows a human infant to survive. We are also born
with particular reflexes which promote survival. The most important of these include sucking,
swallowing, coughing, blinking. New born can perform physical movements to avoid pain;
they will turn their head if touched on their cheek and search for a nipple (rooting reflex); and
they will grasp an object that touches the palm of their hands.
The instinct theory of motivation views biological or genetic programming as the cause of
motivation. This claim means that all humans have the same motivations due to our similar
biological programming. This theory says that the root of all motivations is the motivation to
survive. From our motivation to survive all other motivations emerge and as we act or behave
with this kind of motivation all our actions are considered as instinct. A common example used

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to explain the instinct theory is that human mother will attempt to provide comfort to a baby
who has been all night and will not sleep until she sees that the baby is calm and asleep.
According to instinct theory mothers behave this way because they were biologically
programmed to do so. It is a mother’s instinct to provide comfort to her child

THE INCENTIVE THEORY

An incentive is an external reward which is tangible or intangible which is presented after the
occurrence of an action (i.e. behaviour) with the intent to cause the behaviour to occur again.
This is done by associating positive results to the behaviour. This theory is promoted by
famous behavioural psychologist such as B.F.Skinner and emphasis that if actions are
positively received, people are more likely to carry them again and again while if they are
negatively received people avoid carrying out those action or behaviours again
For example employees are presented with a pay cheque at the end of the month which acts as
an incentive for them to continue working. Studies show that if the person receives the reward
immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as the duration lengthens. Repetitive
action-reward combination can cause the action to become habit.

DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY

The Drive Reduction theory commonly known as Hull's Drive Reduction Theory grows out of
the concept that we have certain biological drives, such as hunger that when not satisfied create
a biological imbalance in the body. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it is not
satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying the (in this case hunger), drive the drive's
strength is then reduced. Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when
preparing food, the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as
the food is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger.
Thus specific behaviour is activated in an individual with the goal of reducing these drives.

AROUSAL THEORY

Similar to Hull's Drive Reduction Theory, Arousal theory states that we are driven to maintain
a certain level of arousal in order to feel comfortable. Arousal refers to a state of emotional,
intellectual, and physical activity. It is at a balanced or optimal level of arousal that people
function best. If the levels of arousal are too low people strive to raise them by increasing the
number of activities and vice versa. For example going to watch a game, movies etc. Similarly
if arousal levels are high the person is likely to seek ways in which he can bring it down,
example, ways that makes him relax such as meditating, reading a book.
One of the key assumptions of arousal theory is that we are motivated to pursue actions that
will help us maintain an ideal balance The theory explains why people climb mountains, go to
school, or watch sad movies.

COGNITIVE THEORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Cognitive theory is a theory of psychology which defines human behaviour by understanding

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thought. It assumes that human beings make choices which make sense to them the most.
Cognitive theory describes mental process as information processing thereby comparing the
human mind to a computer. Cognitive theory includes expectancy theory and the goal setting
theory of motivation.
Expectancy theory explains why an individual chooses one behavioural option over others. On
the other hand goal setting theory of motivation states the importance of creating goals in
motivating a person.
i. Expectancy theory

It was proposed by Victor H Vroom in 1964. Expectancy theory explicates the behavioural
process in which a person selects a behavioural option over another, and how this decision is
made in relation to their aim and achieving this goals. In this theory three variables were
introduced by Vroom to explain the said behavioural process. This includes V for Valence, E
for Expectancy and I for Instrumentality.

ii. Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Suggested by Leon Festinger; dissonance occurs when an individual experiences some degree
of discomfort resulting from an incompatibility between two cognitions. For example, a
consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that
another decision may have been preferable. Another example of cognitive dissonance is when
a belief and a behaviour are in conflict. A person may wish to be healthy, believes smoking is
bad for one's health, and yet continues to smoke. A person may also believe that an extra
marital is immoral though he/she is in one for certain benefits. This creates a dissonance or
disharmony in the person which can only be reduced if the individual changes their way of
looking at things or avoids the behaviour that is contradicting the belief system. Here an
individual‘s accruing behaviour is aimed at dissonance reduction.

Congratulations! We can now move to topic six

Dr. J. NABISWA KIBU 2023/2024 PSY 211 UNIT 7 & UNIT 8 GUIDE NOTES