COURSE NAME- ANTENNA & WAVE PROPAGATION LAB

COURSE CODE- 6EC4-22

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

 Antenna and Wave Propagation Lab

RTU Syllabus
Practical hrs – 2 Class: B.Tech. III Yr. VI Sem. Branch: ECE
External Marks: 40 Internal Marks: 60 Total Marks: 100
Syllabus
S.No. List of Experiments
1 Plot gain pattern and calculate HPBW, FNBW and Directivity of a dipole antenna.

2 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a folded dipole antenna

3 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a loop antenna

4 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, VSWR, input impedance and reflection

coefficient for given Monopole antenna

5 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, VSWR, input impedance and reflection

coefficient for given Yagi antennas

6 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a horn antenna.

7 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a reflector antenna.

8 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, VSWR and input impedance of a rectangular

microstrip patch antenna.

9 Analyze the effect of inset feed on the input impedance of a rectangular patch antenna.

10 Analyze the effect of ground plane on the radiation pattern of a rectangular patch
antenna.

11 Study antenna designing in HFSS.

12. Design Microstrip Patch Antenna for 4GHz using HFSS.

PART-II (Optical Fiber)

To perform following experiments based on Fiber Optic Trainer.

13 To set up Fiber Optic Analog link and Digital link.

14 Measurement of Propagation loss and numerical aperture.

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S.No. List of Experiments

1 Plot gain pattern and calculate HPBW, FNBW and Directivity of a dipole antenna.

2 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a folded dipole antenna

3 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a loop antenna

4 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, VSWR, input impedance and reflection

coefficient for given Monopole antenna

5 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, VSWR, input impedance and reflection

coefficient for given Yagi antennas

6 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a horn antenna.

7 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a reflector antenna.

8 Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, VSWR and input impedance of a rectangular

microstrip patch antenna.

9 Analyze the effect of inset feed on the input impedance of a rectangular patch antenna.

10 Analyze the effect of ground plane on the radiation pattern of a rectangular patch
antenna.

11 Study antenna designing in HFSS.

12. Design Microstrip Patch Antenna for 4GHz using HFSS.

PART-II (Optical Fiber)

To perform following experiments based on Fiber Optic Trainer.

13 To set up Fiber Optic Analog link and Digital link.

14 Measurement of Propagation loss and numerical aperture.

Beyond Curriculum Experiments

15 Measurement of circular polarization of helical antenna of frequency 10 GHz on

MAT-10 and measure its HPBW

16 Design a log periodic antenna of frequency 0.054-0.216GHz and gain of 7-11dB

using PCAAD.

Experiments beyond RTU syllabus:

6EC4-22. a: Measurement of circular polarization of helical antenna of frequency 10

GHz on MAT-10 and measure its HPBW.

6EC4-22. b: Design a log periodic antenna of frequency 0.054-0.216GHz and gain of

7-11dB using PCAAD.

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Introduction of Lab
The purpose of this laboratory is to introduce students to several different types of
antennas and their characteristics. Specifically, they will study and characterize common
antennas used in practice: a half-wavelength dipole, folded dipole, monopole, and a
microstrip rectangular patch antenna, horn antennas, reflector antennas.

They will learn how to characterize the following characteristics of antennas:

 Input impedance, input reflection coefficient, VSWR, gain.

 Radiation patterns, and the principal planes in which the patterns are measured (E-
plane and H-plane)
 Polarization.
 Designing antennas on HFSS software.
 Analyzing optical links and measurement of different parameters.

Antenna & Wave propagation laboratory course flow process:

To start with this laboratory session, initially all students are told to study basics of
antenna and trained to use the apparatus like ST2261, ST2263, MAT-10. Thorough
understanding of ST2261 is mandatory for proceeding with the courseware. In ST2261
trainer kit, the transmitter mast is used to mount different antennas of 750MHz frequency
which generate the current. Also it has detector assembly with current reading meter, RF
generator, impedance matching, tone generator, stub matching etc., so the students should
be made familiar to it first. The Reading at the detector assembly (which is folded dipole
with reflector) meter is the measure of the received current.

Also the design aspects of antennas are carried out through HFSS and PCAAD
software’s. There after the conduction of the experiments are started to verify and test the
performance of the antennas based on different antennas parameters. The generated
radiation patterns are plotted on polar plots provided to students and the results are further
calculated. Instructions to the students are given in the start of this document which they
are advised to read before they start conducting experiments.

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Introduction to antennas

Definition of antenna: An antenna can be defined in the following different ways:

1. An antenna may be a piece of conducting material in the form of a wire, rod or

any other shape with excitation.
2. An antenna is a source or radiator of electromagnetic waves.

3. An antenna is a sensor of electromagnetic waves.

4. An antenna is a transducer.
5. An antenna is an impedance matching device.
6. An antenna is a coupler between a generator and space or vice-versa.

Fig.no.1: Transmitting Antenna and Receiving Antenna.

Fig.no.2: Types of Antennas

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Important antenna performance parameters

1. Reflection Coefficient: The reflection coefficient is a parameter that describes how

much of an electromagnetic wave is reflected by an impedance discontinuity in the
transmission medium. It is equal to the ratio of the amplitude of the reflected wave
to the incident wave. So reflection coefficient can be written as:

………………………..(1)

The reflection coefficient also corresponds directly to a specific impedance seen at

the point, it is measured. A input impedance of Z at the antenna port and the
reference impedance at one port corresponds to a reflection coefficient of

…………………………………………….(2)
where, Z=input impedance;
=Reference or characteristic impedance (50 ohms will be considered here)

2. VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio): VSWR is a measure of how efficiently

radio-frequency power is transmitted from a power source, through a transmission
line, into a load (for example, from a power amplifier through a transmission line, to
an antenna). The VSWR is an indication of the amount of mismatch between an
antenna and the feed line connecting to it. The range of values for VSWR is from 1
to ∞. A VSWR value under 2 is considered suitable for most antenna
applications. VSWR measurement describes the voltage standing wave pattern that
is present in the antenna due to the phase addition and subtraction of the incident
and reflected waves. The ratio is defined by the maximum standing wave amplitude
versus the minimum standing wave amplitude OR “The VSWR can be calculated
from the reflection coefficient” with the equation below:

……………………………………………………….…….(3)

3. Antenna Input Impedance:

The important quantity to consider is an antenna’s input impedance, since an RF
system (with its own impedance) needs to eventually interface to the antenna. It
wouldn’t be any good if the antenna couldn’t be impedance-matched to the rest of
the system since an impedance mismatch would produce reflection and hence result
in inefficient power transfer to/from the antenna. In general, the antenna’s input
impedance can be written as

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= + ……………………………….(4)

We see that, present a way for real power to be dissipated by the antenna, either
as ohmic loss (er) or radiation. Real power is dissipated in both cases and allows
power to be stored by the antenna, which we know happens from near-field analysis.

OR

It can be calculated by equating reflection coefficient and VSWR as

according to formula given below:

= Г ................................................................ (5)

where, Z=input impedance;

=Reference or characteristic Impedance (always to be 50 ohms)

Г = reflection coefficient.

4. Radiation Pattern
The radiation pattern of an antenna is a graphical representation of the radiation
properties of the antenna. Graphically, we surround the antenna by a sphere and
evaluate the electric / magnetic fields (far field radiation fields) at a distance equal to
the radius of the sphere. The radiation from the antenna takes place when the
Electromagnetic field generated by the source is transmitted to the antenna system
through the Transmission line and separated from the Antenna into free space.
 Minor lobes, which are any lobes other than the main lobe in the pattern, which
includes sidelobes and back lobes. They are generally undesirable since radiation in
the sidelobes reduces power radiated in the desired direction.
 When characterizing the main lobe, it is possible to quantify it according to its half-
power beamwidth (HPBW), which is analogous to the half-power bandwidth (-3
dB point) we are used to finding for filters, except that it is for spatial angles.
 Similarly, another important parameter about the radiation pattern is the first null
beamwidth (FNBW), which is the angular spread between the first two nulls in the
pattern.

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Fig.no.3: Radiated fields evaluated on an imaginary sphere surrounding a dipole

Very often we will plot antenna patterns in dB, which is inherently a power plot.
This can be used to extract fine features of the antenna pattern on a logarithmic scale
i.e.

F(θ, φ)|dB = 20 log |F(θ, φ)| .................................. (6)

Usually they are drawn in two principal 2-D planes which are orthogonal to each
other (E- and H- planes). Eplane(H-plane) is usually the plane in which there are
maximum electric (magnetic) fields for a linearlypolarized antenna.

Fig.no.4. End-view of waveguide showing E- and H- planes

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Fig.5a: Radiation patterns (polar plot) for an arbitrary antenna

Fig.no.5b: Radiation patterns (linear plot) for an arbitrary antenna

Procedure for plotting radiation on polar plot is as follows:

1. Set the components and equipments as shown in Fig.no.6.

2. Mount transmitting antenna under test on transmitter mast and receiving antenna
(detector) on recceievr mast, keeping the axis ofboth antennas in the same axis line.
To satisfy the ‘Far-field Pattern’ minimum distance between antennas should be

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(2D2/λ0) where D is distane between transmitter and reciver antenna and λ0 is the free
space wavelength.

3. The variable attenuator is set accordingly for maximum deflection at the current
meter (µA).

4. The amplifier (Klystron or Gunn diode:inbuilt) is set for maximum sensitivity.

5. Align the antennas at 0directions. Notice that antennas must be similarly

‘polarized’.

6. Attenuator is adjusted for deflection near maximum (possibly at 0-dB).

7. Using a goniometer at tramsmitter mast, rotate the transmitter antenna about

thecentre. Set the angle to 10, 20, 30till 360. Record the meter reading in each
case. They are plotted on a graph sheet like Fig.

8. The 3-dB beam-width of the antenna for E- and H-planes are found out from the
graph (as themeter reading is proportional to received power, consequently 3 dB,
half power, means that themeter reading is half the maximum reading).

Fig.no.6: Typical chart for plotting radiation patterns (choose proper scale for your
radiation pattern plots)

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3. Far-Field Pattern
The radiation pattern differs when measured close to the antenna and at a distance. It
is usually the latter condition which is of interest, referred to as the ‘far-field’. For
practical purposes, the far-field may be taken to start at a distance /λo from the
antenna, where D is distance between transmitter and receiver antenna, and λo is the
free-space wavelength. Radiation measurements are easily disturbed by reflections
from the ground and other objects. These problems are avoided as far as possible in
practice by using clear areas out of doors, or by using ‘anechoic chamber’, rooms
having walls specially designed to absorb radiation (pyramid shaped carbon-
impregnated polyurathene foams).

Antenna Pattern Types

1. Omnidirectional – radiation response is constant in one of the principal planes of

the antenna.
2. Isotropic – Antenna radiates equally in all directions in 3D space; theoretically
impossible to realize, but a useful reference for quantifying how directive real
antennas are.
3. Broadside – Main beam is normal to the plane or axis containing the antenna. An
example for an antenna oriented along the z-axis is shown in Figure 7(a).
4. Endfire – main beam is in the plane or parallel to the axis containing the antenna.
An example for an antenna oriented along the z-axis is shown in Figure 7(c)

Fig.no.7: Radiation pattern types.

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4. HPBW (Half Power Beam Width)-HPBW is also called‘3-dB beam width’ and it
is often used as a measure of the directivity of an antenna. It is the angle (HPBW in
Fig. 5.a and 5.b) between the two points on the main lobe at which the radiated
power density is half the maximum. The gain is generally the highest if the beam
width is narrow and the side lobes are small, so that all the power is sent in the
desired direction. An antenna which has these entire characteristic will also
generally be an efficient receiver of radiation.It is calculated as:

3-dB Beamwidth (HPBW) = Difference in angle between points on polar plot drawn
at 3 dB less to the max gain given by that particular antenna.

5. FNBW (First Null Beamwidth): Similarly, another important parameter about the
radiation pattern is the first null beamwidth (FNBW), which is the angular spread
between the first two nulls in the pattern.

6. Directivity
The directivity of an antenna is a measure of how much it concentrates power in a
given direction, assuming the antenna is 100% efficient. The directivity of the
antenna is always taken with respect to a known antenna, which is usually an
isotropic radiator. On rare occasions, sometimes a halfwave dipole is used as a
reference.
The directivity of an antenna is equal to the ratio of the maximum power density
(watts/square meter) to its average value overa sphere as observed in the
far field of the antenna.Thus

D= …………………………(7)

Here the average power density over a sphere is given by

= sinθdθdϕ ........................................ ,.(8)

= dῼ(watt/Sr) (where,Sr is steradian) ................... (9)

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= = = (Sr)...................................(10)

where, and = beam area

Hence, D = (Sr)................................................................(11)

The beam area of an antenna can often be described approximately in terms of the
angle subtended by the half power points of the mqain lobe in the two principal
planes.Thus beam area ≈ ≈ (Sr)
Hence in equation (a): 4П = solid angle subtended by a sphere in Sr.

Thus, 1 steradian =1Sr = …………………………………..(12)

=1 = ( )… ................................................ (13)

=3282.8064 square degrees.................................................... (14)

Therefore,4П steradians= 3282.8064 x 4П = 41, 252.96 ≈ 41,253 square degrees

= solid angle in a sphere
Hence,equation(a)becomes :

……………………………………….(15)

7. Gain:
The gain measurements require essentially the same environment as the pattern
measurements. We consider three, gain-measurement techniques. The first two
belong to the so-called absolute-gain measurements, and they are: the two-antenna
method, and the three-antenna method. The third method is called the gain-transfer
(or gain-comparison or relative gain measurement) method.

A) The two-antenna method: The two-antenna method is based on Friis

transmission equation, and it needs two identical samples of the tested antenna.
One is the radiating antenna, and the other one is receiving. Assuming that the

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antennas are well matched in terms of impedance and polarization, the Friis
transmission equation is

………………………………..(16)
Or in dB,

…………………………….(17)

One needs to know accurately the distance between the two antennas R, the received
power Pr, the transmitted power Pt , and the frequency fc = c/ λ .

B) The gain-comparison method: The gain-comparison method requires an

antenna whose gain is exactly known (called gain standard) and a transmitting
antenna whose gain does not need to be known. Two sets of measurements are
performed.
1) The test antenna is in receiving mode, and its received power is measured.
2) The gain standard is in receiving mode in exactly the same arrangement (the
distance R and the transmitted power P0 are kept the same), and its received
power is measured.
In both measurements, the receiving antennas must be matched to their loads (the
receiver). The calculation of the test antenna gain in dB uses Friis’ transmission
equation. The two measurements lead to the following system of equations:

…………………..(18)

…………………..…(19)

Here,
=is the gain of test antenna
= is the gain of standard antenna
= is the gain of transmitting antenna

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…………………………………(20)

If the test antenna is circularly or elliptically polarized, two orthogonal linearly

polarized gain standards must be used in order to obtain the partial gains
corresponding to each linearly polarized component. The total gain of the test
antenna is
……………………………....(21)

where is the dimensionless gain of the test antenna measured with the
vertically polarized gain standard and is the dimensionless gain of the test
antenna measured with the horizontally polarized gain standard.

C) The three-antenna method: The three-antenna method is used when only one
sample of the test antenna is available. Then, any other two antennas can be used to
perform three measurements, which allow the calculation of the gains of all three
antennas. All three measurements are made at a fixed known distance R between the
radiating and the transmitting antennas. It does not matter whether an antenna is in a
transmitting or in a receiving mode. What matters is that the three measurements
involve all three possible pairs of antennas: antenna #1 and antenna #2; antenna #1
and antenna #3; and, antenna #2 and antenna #3. The calculations are again based on
Friis transmission equation, which in the case of two different antennas (antenna #i
and antenna #j) measured during experiment #k ( k =1,2,3) becomes

+ =20 ( ) + 10 ( …………………………………(22)

The system of equations describing all three experiments are

+ =20 ( ) + 10 ( ………………………………….(23)

+ =20 ( ) + 10 ( …………………………………..(24)

+ =20 ( ) + 10 ( …………………………………..(25)

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The right-hand sides of the equations above are known if the distance R and the
ratios received-power/transmitted-power are known. Thus, the following system of
three equations with three unknowns is obtained.
+ =A………(26)
+ =B ............(27)
+ =C .......... (28)

So solutions for above equations are

= …………………….(29)

= …………………….(30)

= ……………………(31)

8. GAIN PATTERN: Similar to procedure of radiation pattern, by plotting all gain

points respective to each angle on polar plot, gain pattern can be obtained.

9. EFFICIENCY: It is the ratio of Gain to the Directivity of the antenna calculated

as:

…………………………………………(32)

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Description About Antenna Kits and Softwares

1. ST2261

The front panel of apparatus and its description is shown as below:

Fig.no.8: Antenna trainer kit ST2261 setup.

This main unit consists of: On board power DC Supply, RF generator, Tone generator,
Directional Coupler, Matching Stub, Goniometer (circular scale graduated in degrees for
antenna rotation)

1. RF Generator: Delivers a test signal to feed the antennas under test. The RF
Generator operates at a frequency of 750 MHz approx. The reason being reduced
size for antennas. The higher is the frequency, the smaller is the size of the
antennas and the size of trainer as a whole. It has following features:
 Knob adjustable output power level
 Facilities to match different load
 Modulating input (AM) which can be used with on board Tone generator.

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 Capability to stand indefinitely even heavily mismatched output (short or

open).

2. Tone Geneartor: This provides amplitude adjustable sinewave (appox 2vpp,

1KHz) for modulation of RF generator.

3. Directional Coupler: This allows separate metering of power flowing in forward

direction (generator to antenna) and the reverse direction (antenna to generator). It
si used to measure SWR in antennas.

4. Matching Stub: This is a trunk of the transmission line built on a PCB, provided
with a slide cursor shortening the line at presetable length from the other
end(input).

5. Goniometer: This is a circular scale graduated in 360degress. At the center of this

is located the BNC female connector leading the RF power to the antenna mast
and acts as pivot for the antenna mast. The base of the amst has reference index
mark matching the goinometer scale.

6. Detector Assembly: Used to detect and measure radiation pattern of antennas

under study. Features are:

 Completely passive instruments.

 No batteries required
 Folded dipole as receiving antenna, provided wih reflector to reduce
possible disturbance to the measurements due to refelection of waves form
objects and laboratory walls behind the detector.

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2. ST2263

Fig.no.9: Antenna trainer kit ST2263 setup

Technical Specifications
Transmitter Display : Alpha Numeric LCD display for Frequency &
Directional Coupler
Frequency Range : 450 MHz to 850 MHz
Resolution : 100 KHz/1 MHz/ 10 MHz/ 100 MHz selectable
Accuracy : 0.1%
Modulation : Internal / Ext
Modulation Generator: 1 KHz with Adjustable amplitude (0-12Vpp)
Voice link : Mic. Input provided
Directional Coupler : Forward & Reverse
RF Level : 100 dBμV approx. with level adjustment and 10dB
attenuation selectable switch
Level Accuracy : +/- 3 dB
Power : 230V +/-10% 50 Hz
Receiver Display : Alpha Numeric LCD display for RF Level
Measurement : In dB μV
Resolution : 0.1 dBμV
Dynamic Range : 200 dBμV (Adjustable)

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Voice link : Built In speaker

Power : 230V, +/-10% 50 Hz
Antenna Rotation : 0-360 Degrees, Resolution 1 Degree Transmitter &
Receiver masts provided

3. MAT-10

Fig.no.10: Microwave Antenna Training System MAT-10 setup.

Controls and Description

 UP:The push button is used to increase the angular position of stepper motor by
previously specified step size. it can be used to scroll the various options in menu
mode.
 DOWN: The push button is used to decrease the angular position of stepper motor
by previously specified step size. it can be used to scroll the various options in
menu mode.
 MENU: This push button is used to select the various modes of operation.
Pressing it once will blink the memory location. RF level stored at corresponding
locations will be displayed.Pressing menu again will blink step size mode in steps
of 1,5,10,45 degrees. Pressing menu again will blink the man/auto mode.Pressing
menu again will recall memory stored and pressing UP/DOWN button will change

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recall memory. Pressing menu further will bring serial mode. Entering YES will
start uploading data stored in memory locations into P.
 ENTER: This push buttons is used to store the settings in memory and select any
operating mode.
 ESCAPE: This push buttons is used to cancel the commands.
 IF IN: This is connected to IF out of DRO receiver. The down- converted signal
from DRO receiver is processed for measurements. The IF is replica of received
microwave signal from antenna at a much lower frequency.
 MOTOR: The stepper motor inside the monopod is connected at this port. The
MCU inside equipment supplies the pulses to stepper motor for angular rotation.
 DEMOD: This is the ASK demodulation output port. It has 0-5V digital output. It
is used for setting up microwave communication link.
 POWER SUPPLY: Two outputs are given with +5V supply for applying power
to DRO transmitter and DRO receiver. After connecting supply leads LED will
glow at Tx and Rx modules.
 TRIGGER OUT: This output gives pulse output every time stepper motor
reaches the displayed position in Auto mode.
 BEEP/READ: This buzzer is used to indicate that the motor has reached its
specified location and readings can be taken.
 LCD DISPLAY: This 16x2 alphanumeric LCD is used to display the angular
position of antenna and level of signal being received an dother parameters.
 STEP in DEG: This reda from LCD is used to indicate the angular step size of
motor rotation.
 LEVEL dBµV or dBm: This read from LCD is used to display the received
signal strength in dBµV or dBm. The dynamic range is about 80dB.
 ANGULAR POSITION DEGREES: This read from LCD is used to display the
angular position of motor monopod.
 RESET MODE=YES.

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4. HFSS software: HFSS is a high-performance full wave electromagnetic (EM) field

simulator for arbitrary 3D volumetric passive device modeling that takes advantage of the
familiar Microsoft Windows graphical user interface. It integrates simulation,
visualization, solid modeling, and automation in an easy to learn environment where
solutions to your 3D EM problems are quickly and accurate obtained. Ansoft HFSS
employs the Finite Element Method (FEM), adaptive meshing, and brilliant graphics to
give you unparalleled performance and insight to all of your 3D EM problems. Ansoft
HFSS can be used to calculate parameters such as S-Parameters, Resonant Frequency,
and Fields.
5. PCAAD software- “PERSONAL COMPUTER AIDED ANTENNA DESIGN-6.0”

is a windows compatible software package that contains over 45 separate routines for
analysis and design of wire antennas, array antennas, aperture antennas, microstrip
antennas, transmission lines and waveguides. The routines are integrated into a menu
driven, user friendly software package that allows you to quickly evaluate impedance and
pattern characteristics for a large variety of antenna geometries. Some of the main
features of PCAAD 6.0 include following:
1. A user friendly windows interface
2. Full 32 bit compiled software
3. Very simple and intuitive operation
4. Fast results for first cut designs
5. Graphic illustrations of each antenna geometry
6. Polar, rectangular and 3D pattern plots
7. Smith chart, VSWR and return loss plots for input impedance
8. Data file output for patterns and impedance matrices
9. Online help
10. Validation examples for each analysis routine.
It is intended for use by systems and design engineers, researchers and students who need
a quick solution to a canonical antenna design or analysis problem. Most of the routines
in PCAAD 6.0 involve basic antenna elements whose theory and characteristics are
roughly described in a no. of texts on antennas. All of the solutions used in PCAAD 6.0
are based on these results, or on similar well established and proven methods.

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Experiment no.-1
Aim: Plot gain pattern and calculate HPBW, FNBW and Directivity of a dipole
antenna.

Apparatus Required: Antenna Trainer ST2261.

Components Required: Dipole antenna, transmitter mast, receiver mast, detector

assembly(folded dipole with reflector as receiving antenna), measuring tape,
alliner/screwdriver, BNC-Tee.

Theory:
Definition: The half wave dipole is the most popular version of the dipole antenna
or aerial. As the name implies, the half wave dipole is a half wavelength long. This
is the shortest resonant length that can be used for a resonant dipole. The half wave
dipole is formed from a conducting element which is wire or metal tube which is an
electrical half wavelength long. The half wave dipole is normally fed in the middle
where the impedance falls to its lowest. In this way, the antenna consists of the
feeder connected to two quarter wavelength elements in line with each other.
It should be remembered that the length of the half wave dipole is an electrical half
wavelength for the wave travelling in the antenna conductors. This is slightly shorter
than the equivalent length of a wave travelling in free space as the antenna
conductors affect the wavelength.

Fig.no.1.1: Half wave dipole

Half wave dipole feed impedance- One of the major considerations with any
antenna is the feed arrangements to transfer the power from the feeder into the
antenna itself. Impedance matching, balanced or unbalanced and many other aspects

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need to be considered.In many aspects the half wave dipole is very easy to feed. The
feeder is normally connected to the center point is where there is a current maximum
and a voltage minimum. This results in the antenna presenting low impedance to the
feeder. This is much easier to feed because the high RF voltages associated with
high impedance feed arrangements can present many problems for feeders and
matching units.

The impedance for a half wave dipole antenna in free space is dipole 73 Ω which
presents a good match to 70Ω coaxial feeder and this is one of the reasons why coax
with this impedance was chosen for many applications. A half wave dipole is often
fed with a 50Ω feeder. The antenna often presents a very good match to this because
the proximity of other objects, like the Earth,antenna mounting, etc. means that the
impedance is lowered below the 73Ω it presents in free space.

Fig.no.1.2: Half Wave Dipole Antenna with 73Ω feeder.

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Half wave dipole length: The actual length of the half wave dipole is slightly
shorter than a half wavelength in free space because of a number of effects
associated with the fact that the RF waveform is carried within a wire and also most
likely not in a vacuum.Calculations for the for the length of the half wave dipole
antenna take into account elements such as the ratio of the thickness or diameter of
the conductor to the length, dielectric constant of the medium around the radiating
element and so forth. It is quite easy to calculate the length of a half wave dipole
using the simple formulae given below:

… ............................................................(1.1)

Where A is the area of half wave dipole and f is the frequency in hertz.

Calculation for gain, HPBW, FNBW and Directivity of a dipole antenna:

Formulas used are-

1. Gain : Through gain comparison method we have:

= x ....................................... (1.2)

Where: = half wave dipole under test

Reference antenna=Ideal half wave dipole

and (ideal half wave dipole)=2.16dB or 1.64 (known) ,

=73 ohm (known)

Now, = ............................................................................... (1.3)

where, = reflection coefficient =

= 50 ohm (known)

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hence in equation (3) calculate Z = = input impedance and substitute in equation

(2) and calculate gain from 0 to 360 degrees.

2. HPBW= Difference in angle between points on polar plot drawn at 3 dB less to

the max gain given by that particular antenna (refer “introduction to antenna” given
at Pg.no.18).

3. FNBW= angular spread between the first two nulls in the pattern.

4. Directivity=

………………………………………………..(1.4)

(refer “introduction to antenna” given at beginning of manual).

Procedure:-

1. Check power supply & turn the RF level to minimum and FS adjust to maximum.
Put coupler switch to FWD. Increase RF level gradually from minimum to
maximum. There will be indication in meter. Change the switch from FWD to REV
and see that meter has deflection. This confirms working of RF generator &
directional coupler.

2. Install transmitting antenna mast on the main unit with goniometer of trainer and
connect antenna under test(e.g. half wave dipole to be tested )on it in E plane.

3. Mount detector assembly on the detector stand in horizontal plane and measure &
keep 1.5m away from main unit through a measuring tape (For practical purposes,
the far-field may be taken to start at a distance /λo from the antenna, where D is

distance between transmitter and reciver, and λo is the free-space wavelength.).

Align both transmitting and receiving antenna in line keeping same heights.

4. Rotate the transmitting antenna between 0-360 (θ) and detector will indicate
different values of current in µA at every degree rotation to plot radiation pattern of
antenna.

5. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert readings in
dB in table1.1.

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6. Repeat the step no. 5 with a BNC-Tee bend to mount antenna in Hplane.

7. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert readings in
dB in table1.1.

Plot radiation pattern: (refer “introduction to antenna” given at Pg.no.14).

8. Through the formula calculate HPBW (E and H plane) from radiation pattern.

9. Through the formula calculate FNBW (E and H plane) from radiation pattern.

10. Through the formula calculate directivity.

11. In E plane condition keeping 1.5m distance between half wave dipole and receiver
measure forward and reverse current at transmitter mast and note in table 1.2 from
0-360 and calculate reflection coefficient and note the minimum value.

12. For Gain- connect reference antenna (ideal half wave dipole) at transmitter mast.

13. At transmitter set forward current at 40µA

14. Measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiever) with setting of detector

range accordingly.

15. Connect test antenna (half wave dipole to be tested) at transmitter mast.

16. Do not change any setting on transmitter and receiver and keep orientation to be
same.

17. Again measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiver).

18. Calculate all gain points by equation (1) respective to each angle in table 1.3 and on
polar plot, obtain gain pattern.

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Observation:

Table 1.1: For radiation pattern

S. Angle E Plane H Plane

NO.
(in Receiver dB Conversion Receiver dB Conversion
degree) current (µA) current(µA)
=20log(Receiver =20log(Receiver
current) current)

1. 0 e.g. 5.7 e.g. 15.11

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. 40

6. 50

7. ~360

Table 1.2: For reflection coefficient

S.No. Angle (in Forward current Reverse current (µA) Reflection

degree) (µA) Coefficient ( )

1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. ~360

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Table 1.3: For gain pattern

S. NO. Angle (in Receiver current of Receiver current =

degree) reference antenna of test antenna
(µA) (µA)
x

1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. ~360

Results :

1. The radiation pattern/gain pattern of the half-wave dipole is maximum

perpendicular to the conductor, falling to zero in the axial direction, thus
implementing an omnidirectional antenna if installed vertically or (more
commonly) a weakly directional antenna if horizontal.

2. HPBW of half wave dipole antenna (E and H plane) at resonant frequency 750
MHz is….and …….resp.
3. FNBW of antenna at resonant frequency 750 MHz is ,
4.Reflection coefficient calculated is……….
5.Directivity of half wave dipole calculated is……………

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Experiment no.-2
Aim: Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a folded dipole antenna.

Apparatus Required: Antenna Trainer ST2261.

Components Required: Folded dipole antenna, transmitter mast, receiver mast,

detector assembly (folded dipole with reflector as receiving antenna), measuring
tape, alliner /screwdriver, BNC-Tee.

Theory: A folded dipole is a dipole antenna with the ends folded back around and
connected to each other, forming a loop as shown in Figure 2.1 and fig.2.2.
Typically, the width d of the folded dipole antenna is much smaller than the
length L.

Fig.no.2.1: Folded dipole

Because the folded dipole forms a closed loop, the folded dipole antenna behaves as
two parallel short-circuited transmission lines of length L/2 (separated at the
midpoint by the feed in Fig2.2). It turns out the impedance of the folded dipole
antenna will be a function of the impedance of a transmission line of length L/2.
Also, because the folded dipole is "folded" back on itself, the currents can reinforce
each other instead of cancelling each other out, so the input impedance will also
depend on the impedance of a dipole antenna of length L. The main advantage of
a folded dipole over a regular dipole is that the impedance (~300 Ohms) better
matches’ common 300 Ohm balance 'twin lead' feed line. In some cases, a folded
dipole can have some additional directivity (more sensitive in one direction over
another) and sometimes not.

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Fig.no.2.2: A folded Dipole Antenna of length L

Calculation for gain, HPBW of a folded dipole antenna:

Formulas used are-

1. Gain : Through gain comparison method we have:

= x ………(2.1)

Where: Reference antenna=Ideal Half wave Dipole

and (ideal half wave dipole)=2.16dB or 1.64 (known)

=73 ohm (known)

Now, = ...................................... (2.2)

where, = reflection coefficient =

= 50 ohm (known)

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hence in equation (2) calculate Z = = input impedance and substitute in equation

(1) and calculate gain from 0 to 360 degrees.

2. HPBW= Difference in angle between points on polar plot (on radiation

pattern)drawn at 3 dB less to the max gain given by that particular antenna(refer

“introduction to antenna” given at Pg.no.18).

Procedure:-

1. Check power supply & turn the RF level to minimum and FS adjust to maximum.
put coupler switch to FWD. Increase RF level gradually from minimum to
maximum. There will be indication in meter. Change the switch from FWD to REV
and see that meter has deflection. This confirms working of RF generator &
directional coupler.

2. Install transmitting antenna mast on the main unit with goniometer of trainer and
connect antenna under test(e.g. folded dipole )on it in E plane.

3. Mount detector assembly on the detector stand in horizontal plane and measure &
keep 1.5m away from main unit through a measuring tape (For practical purposes,
the far-field may be taken to start at a distance /λo from the antenna, where D is

its larger dimension at the opening, and λo is the free-space wavelength.). Align
both transmitting and receiving antenna in line keeping same heights.

4. Rotate the transmitting antenna between 0-360 (θ) and detector will indicate
different values of current in µA at every degree rotation to plot radiation pattern of
antenna.

5. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert readings in
dB in table2.1.

6. Repeat the step no. 5 with a BNC-Tee bend to mount antenna in Hplane.

7. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert readings in
dB in table2.1.

8. Plot radiation pattern: (refer “introduction to antenna” given at Pg.no.14).

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9. Through the formula calculate HPBW (E and H plane) from radiation pattern.

10. In E plane condition keeping 1.5m distance between half wave dipole and receiver
measure forward and reverse current at transmitter mast and note in table 2.2 from
0-360 and calculate reflection coefficient and note the minimum value.

11. For Gain- connect reference antenna (half wave dipole) at transmitter mast.

12. At transmitter set forward current at 40µA

13. Measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiever) with setting of detector

range accordingly.

14. Connect test antenna at transmitter mast.

15. Do not change any setting on transmitter and receiver and keep orientation to be
same

16. Again measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiver)

17. Calculate all gain points by equation (1) respective to each angle in table 2.3

Observation:

Table 2.1: For radiation pattern

S. Angle E Plane H Plane

NO.
(in Receiver dB Conversion Receiver dB Conversion
degree) current (µA) current(µA)
=20log(Receiver =20log(Receiver
current) current)

1. 0 e.g. 5.7 e.g. 15.11

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. 40

6. ~360

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Table 2.2: For reflection coefficient

S.No. Angle Forward current (µA) Reverse current (µA) Reflection

Coefficient
(in degree) ()
1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 50

5. ~360

Table 2.3: For gain

S. Angle Receiver current of Receiver current of test =

NO. reference antenna (µA) antenna (µA)
(in degree)
x

1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. ~360

Results:
1. The radiation pattern of this folded dipole is

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2. HPBW of folded dipole antenna (E and H plane) at resonant frequency 750

MHz is….and …….resp.
3. Reflection coefficient calculated is……….
4. Gain calculated is………….

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Experiment no. 3
Aim: Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a loop antenna.

Apparatus Required: Antenna Trainer ST2261.

Components Required: Loop antenna, transmitter mast, receiver mast, detector

assembly (folded dipole with reflector as receiving antenna), measuring tape,
alliner/screwdriver, BNC-Tee.

Theory: A RF current carrying coil is given a single turn into a loop, can be used as
an antenna called as loop antenna. The currents through this loop antenna will be in
phase. The magnetic field will be perpendicular to the whole loop carrying the
current.The frequency range of operation of loop antenna is around 300MHz to
3GHz. This antenna works in UHF range. It may be in any shape such as circular,
rectangular, triangular, square or hexagonal according to the designer’s convenience.

Loop antennas are of two types.

 Large loop antennas

 Small loop antennas

Large loop antennas are also called as resonant antennas. They have high radiation
efficiency. These antennas have length nearly equal to the intended wavelength.

L=λL=λ .................. (3.1)

Where,

 L is the length of the antenna

 λ is the wavelength

The main parameter of this antenna is its perimeter length, which is about a
wavelength and should be an enclosed loop. It is not a good idea to meander the
loop so as to reduce the size, as that increases capacitive effects and results in low
efficiency.

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Small loop antennas are also called as magnetic loop antennas. These are less
resonant. These are mostly used as receivers.

These antennas are of the size of one-tenth of the wavelength.

L=λ10L=λ10 ........................... (3.2)

The features of small loop antennas are −

 A small loop antenna has low radiation resistance. If multi-turn ferrite core
constructions are used, then high radiation resistance can be achieved.

 It has low radiation efficiency due to high losses.

 Its construction is simple with small size and weight.

 Due to its high reactance, its impedance is difficult to match with the transmitter.
If loop antenna have to act as transmitting antenna, then this impedance mismatch
would definitely be a problem. Hence, these loop antennas are better operated
as receiver antennas.

 Small loop antennas are mainly of two types −Circular loop antennas and Square
loop antennas

 These two types of loop antennas are mostly widely used. Other types
(rectangular, delta, elliptical etc.) are also made according to the designer
specifications.

Fig.no.3.1: Sqaure loop antenna.

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Calculation for gain, HPBW of a loop antenna:

Formulas used are-

1. Gain : Through gain comparison method we have:

= x ………(3.3)

Where: Reference antenna=Half wave Dipole

and (ideal half wave dipole)=2.16dB or 1.64 (known),

=73 ohm (known)

Now, = ...................................... (3.4)

where, = reflection coefficient =

= 50 ohm (known)

hence in equation (4) calculate Z = = input impedance and substitute in equation (3)
and calculate gain from 0 to 360 degrees.

2. HPBW= Difference in angle between points on polar plot drawn at 3 dB less to the

max gain given by that particular antenna(refer “introduction to antenna” given at

Pg.no.18).

Procedure:-

1. Check power supply & turn the RF level to minimum and FS adjust to
maximum. put coupler switch to FWD. Increase RF level gradually from
minimum to maximum. There will be indication in meter. Change the switch
from FWD to REV and see that meter has deflection. This confirms working
of RF generator & directional coupler.

2. Install transmitting antenna mast on the main unit with goniometer of trainer
and connect antenna under test(e.g. square loop antenna )on it in E plane.

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3. Mount detector assembly on the detector stand in horizontal plane and

measure & keep 1.5m away from main unit through a measuring tape (For
practical purposes, the far-field may be taken to start at a distance /λo

from the antenna, where D is distance between transmitter and receiver, and
λo is the free-space wavelength.). Align both transmitting and receiving
antenna in line keeping same heights.

4. Rotate the transmitting antenna between 0-360 (θ) and detector will indicate
different values of current in µA at every degree rotation to plot radiation
pattern of antenna.

5. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert
readings in dB in table3.1.

6. Repeat the step no. 5 with a BNC-Tee bend to mount antenna in Hplane.

7. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert
readings in dB in table3.1.

8. Plot radiation pattern: (refer “introduction to antenna” given at Pg.no.14).

9. Through the formula calculate HPBW (E and H plane) from radiation

pattern.

10. In E plane condition keeping 1.5m distance between half wave dipole and
receiver measure forward and reverse current at transmitter mast and note in
table 3.2 from 0-360 and calculate reflection coefficient and note the
minimum value.

11. For Gain- connect reference antenna (half wave dipole) at transmitter mast.

12. At transmitter set forward current at 40µA

13. Measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiever) with setting of

detector range accordingly.

14. Connect test antenna at transmitter mast.

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15. Do not change any setting on transmitter and receiver and keep orientation to
be same

16. Again measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiever)

17. Calculate all gain points by equation (1) respective to each angle in table 3.3
Observation:

Table 3.1: For radiation pattern

S. Angle E Plane H Plane

NO.
(in Receiver dB Conversion Receiver dB Conversion
degree) current current(µA)
(µA) =20log(Receiver =20log(Receiver
current) current)

1. 0 e.g. 5.7 e.g. 15.11

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. 40

6. 50

7. ~360

Table 3.2:For reflection coefficient

S.No. Angle Forward current Reverse current (µA) Reflection

(µA) Coefficient
(in degree) ()
1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

6. 50

7. ~360

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Table 3.3: For gain

S. Angle Receiver current of Receiver current of test =

NO. reference antenna (µA) antenna (µA)
(in degree)
x

1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. ~360

Results :
1. The radiation pattern of this square loop antenna is

2. HPBW of antenna at resonant frequency 750 MHz is ,

3. Reflection coefficient calculated is……….
4. Gain calculated is…………

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Experiment No-4
Aim: Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, VSWR, input impedance and
reflection coefficient for given Monopole antenna.

Apparatus Required: Antenna Trainer ST2261.

Components Required: Monopole antenna, transmitter mast, receiver mast,

detector assembly (folded dipole with reflector as receiving antenna), measuring
tape, alliner/screwdriver, BNC-Tee.

Theory:

Fig.no.4.1: Monopole antenna.

A monopole antenna is half of a dipole antenna on top of a conducting ground plane.

The most common type is a quarter-wave monopole where the antenna is
approximately 1/4 of wavelength of radio waves. The radiation pattern is limited to
above the ground plane of the antenna.

Using image theory, the fields above the ground plane can be found by using the
equivalent source (antenna) in free space. This is simply a dipole antenna of twice
the length. The radiation pattern of monopole antennas above a ground plane are
known from the dipole result. The only change that needs to be noted is that the
impedance of a monopole antenna is one half of that of a full dipole antenna.

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For a quarter-wave monopole (L=0.25* ), the impedance is half of that of a half-

wave dipole, so Zin = 36.5 + j21.25 Ohms. This can be understood since only half
the voltage is required to drive a monopole antenna to the same current as a dipole
(think of a dipole as having +V/2 and -V/2 applied to its ends, whereas a monopole
antenna only needs to apply +V/2 between the monopole antenna and the ground to
drive the same current). Since Zin = V/I, the impedance of the monopole antenna is
halved.

The directivity of a monopole antenna is directly related to that of a dipole antenna.

If the directivity of a dipole of length 2L has a directivity of D1 [decibels], then the
directivity of a monopole antenna of length L will have a directivity of D1+3
[decibels]. That is, the directivity (in linear units) of a monopole antenna is twice the
directivity of a dipole antenna of twice the length. The reason for this is simply
because no radiation occurs below the ground plane; hence, the antenna is
effectively twice as "directive".

Monopole antennas are half the size of their dipole counterparts, and hence are
attractive when a smaller antenna is needed. Antennas on older cell phones were
typically monopole antennas, with an infinite ground plane approximated by the
shell (casing) of the phone.

Fig.no. 4.2: Comparison of Monopole and Folded dipole antenna

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Calculation for gain, VSWR, input impedance, reflection coefficient of a monopole

antenna:

Formulas used are-

1. = reflection coefficient =

2. VSWR:

3. Input Impedanec: = ............................................................ (4.1)

where, Z= = input impedance of monopole antenna

= 50 ohm (known)

4. Gain : Through gain comparison method we have:

= x...................................................................(4.2)

Where: Reference antenna=Ideal half wave dipole

and (ideal half wave dipole)=2.16dB or 1.64 (known)

=73 ohm (known)

hence in equation (1) calculate Z = = input impedance and substitute in equation (2)
and calculate gain from 0 to 360 degrees.

Procedure:-

1. Check power supply & turn the RF level to minimum and FS adjust to
maximum. put coupler switch to FWD. Increase RF level gradually from
minimum to maximum. There will be indication in meter. Change the switch
from FWD to REV and see that meter has deflection. This confirms working
of RF generator & directional coupler.

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2. Install transmitting antenna mast on the main unit with goniometer of trainer
and connect antenna under test(e.g. monopole antenna )on it in E plane.

3. Mount detector assembly on the detector stand in horizontal plane and

measure & keep 1.5m away from main unit through a measuring tape (For
practical purposes, the far-field may be taken to start at a distance /λo

from the antenna, where D is its larger dimension at the opening, and λo is
the free-space wavelength.). Align both transmitting and receiving antenna in
line keeping same heights.

4. Rotate the transmitting antenna between 0-360 (θ) and detector will indicate
different values of current in µA at every degree rotation to plot radiation
pattern of antenna.

5. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert
readings in dB in table4.1.

6. Repeat the step no. 5 with a BNC-Tee bend to mount antenna in Hplane.

7. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert
readings in dB in table4.1.

8. Plot radiation pattern: (refer “introduction to antenna” given at Pg.no.14).

9. In E plane condition keeping 1.5m distance between half wave dipole and
receiver measure forward and reverse current at transmitter mast and note in
table 4.2 from 0-360 and calculate reflection coefficient and note the
minimum value.

10. From refelction coefficient, calculate VSWR through formula.

11. From VSWR, calculate input impedance through formula.

12. For Gain- connect reference antenna (half wave dipole) at transmitter mast.

13. At transmitter set forward current at 40µA

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14. Measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiever) with setting of

detector range accordingly.

15. Connect test antenna at transmitter mast.

16. Do not change any setting on transmitter and receiver and keep orientation to
be same

17. Again measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiver).

18. Calculate all gain points by equation (2) respective to each angle in table 4.3

Observation:

Table 4.1: For radiation pattern

S. Angle E Plane H Plane

NO.
(in Receiver dB Conversion Receiver dB Conversion
degree) current current(µA)
(µA) =20log(Receiver =20log(Receiver
current) current)

1. 0 e.g. 5.7 e.g. 15.11

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. 40

6. 50

7. ~360

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Table 4.2: For reflection coefficient

S.No. Angle Forward current Reverse current (µA) Reflection

(µA) Coefficient
(in degree) ()
1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 50

5. ~360

Table 4.3: For gain

S. Angle Receiver current of Receiver current of =

NO. reference antenna test antenna (µA)
(in (µA)
degree)
x

1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. 40

6. 50

7. ~360

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Results :

1. The radiation pattern of this monopole antenna for two different far field
frequencies:

1. Reflection coefficient calculated is……….

2. VSWR calculated is……………

3. Input impedance calculated is……….

4. Gain calculated is………….

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Experiment no.-5
Aim: Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, VSWR, input impedance and
reflection coefficient for given Yagi antennas.

Apparatus Required: Antenna Trainer ST2261.

Components Required: Yagi antenna, transmitter mast, receiver mast, detector

assembly (folded dipole with reflector as receiving antenna), measuring tape,
alliner/screwdriver, BNC-Tee.

Theory: A Yagi antenna, also known as a Yagi-Uda array or simply a Yagi, is a

directional antenna commonly used in communications when a frequency is above
10 MHz. This type of antenna is popular among Amateur Radio and Citizens Band
radio operators. It is used at some surface installations in satellite communications
systems.

Fig.no.5.1: YagiUda Antenna Fig.no.5.2: Five Elelemnt Yagi Uda antenna

The Yagi–Uda antenna consists of a number of parallel thin rod elements in a line,
usually half-wave long. There is a single driven element driven in the center
(consisting of two rods each connected to one side of the transmission line), and a
variable number of parasitic elements, a single reflector on one side and optionally
one or more directors on the other side. The parasitic elements are not electrically
connected to the transmitter or receiver, and serve as passive radiators, reradiating

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the radio waves to modify the radiation pattern. Typical spacing between elements
vary from about 1⁄10 to ¼ of a wavelength, depending on the specific design. The
directors are slightly shorter than the driven element, while the reflector(s) are
slightly longer. The radiation pattern is unidirectional, with the main lobe along the
axis perpendicular to the elements in the plane of the elements, off the end with the
directors. The gain increases with the number of parasitic elements used. Only one
reflector is used since the improvement of gain with additional reflectors is
negligible, but Yagis have been built with up to 30–40 directors. For understanding
working of yagiuda consider a Yagi–Uda consisting of a reflector, driven element
and a single director. Folded dipole is the only member of the structure that is
directly excited (electrically connected to the feedline). All the other elements are
considered parasitic. That is, they reradiate power which they receive from the
driven element (they also interact with each other).

Calculation for gain, VSWR, input impedance, reflection coefficient of a

monopole antenna:

Formulas used are-

1. = reflection coefficient = ……………….(5.1)

2. VSWR: …………………………………(5.2)

3. Input Impedanec: = ...................................... (5.3)

where, Z= = input impedance of momopole antenna

= 50 ohm (known)

4. Gain : Through gain comparison method we have:

= x ...............................................(5.4)

Where: Reference antenna=Ideal half wave dipole

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and (ideal half wave dipole)=2.16dB or 1.64 (known)

=73 ohm (known)

hence in equation (1) calculate Z = = input impedance and substitute in equation

(2) and calculate gain from 0 to 360 degrees.

Procedure:-

1. Check power supply & turn the RF level to minimum and FS adjust to maximum.
put coupler switch to FWD. Increase RF level gradually from minimum to
maximum. There will be indication in meter. Change the switch from FWD to REV
and see that meter has deflection. This confirms working of RF generator &
directional coupler.

2. Install transmitting antenna mast on the main unit with goniometer of trainer and
connect antenna under test(e.g. yagi antenna )on it in E plane.

3. Mount detector assembly on the detector stand in horizontal palne and measure &
keep 1.5m away from main unit through a measuring tape (For practical purposes,
the far-field may be taken to start at a distance /λo from the antenna, where D

distance between transmitter and receiver, and λo is the free-space wavelength.).

Align both transmitting and receiving antenna in line keeping same heights.

4. Rotate the transmitting antenna between 0-360 (θ) and detector will indicate
different values of current in µA at every degree rotation to plot radiation pattern of
antenna.

5. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert readings in
dB in table5.1.

6. Repeat the step no. 5 with a BNC-Tee bend to mount antenna in Hplane.

7. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert readings in
dB in table5.1.

8. Plot radiation pattern: (refer “introduction to antenna” given at Pg.no.14).

9. In E plane condition keeping 1.5m distance between half wave dipole and receiver
measure forward and reverse current at transmitter mast and note in table 5.2 from 0-
360 and calculate reflection coefficient and note the minimum value.

10. From refelction coefficient, calculate VSWR through formula.

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11. From VSWR, calculate input impedance through formula.

12. For Gain- connect reference antenna (half wave dipole) at transmitter mast.

13. At transmitter set forward current at 40µA

14. Measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiever) with setting of detector

range accordingly.

15. Connect test antenna at transmitter mast.

16. Do not change any setting on transmitter and receiver and keep orientation to be
same

17. Again measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiever)

18. Calculate all gain points by equation (2) respective to each angle in table 5.3

Observation:

Table 5.1: For radiation pattern

S. Angle E Plane H Plane

N.
(in Receiver dB Conversion Receiver dB Conversion
degree) current current(µA)
(µA) =20log(Receiver =20log(Receiver
current) current)

1. 0 e.g. 5.7 e.g. 15.11

2. 10

3. 20
4. 30

~360

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Table 5.2: For reflection coefficient

S.No. Angle Forward current Reverse current Reflection

µA) (µA) Coefficient
(in ()
degree)

1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. ~360

Table 5.3: For gain

S. Angle Receiver current of Receiver current =

NO. reference antenna of test antenna
(in (µA) (µA)
degree)
x

1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. 40

6. 50

7. ~360

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Results:
1. The radiation pattern of this yagi antenna is

2. Reflection coefficient calculated is……….

3. VSWR calculated is……………
4. Input impedance calculated is……….
5. Gain calculated is………….

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Experiment no.-6
Aim: Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a horn antenna.

Apparatus Required:

1. MAT10 trainer kit: (10 GHz power source, 2 DRO, Transmitter antenna with
automatic motor control.
2. Power Supply (0-30V)

Components Required:

1. waveguide to coax adapter, waveguide stand, conical horn antennas, microwave

Tx, 5V power supply cable, transmitter antenna stand (monopod)

2. waveguide to coax adapter, waveguide stand, conical horn antennas, microwave

Rx, 5V power supply

Theory: A horn antenna is used to transmit radio waves from a waveguide (a metal
pipe used to carry radio waves) out into space, or collect radio waves into a
waveguide for reception. It typically consists of a short length of rectangular or
cylindrical metal tube (the waveguide), closed at one end, flaring into an open-ended
conical or pyramidal shaped horn on the other end. The radio waves are usually
introduced into the waveguide by a coaxial cable attached to the side, with the
central conductor projecting into the waveguide to form a quarter-wave
monopole antenna. The waves then radiate out the horn end in a narrow beam.

To improve the poor characteristics of antenna, the ends of the waveguide are flared
out to form a horn. The taper of the horn changes the impedance gradually along the
horn's length. This acts like an impedance matching transformer, allowing most of
the wave energy to radiate out the end of the horn into space, with minimal
reflection. In addition, the wide aperture of the horn projects the waves in a narrow
beam. Conical Antenna having the horn in the shape of a cone, with a circular cross
section. They are used with cylindrical waveguides.

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For a conical horn, the dimensions that give an optimum horn are:

Where d= horn antenna aperture λ = wave length L =Slant length of the cone
from the apex

Fig.no.6.1: Conical Horn Antenna

Calculation for HPBW, Gain:

1. HPBW= Difference in angle between points on polar plot drawn at 3 dB less to

the max gain given by that particular antenna (refer “introduction to antenna”

given at Pg.no.18).

2. Gain= where: D= distance between transmitter and receiver (1m)

=c/f and here f=10GHz (known)

= transmitted power= 10mW (known here)

= recived power measured through MAT-10 (dBm),

= antilog of (to convert readings into mW).

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Procedure:

Fig.no.6.2: Setup of conical horn Tx and Rx through MAT-10

1. Connect horn antenna to the Tx. Keep antenna in horizontal direction.

2. Now connect conical horn antenna to Rx at the stepper monopod.
3. Set the distance between the antennas to be round 1m. Remove any stray
object from around the antennas, especially in LOS (line of sight) as in
fig.6.2
4. Now rotate the conical horn antenna around its axis in steps of 5 degrees
using stepper motor controller. Take the level readings of receiver at each
step and note down.
5. Note the max. reading out of the whole set of readings. This will form the
0dB reference reading. Now subtract all the readings from these reference
readings and note down in table6.1. Now use this set of readings for drawing
a plot.
6. Plot the readings on a polar plot with log scales.
7. This plot with both the feeds of horns in horizontal plane shall from E-plane
plot.
8. Without disturbing the setup- rotate the horn antenna at receiver from
horizontal to vertical plane.
9. Rotate the conical horn antenna around its axis in steps of 5 degrees using
stepper motor controller. Take the level readings of receiver at each step and
note down.
10. Plot the readings on a polar plot with log scales
11. This plot with both the feeds of horns in horizontal plane shall from H-plane
plot.
12. From the polar plot of E-plane, measure the angle where 0dB reference is
located. This is direction of main lobe or boresight direction.
13. Measure the angle when this reading is -3dB on its either side.

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14. The difference between the angular positions of the -3dB points is the E-
palne beam width of conical horn antenna.
15. Measure H-plane beamwidth of conical horn antenna from H-plane plot.
16. Gain: calculate gain at every degree roattion through formula given and
record in table 6.2.

Observation:

Table 6.1: For radiation pattern

S. Angle E Plane H Plane

NO.
(in Received Relative Received Relative
degree) power of power of power of power of
horn antenna horn antenna horn antenna horn antenna
(dBm/dBµV) (dBm/dBµV) (dBm/dBµV) (dBm/dBµV)

1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

7. ~360

Table 6.2: For gain

S. Angle Received (mW)= Transmitted =

NO. power of antilog (19) power of horn
(in horn antenna dBm antenna
degree) (dBm)
(const=10mW )

1. 0 e.g. 19dBm 10^1.9

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

~360

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Results :
1. The radiation pattern of this horn antenna is

2. HPBW in E palne & H palne calculated is……….&…………..

3. Gain calculated is………….

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Experiment no.-7
Aim: Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, HPBW of a reflector antenna.

Apparatus Required: Antenna Trainer ST2261.

Components Required: Reflector antenna, transmitter mast, receiver mast, detector

assembly (folded dipole with reflector as receiving antenna), measuring tape,
alliner/screwdriver, BNC-Tee.

Theory:A parabolic (or paraboloid or paraboloidal) reflector (or dish or mirror) is

a reflective surf-ace used to collect or project energy such as light, sound, or radio
waves. Its shape is part of a circular paraboloid, that is, the surface generated by
a parabola revolving around its axis. Strictly, the three-dimensional shape of the
reflector is called a paraboloid. A parabola is the two-dimensional figure. (The
distinction is like that between a sphere and a circle.)The parabolic reflector
transforms an incoming plane wave traveling along the axis into a spherical
wave converging toward the focus. Conversely, a spherical wave generated by
a point source placed in the focus is reflected into a plane wave propagating as a
collimated beam along the axis.

Parabolic reflectors are used to collect energy from a distant source (for example
sound waves or incoming star light). Since the principles of reflection are reversible,
parabolic reflectors can also be used to focus radiation from an isotropic source into
a narrow beam.In radio parabolic antennas are used to radiate a narrow beam
of radio waves for point-to-point communications in satellite dishes and microwave
relay stations, and to locate aircraft, ships, and vehicles in radar sets. The
main advantage of a parabolic antenna is that it has high directivity. It functions
similarly to a searchlight or flashlight reflector to direct the radio waves in a narrow
beam, or receive radio waves from one particular direction only.

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Fig.no.7.1: Parabolic Reflector Antenna Fig.no.7.2: Reflector antenna.

Calculation for gain, HPBW of a reflector antenna:

Formulas used are-

1. Gain : Through gain comparison method we have:

= x ………(1)

Where: Reference antenna=Ideal half wave dipole

and (ideal half wave dipole)=2.16dB or 1.64 (known)

=73ohm (known)

Now = ...................................... (2)

where, = reflection coefficient =

= 50 ohm (known)

hence in equation (2) calculate Z = = input impedance and substitute in equation (1)
and calculate gain from 0 to 360 degrees.

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2. HPBW= Difference in angle between points on polar plot drawn at 3 dB less to the

max gain given by that particular antenna(refer “introduction to antenna” given at

Pg.no.18).

Procedure:-

1. Check power supply & turn the RF level to minimum and FS adjust to maximum.
put coupler switch to FWD. Increase RF level gradually from minimum to
maximum. There will be indication in meter. Change the switch from FWD to REV
and see that meter has deflection. This confirms working of RF generator &
directional coupler.

2. Install transmitting antenna mast on the main unit with goniometer of trainer and
connect antenna under test(e.g. reflector antenna )on it in E plane.

3. Mount detector assembly on the detector stand in horizontal plane and measure &
keep 1.5m away from main unit through a measuring tape (For practical purposes,
the far-field may be taken to start at a distance /λo from the antenna, where D is

its larger dimension at the opening, and λo is the free-space wavelength.). Align
both transmitting and receiving antenna in line keeping same heights.

4. Rotate the transmitting antenna between 0-360 (θ) and detector will indicate
different values of current in µA at every degree rotation to plot radiation pattern of
antenna.

5. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert readings in
dB in table7.1.

6. Repeat the step no. 5 with a BNC-Tee bend to mount antenna in Hplane.

7. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert readings in
dB in table7.1.

8. Plot radiation pattern: (refer “introduction to antenna” given at Pg.no.14).

9. Through the formula calculate HPBW (E and H plane) from radiation pattern.

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10. In E plane condition keeping 1.5m distance between half wave dipole and receiver
measure forward and reverse current at transmitter mast and note in table 7.2 from
0-360 and calculate reflection coefficient and note the minimum value.

11. For Gain- connect reference antenna (half wave dipole) at transmitter mast.

12. At transmitter set forward current at 40µA

13. Measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiever) with setting of detector

range accordingly.

14. Connect test antenna at transmitter mast.

15. Do not change any setting on transmitter and receiver and keep orientation to be
same

16. Again measure current ( in µA) at detector (receiever)

17. Calculate all gain points by equation (1) respective to each angle in table 7.3

Observation:

Table 7.1: For radiation pattern

S. Angle E Plane H Plane

NO.
(in Receiver dB Conversion Receiver dB Conversion
degree) current current(µA)
(µA) =20log(Receiver =20log(Receiver
current) current)

1. 0 e.g. 5.7 e.g. 15.11

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

~360

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Table 7.2: For reflection coefficient

S.No. Angle Forward current Reverse current Reflection

(µA) (µA) Coefficient
(in degree) ( )
1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 50

~360

Table 7.3: For gain

S. Angle Receiver current of Receiver current of =

NO. reference antenna test antenna (µA)
(in (µA)
degree)
x

1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

~360

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Results:
1. The radiation pattern of this reflector antenna is

2. HPBW of antenna at resonant frequency 750 MHz is ,

3.Reflection coefficient calculated is……….
4.Gain calculated is………….

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Experiment no.-8
Aim: Measurement of Radiation Pattern, Gain, VSWR and input impedance of a
rectangular microstrip patch antenna.

Apparatus Required: Antenna Trainer ST2261and ST2263.

Components Required: Rectangular microstrip patch antenna, transmitter mast,

receiver mast, detector assembly (microstrip patch antenna), measuring tape,
alliner/screwdriver, BNC-Tee.

Theory: According to transmission line model of microstrip patch antenna, the two
slots are separated by an electrical distance of 180 degree. However, because of the
fringing the physical length L of slightly less than λ/2. The reduction of the length is
not much. Typically, it is 0.48λ ≤ L ≤ 0.49 λ.

Fig.no.8.1: Basic structure of micro-strip patch antenna

Ideally, the resonant input impedance of the patch for the dominant TM010 mode is
entirely resistive and equal to half the transformed resistance of each slot.

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In reality, there is some mutual influence between the two slots, described by a
mutual conductance and it should be included for more accurate calculations:

Where the “+” sign relates to the odd modes, while the “–” sign relates to the even
modes normally, G12 << G’1.

For most patch antennas fed at the edge, Rin is greater than the characteristic
impedance Zc of the microstrip feed line (typically Zc = 50 to 75 Ω). That is why, the
inset-feed technique is widely used to achieve impedance match.

Using model expansion, the input resistance for the inset-feed at Z = Z0 is given
approximately by

Here G1 and B1 are calculated by

For most feeding microstrips, G1/Yc << 1 and B1/Yc << 1, Then,

Notice that the inset feeding technique for impedance match of the microstrip
antennas is essentially identical to the off-center or asymmetrical feeding techniques
for dipoles. In both cases, a position is sought along a resonant structure, where the
current magnitude has the desired value

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Fig.no.8.2: Rectangular microstrip patch antenna

Calculation for gain, VSWR, input impedance, of a rectangular patch antenna:

Formulas used are-

1. = reflection coefficient =

2. VSWR:

3. Input Impedance: = ...................................... (1)

where, Z= = input impedance of rectangular patch antenna

= 50 ohm (known)

3. Gain= ............................ (2)

where: D= distance between transmitter and receiver (1m)

=c/f and here f=700 MHz (known)

= transmitted power measured through ST2263

= received power measured through ST2263.

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Procedure: -

1. On ST2261, check power supply & turn the RF level to minimum and FS
adjust to maximum. put coupler switch to FWD. Increase RF level gradually
from minimum to maximum. There will be indication in meter. Change the
switch from FWD to REV and see that meter has deflection. This confirms
working of RF generator & directional coupler.

2. Install transmitting antenna mast on the main unit with goniometer of trainer
and connect antenna under test(e.g. rectangular patch antenna )on it in E
plane.

3. Mount detector assembly (use semi-circular microstrip patch antenna) on the

detector stand in horizontal plane and measure & keep 1m away from main
unit through a measuring tape (For practical purposes, the far-field may be
taken to start at a distance /λo from the antenna, where D is its larger

dimension at the opening, and λo is the free-space wavelength.). Align both

transmitting and receiving antenna in line keeping same heights.

4. Rotate the transmitting antenna between 0-360 (θ) and detector will indicate
different values of current in µA at every degree rotation to plot radiation
pattern of antenna.

5. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert
readings in dB in table8.1.

6. Repeat the step no. 5 with a BNC-Tee bend to mount antenna in Hplane.

7. The current is observed and then noted in the tabular form and convert
readings in dB in table8.1.

8. Plot radiation pattern: (refer “introduction to antenna” given at Pg.no.14).

9. In E plane condition keeping 1.5m distance between half wave dipole and
receiver measure forward and reverse current at transmitter mast and note in
table 8.2 from 0-360 and calculate reflection coefficient and note the
minimum value.

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10. From refelction coefficient, calculate VSWR through formula.

11. From VSWR, calculate input impedance through formula.

12. For Gain- On ST2263,connect rectangular patch antenna at transmitter

mast.(This setup of ST2263 has been included since ST2261 requires wire
antennas to calculate gain as reference which is not compatible with
microstrip antenna. )

13. Attach RF generator of transmitter to receiver meter and record transmitted

power at 700MHz.

14. Again connect rectangular microstrip patch antenna on transmitter mast to

transmitter and semi-circular microstrip patch antenna on receiver mast to
receiver through BNC cables to record recived power from 0-360.

15. Calculate all gain points by equation (2) respective to each angle in table 8.3

Observation:

Table 8.1: For radiation pattern

S. Angle E Plane H Plane

NO.
(in Receiver dB Conversion Receiver dB Conversion
degree) current current(µA)
(µA) =20log(Receiver =20log(Receiver
current) current)

1. 0 e.g. 5.7 e.g. 15.11

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. 0-360

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Table 8.2: For reflection coefficient

S.No. Angle Forward current Reverse current (µA) Reflection

(µA) Coefficient
(in degree) ()
1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. ~360

Table 8.3: For gain

S. Angle Transmitted power of Received power of Gain=

NO. test antenna (µV) test antenna (µV)
(in
degree)

1. 0

2. 10

3. 20

4. 30

5. 40

6. 50

7. ~360

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Result:

1. Radiation pattern of rectangular microstrip patch antenna is

Ansoft Corporation Radiation Pattern1 HFSSDesign1

0 Curve Info max

dB(GainTotal)
30 2.2925
Setup1 : LastAdaptive
0.00

60

-90 90

-180

2. Reflection coefficient calculated is……….

3. VSWR calculated is……………

4. Input impedance calculated is……….

5. Gain calculated is………….

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Experiment no.-9
Aim: Analyze the effect of inset feed on the input impedance of a rectangular patch antenna

Software Required: HFSS software

Theory: The edge feed and the inset feed are illustrated below.

Fig.no.9.1: Microstrip line feeding (edge feed) Fig.no. 9.2: Microstrip line feeding (inset feed)

According to transmission line model of microstrip patch antenna, the two slots are
separated by an electrical distance of 180 degree. However, because of the fringing
the physical length L of slightly less than λ/2. The reduction of the length is not
much. Typically, it is 0.48λ ≤ L ≤ 0.49 λ.

Ideally, the resonant input impedance of the patch for the dominant TM 010 mode is
entirely resistive and equal to half the transformed resistance of each slot.

In reality, there is some mutual influence between the two slots, described by a
mutual conductance and it should be included for more accurate calculations:

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Where the “+” sign relates to the odd modes, while the “–” sign relates to the even
modes normally, G12 << G’1.

For most patch antennas fed at the edge, Rin is greater than the characteristic
impedance Zc of the microstrip feed line (typically Zc = 50 to 75 Ω). That is why, the
inset-feed technique is widely used to achieve impedance match.

Using model expansion, the input resistance for the inset-feed at Z = Z0 is given
approximately by

Here G1 and B1 are calculated by

For most feeding microstrips, G1/Yc << 1 and B1/Yc << 1, Then,

Notice that the inset feeding technique for impedance match of the microstrip
antennas is essentially identical to the off-center or asymmetrical feeding techniques
for dipoles. In both cases, a position is sought along a resonant structure, where the
current magnitude has the desired value.

The effect of inset feed can be seen using software simulation.

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Design Parameter: Dimension of patch antenna

Length (L) =9.06 mm

Width (W) =11.86 mm

Substrate height (h) = 1.58 mm

Dielectric constant=2.2

Frequency=10GHz

Calculation:

Input impedance: Using above equations, Input impedance Rin = 228.3508 ohms

Since, input impedance at the edge is 228.3508 ohms while desired impedance is 50
ohms.

The inset feed point distance is obtained using equation 9.6

y0 = 3.126 mm

Procedure:

1. Design a box for dimension of x= 17.86mm, y=15.06mm and z=1.58mm, and

assign material RT5880.
2. Design a rectangular patch for dimension of x= 11.86mm, y=9.06mm.
3. Design a rectangular inset from the edge of patch of x=4mm and y=$yl (variable
with value 1mm).
4. Subtract that inset from the patch.
5. Design feed line of x=3mm and y=(3+$yl)mm
6. Apply excitation and boundary.
7. Create an air box across the patch antenna to check the return loss.
8. Set parametric parameter: $yl (1mm to 3.126) with step count 5.
9. Simulate this design and generate the return loss curves for all values of $yl.

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Observation:

Fig.no. 9.3: Patch antenna Fig.no. 9.4: Effect of inset feed on return loss

Result:

The return loss curve shows impedance matching of input and feed at feed point. We
have been done comparison of all curves and seen that the return loss is minimum
when the value of $yl is 3.126mm. Impedance at that point is 50 ohm. Hence, it is
clearly seen that the input impedance of patch antenna is affected by inset feed. The
minimum return loss parameter (S11) is -22.99 dB for this antenna is at 4 GHz. Error
in return loss is 1.08%.

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Experiment no.-10
Aim: Analyze the effect of ground plane on the radiation pattern of a rectangular
patch antenna.

Software Required: HFSS software

Theory: The radiation pattern of patch antenna is distorted when the size of ground
plane is finite. Distortion is occurred in E plane pattern due to induced magnetic
current by the edges of finite ground plane. It has no affect on H plane pattern.

The effect of ground can be seen using software simulation.

Design Parameter: Dimension of patch antenna

Length (L) =9.06 mm

Width (W) =11.86 mm

Substrate height (h) = 1.58 mm

Dielectric constant=2.2

Frequency=10GHz

Substrate dimension: 17.86 X 15.06 X 1.58 mm3

Procedure:

1. Design a box for dimension of x= 17.86mm, y=15.06mm and z=1.58mm, and

assign material RT5880.
2. Design a rectangular patch for dimension of x= 11.86mm, y=9.06mm.
3. Design a rectangular inset from the edge of patch of x=4mm and y=3.126mm.
4. Subtract that inset from the patch.
5. Design feed line of x=3mm and y=6.126mm
6. Design ground plan for dimension of x=17.86, y=$g (variable from 0 to
15.06mm).
7. Apply excitation and boundary.

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8. Create an air box across the patch antenna to check the radiation pattern.
9. Set parametric parameter: $g (0mm to 15.06mm) with step count 5.
10. Simulate this design and generate the radiation pattern for all values of $g.

Observation:

Fig.no.10.1: Radiation pattern on full ground

Fig.no.10.2: Radiation pattern on Half ground

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Fig.no.10.3: Radiation pattern on null ground

Result: It is easily seen that Ground plane has measure impact on radiation pattern.
At 10 GHz frequency, main lobe magnitude is 7.11dBi and it is unidirectional (Side
lobe level is -7.1dB). Main lobe magnitude is reducing to 3.36dBi and 1.45dBi
respectively for half ground and null ground and side lobe level is increasing to -
3.2dB and -1.0 dB respectively.

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Experiment no.-11
Aim: Study antenna designing in HFSS.

Software Required: HFSS software

Theory: High Frequency Simulator Structure (HFSS): HFSS is a high-

performance full wave electromagnetic (EM) field simulator for arbitrary 3D
volumetric passive device modeling that takes advantage of the familiar Microsoft
Windows graphical user interface. It integrates simulation, visualization, solid
modeling, and automation in an easy to learn environment where solutions to your
3D EM problems are quickly and accurate obtained. Ansoft HFSS employs the
Finite Element Method (FEM), adaptive meshing, and brilliant graphics to give you
unparalleled performance and insight to all of your 3D EM problems. Ansoft HFSS
can be used to calculate parameters such as S-Parameters, Resonant Frequency, and
Fields.

To set up an HFSS design, follow this general procedure.

I - Insert an HFSS design into a project.

 On the Project menu, click Insert HFSS

The new design is listed in the project tree. It is named HFSS Design by Design
default, where n is the order in which the design was added to the project. The 3D
Modeler window appears to the right of the Project Manager. You can now create
the model geometry.

II -Selecting the Solution Type

Before you draw the model, specify the design’s solution type.

 On the HFSS menu, click Solution Type. The Solution Type dialog box appears.

 Select Driven Modal in the solution types.

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We select Driven Modal as our model is a rectangular waveguide and Driven modal
is used for calculating the mode-based S-parameters of passive, high-frequency
structures such as micro strips, waveguides, and transmission lines, which are
“driven” by a source.

III- Setting the Model’s Units of Measurement

You can then choose to display the model’s dimensions in the new units, or rescale
the model’s dimensions to the new units.

To set the model’s units of measurement:

 On the 3D Modeler menu, click Units. The Set Model Units dialog box appears.

 Select the new units for the model from the “Select units”pull-down list.

You can select the “Rescale to new units” option to rescale the dimensions to the
new units. Clear the Rescale to new units option (the default) to convert the
dimensions to the new units without changing their scale

 Click OK to apply the new units to the model.

IV- Drawing a Model

You can create 3D objects by using HFSS’s Draw commands. Objects are drawn in
the 3D Modeler window

V- Assigning Materials

 Right click on the 3D Modeler Window to get the 3D Modeler menu

 On the 3D Modeler menu, click Assign Material.

 The Select Definition window appears. By default, it lists all of the materials in
Ansoft’s global material library as well as the project’s local material library.

 Select a material from the list. Select Air or vacuum for the whole box as our
rectangular waveguide is not filled with any dielectric.

 Click OK.

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The material you chose is assigned to the object.

VI- Assigning Boundaries

Boundary conditions specify the field behavior at the edges of the problem region
and object interfaces.

 Right click on the 3D Modeler Window to select faces

 Click on the faces to select the faces which are to be assigned to be a perfect
conductor

 On the HFSS menu, click Boundaries. Select Assign and choose Finite conductivity.

Assign Finite conductivity to 4 faces excluding the Port 1 and Port 2 Select Face.

VII- Assigning Excitations

Excitations in HFSS are used to specify the sources of electromagnetic fields and
charges, currents, or voltages on objects or surfaces in the design.

Assigning excitations is a two-step process

a) Assign Ports b) Assign an Integration Lines or Terminal lines separately for

each mode

a) Assigning Ports

 Select the object face to which you want to assign the port.

 Click H FSS>Excitations>Assign>Wave Port.

Wave port represents the surface through which a signal enters or exits the
geometry. Hence 2 ports are required to be defined. HFSS assumes that each wave
port you define is connected to a semi-infinitely long waveguide that has the same
cross-section and material properties as the port. HFSS generates a solution by
exciting each wave port individually.

 The Wave Port wizard appears.

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 Type the port’s name in the Name text box or accept the default name, and then click
next.

 To specify more than one mode to analyze at the port, type a new value in the Number
of Modes box, and then click Update. The mode spreadsheet is updated to include
the total number of modes.

b) Defining Integration Line

An integration line needs to be specified to define a port mode.

 Select New Line from the mode’s Integration Line list.

 The dialog box disappears while you draw the vector

 Select the start point of the vector in one of the following ways

 Click the point. Or Type the point’s coordinates in the X, Y, and Z boxes at the lower
end of the screen

 Select the endpoint of the vector using the mouse or the keyboard. The endpoint
defines the direction and length of the integration line.

 The Wave Port or Lumped Port dialog box reappears.

VIII- Solution Setup

a) Adaptive solution setup

b) Frequency sweep setup

a). Adaptive solution setup

 On the HFSS menu, point to Analysis Setup, and then click Add Solution Setup

 The Solution Setup dialog box appears. It is divided among the following tabs:

General - Includes general solution settings

Advanced - Includes advanced settings for initial mesh generation and adaptive
analysis

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Ports - (if a port was defined) Includes mesh generation options for model ports

Defaults - Enables you to save the current settings as the defaults for future solution
setups or revertthe current settings to HFSS’s standard settings.

 Click the General tab.

For Driven solution types, do the following:

1. Enter the Solution Frequency in the frequency units.

The minimum value for adaptive Mesh Frequency is 2/3rd of the final frequency
required. Although it is recommended to just adapt to the Final frequency .

2 .Enter the Maximum Number of Passes = 10

The Maximum Number of Passes value is the maximum number of mesh refinement
cycles that you would like HFSS to perform. This value is a stopping criterion for
the adaptive solution; if the maximum number of passes has been completed, the
adaptive analysis stops. If the maximum number of passes has not been completed,
the adaptive analysis will continue unless the convergence criteria are reached

3. Enter the Delta s =. 002

The delta S is the change in the magnitude of the S-parameters between two
consecutive passes.

4. Click Ok

Or

Frequency Sweep setup

1. In the HFSS menu Select Analysis Setup and then select Add sweep

2. The Edit Sweep Dialog Box opens.

3. Select Discrete and enter the Start and stop Frequency.

4. Click OK

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SELECT

VIII – Running a Simulation

To validate your model

1. Select HFSS menu >Validate Check

2. Click OK

To Analyze

1. On the HFSS menu, click Analyze

While a simulation is running, you can monitor the solution’s progress in the
Progress window.

You can also view the following solution data at any time during or after the
solution

Convergence data-- by clicking HFSS>Analysis Setup>Convergence.

Matrices computed for the S-parameters, impedances, and propagation constants by

clicking

HFSS>Analysis Setup>Profile

Once the simulation is completed HFSS Informs you in the message window.

Results

HFSS > Results > Solution Data

The solution data window appears

HFSS computes the following matrix data

S, Y, and Z Parameters

VSWR

Excitations: - Gamma and Zo

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Plotting the results

HFSS> Results> Create Report

Or you can also go to the project tree and right click on results and click create
report. The Create report window dialog box appears.

1) Select the report type you want to view from the pull down list on the top of the
dialog box

2) Select the type of plot you want to create, from the display type pull down list.

3) Click OK

The Traces dialog box appears

4) In the Solution list, click the solution containing the data you want to plot.

5) In the domain list, click a domain. For modal and terminal S- parameter reports,
the domain can be frequency or time. In this case we want frequency domain.

6) Click on Add Trace, click done

Analysis and Results

1) Analyze the return loss.

2) Analyze the radiation pattern

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Experiment no.-12
Aim: Design Microstrip Patch Antenna for 4GHz using HFSS.

Software Required: HFSS software

Theory: In high-performance spacecraft, satellite and aircraft, where low size, low
weight, moderate cost, ease of installation are constraints, low profile antenna may
be required. To meet these requirements, micro-strip antennas can be used. Micro-
strip antenna technology has been the most rapidly developing topic in the antenna
field in the last fifteen years, receiving the creative attentions of academic,
industrial, and government engineers and researches throughout the world.

Micro-strip antenna hasquickly evolved from academic novelty to commercial

reality with applications in a wide variety of microwave systems. In fact rapidly
developing markets in a personal communications systems (PC’s), mobile satellite
communications, direct broadcast televisions(DBT) wireless local area network
(WLAN’s) and intelligence vehicle highway system suggest that the demand for
micro-strip antenna and arrays will increase further.

Fig.no. 12.1: Basic structure of micro-strip patch antenna

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Fig.no.12.2: Common shape of micro-strip patch antenna

Fig.no.12.3: E-field distributions for first dominant mode in MSP antenna

Design Calculation:

1. Calculation of the Width (W) -

…………………………….(12.1)

2. Calculation of the Effective Dielectric Constant. This is based on the height,

dielectric constant of the dielectric and the calculated width of the patch antenna.

+ …………………..(12.2)

3. Calculation of the Effective length

……………………………(12.3)
4. Calculation of the length extension ΔL

…………………………………..(12.4)

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5. Calculation of actual length of the patch

………………………(12.5)

Where:

f0 is the Resonance Frequency

W is the Width of the Patch

L is the Length of the Patch

h is the thickness

εr is the relative Permittivity of the dielectric substrate

c is the Speed of light: 3 x 108

from these equations: at f=4GHz

Design parameter:

Patch width: 23mm

Patch length: 18mm

Substrate height: 1.6mm

Material FR4 epoxy Dielectric constant: 4.4

Inset length (z): 6mm Strip length (y): 15 mm

Strip width (x): 3mm

Procedure:

1. Design a rectangular patch for dimension of x= 23mm, y=18mm and z=1.6mm.

2. Design and a rectangular strip line for the x=3mm and y=21mm.
3. Inset this strip line in a rectangular patch.
4. Subtract that part from the patch and combine with insect strip line.
5. Apply a feed line at the corner of strip line.
6. Create a air box across the patch antenna to check the radiation pattern.
7. Simulate this design and check the radiation pattern and return loss for the design.

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Design Patch:

Fig.no.12.4: Design of MicroStrip Patch Antenna

Observation:

Ansoft Corporation XY Plot 1 HFSSDesign1

0.00
Curve Info min
dB(S(WavePort1,WavePort1))
Setup1 : Sw eep1 -31.2917
-5.00

-10.00
dB(S(WavePort1,WavePort1))

-15.00

-20.00

-25.00

-30.00

-35.00
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
Freq [GHz]

Fig.no.12.5: Return Loss vs Frequency

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Ansoft Corporation Radiation Pattern 1 HFSSDesign1

0 Curve Info max

dB(GainTotal)
-30 30 2.2925
Setup1 : LastAdaptive
0.00

-5.00
-60 60
-10.00

-15.00

-90 90

-120 120

-150 150

-180

Fig.no.12.6: Radiation pattern

Result: We have designed the Micro strip patch antenna for 4 GHz. the minimum return
loss parameter (S11) is -31.29 dB for this antenna is at 3.9 GHz. Error in return loss is
2.5%

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PART-II (Optical Fiber)

Experiment no.-13
Aim: To set up Fiber Optic Analog and Fiber Optic Digital link.

Apparatus Required:ST2502 trainer with power supply cords

Components Required: Optical Fiber cable, Cathode ray oscilloscope with

necessary connecting probe.

Theory:
Fiber optic links can be used for transmission of digital as well as analog signals.
Basically a fiber optic link contains three main elements: a transmitter, an optical
fiber and a receiver. The transmitter module takes the input signal in electrical form
and then transforms it into optical energy containing the same information. The
optical fiber is the medium which takes the energy to the receiver. At the receiver,
light is converted back into electrical form with the same pattern as fed to the
transmitter.

Transmitter: Fiber optic transmitters are composed of a buffer, driver and optical
source. The buffer provides both an electrical connection and isolation between the
transmitter and the electrical system the data. The driver provides electrical power to
the optical source. Finally, the optical source converts the electrical current to the
light energy with the same pattern. Commonly used optical sources are laser beams
and LED. The simple driver circuit is shown below.
The transmitter section comprises of Function Generator (which generates input
signals that are going to be used as information to transmit through optical fiber),
frequency modulator, pulse width modulator block.
The output voltage is 1KHz square wave signal. The modulator section accepts the
information signal and converts it into suitable form of transmission through fiber
optic cable.

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Fig.no.13.1: A simple drive circuit for binary digital transmission consisting a common
emitter saturating switch.

The Fiber Optic Link: Emitter and Detector circuit on board form the fiber optic link.
This section provides the light source for the optic fiber and the light detector at the far
end of the fiber optic links. The optic fiber plugs into the connectors provided in this part
of the board. Two separate links are provided.

The Receiver: The comparator circuit, LPF, phase locked loop, AC amplifier circuit for
receiver on the board. It is able to undo the modulation process in order to recover the
original information signal.

Block Diagram: Optical fiber cable

Source Emitter Detector Circuit

(Sinusoidal Circuit CRO
(Photo Diode)
Signal) (LED)

Fig. no.13.1: Fiber Optic Link

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Procedure:-

1. Connect the power supply to the board.

2. Ensure that all switched faults are off.
3. Make the following connections.
 Connect the Function generator 1KHz sine wave (for analog link) and
1KHz square wave (for digital link) output to emitter‟s input.
 Connect the Fiber optic cable between emitter output and detector‟s input.
 Detector‟s output to CRO.
4. On the board, switch emitter‟s driver to analog mode (for analog link).
5. Switch ON the power.
6. Observe the input to emitter with the output from CRO and note that the two
signals are same.
7. Repeat step 4,5,6 for digital link.

Fig.no.13.2: Fiber Optic Link connection diagram

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Observation:

Type of link Input Output Loss of

Voltage(V) Voltage(V) Voltage(V)

1.Analog Link

2.Digital Link

Results:

1. Input voltage is of analog link is ............volts and for digital link is….volts
2. Output voltage of analog link received is…….volts and for digital link is….volts
3. Analog and digital link has been observed and there is low loss while the signal
propagates in optical link

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Experiment no.-14
Aim: Measurement of propagation loss and numerical aperture.

Apparatus Required:ST2502 trainer with power supply cords/ Vitual lab

Components Required: Optical Fiber cables, Numerical Aperture measurement

Jig/Paper & Scale, CRO.

Theory:Propagation loss: Attenuation is loss of power during transit light pulse

loses some of their photons, thus reducing their amplitude. Attenuation for a fiber
usually specified in decibels per kilometer for commercially available fibers
attenuation ranges from 1dB/Km for premium small core glass fibers of over
2000dB/Km for a large core plastic fiber. Loss is by definition negative decibels. In
common usage, discussions of loss omit the negative sign. The basic measurement
for loss in a fiber is made by taking the logarithmic ratio of input power ( ) to the
output power ( ).
Calculation for propagation loss

α(dB) = 10 : where α is loss in dB/meter.

OR

= (L1+L2) : L1= length of shorter cable (0.5m)

= received voltage at 0.5m

: L2= length of longer cable (1m)

= received voltage at 1m
hence; α =…. Nepers/m : (1 neper= 8.686dB)

Procedure :-

1. Make the following connections.

 Connect the Function generator 1KHz sine wave to emitter‟s circuit by a
4mm lead.

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 Connect the 0.5m Fiber optic cable between emitter output and detector‟s
input.
 Connect detector’s output to CRO.

Block Diagram: Optical fiber cable (1m and

1.5 m)

Source Emitter Detector Circuit

(Sinusoidal Circuit
(Photo Diode) CRO
Signal) (LED)

Fig.no.14.1: Propagation Loss

2. Switch ON the power.

3. Set the Oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5V/Div and adjust 4-6 Div. Amplitude by using
cross x 1 probe with the help of variable pot in function generator block at input of
emitter.
4. Observe the output signal from detector on CRO.
5. Adjust the amplitude of received signal as those of transmitted one with the help of
gain adjust pot in ac amplifier block. Note the amplitude and name it as .
6. Now replace the previous fiber optic cable with 1m cable without disturbing any
previous setting.
7. Measure the amplitude at the receiver side again at output of amplifier obne socket.
Note this value and name it as
8. Calculate propagation (attenaution) loss with the help of formula

(b) Numerical Aperture: The numerical aperture refers to maximum angle at which the
incident on fiber end is totally internally reflected and is transmitted along the fiber. The
cone formed by rotation of this angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance
of fiber. if light ray should strike the fiber end within this cone of acceptance it will be
transmitted properly else it is refracted out of fiber. It is very important that the optical
source be properly aligned with the cable and the distance from the launched point &

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cable can be properly selected to ensure the maximum amount of optical power is
transferred to the cable. this can be done by a Jig.

Fig.no.14.2 (a): Principle of calculating NA with Jig and scale

OR

Fig.no.14.2 (b): Principle of calculating NA (virtual lab)

Calculation for numerical aperture (NA):

NA= =sin

where: W= width of concentric circles (mm)

L=distance between screen and fibre(mm)

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Procedure (for numerical aperture) :-

1. Connect the frequency generator's 1 KHz sine wave output to input of emitter 1
circuit.
2. Adjust its amplitude at 5Vpp.

Block Diagram:

Fig.no.14.3: Numerical Aperture Measurement

3. Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter 1 circuit and the
other end to the numerical aperture measurement jig. Hold the white screen
facing the fiber such that its cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
4. Hold white screen with concentric circles (10,15,20,25mm diameter) vertically at
a suitable distance to make the red spot from the fiber coincide with the 10mm
circle
5. Record the distance of screen from the fiber end L and note the diameter W of the
spot and compute the numerical aperture according to formula.

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Fig.no.14.4: Numerical Aperture jig connection diagram

OR

Procedure for numerical aperture (Virtual Lab):-

(https://bop-iitk.vlabs.ac.in/basics-of-physics/exp/numerical-aperture-measurement/index.html)

1. Open simulation tab

2. Click on all the components and they will be arranged on the workspace given
3. Start the experiment. An optical source will be illuminated.
4. Select the type of cable, glass cable or optical cable.
5. Vary the distance ‘L’(mm) and diameter ‘D’ (mm will be calculated in message
box. Each shift of L will produce different D
6. Copy all the values of D and L in data-table
7. Click on “Draw the graph” and apply formula of NA given above and then verify.

Observation:

1. For Propagation loss: received voltage =…volts

received voltage =…volts

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hence; α =…. Nepers/m

2. For numerical aperture

Table 14.1
W (mm) L(cm) NA

10

15

20

25

OR
Paste the observation window of Numerical aperture simulated in virtual lab

Results:
1. As length of optical fiber increases, propagation loss increases which is calculated to
be is….................... neper/meter.
2. NA is dependent on the width and length. Hence, for W=…....L……NA…..
OR
Percentage error of NA produced in virtual lab is…………

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Experiment no.-15
Aim: Measurement of circular polarization of helical antenna of frequency 10 GHz
on MAT-10 and measure its HPBW.

Apparatus Required:

1. MAT10 trainer kit: (10 GHz power source, 2 DRO, Transmitter antenna with
automatic motor control.
2. Power Supply (0-30V)

Components Required:

1. waveguide to coax adapter, waveguide stand, conical horn antennas,

microwave Tx, 5V power supply cable, transmitter antenna stand (monopod)
2. waveguide to coax adapter, waveguide stand, conical horn antennas,
microwave Rx, 5V power supply cable, IF in/ IF out Teflon BNC-BNC cable,
stepper motor stand (monopod)

Theory:

The antenna in which if the conducting wire is twisted in helical shape and
associated to the ground plate with a feeder line then that is called as Helical antenna
or helix antenna. It is the modest antenna, which offers circularly polarized waves. It
is used in extra-terrestrial communications in which satellite relays etc., are
involved. The beyond image demonstrations a helical antenna system, which is used
for satellite communications. These antennas need wider outdoor space. It contains
of a helix of thick copper wire or tubing wound in the shape of a screw thread used
as an antenna in conjunction with a flat metal plate called a ground plate. One end of
the helix is associated to the midpoint conductor of the cable and the outer conductor
is associated to the ground plate.

The radiation of helical antenna is contingent on the diameter of helix, the turn
spacing and the pitch angle. Pitch angle is the angle among a line tangent to the
helix wire and plane normal to the helix axis.

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The helical antenna is a hybrid of two simple radiating elements, the dipole and loop
antennas. A helix becomes a linear antenna when its diameter approaches zero or
pitch angle goes to 90º. On the other hand, a helix of fixed diameter can be seen as a
loop antenna when the spacing between the turns vanishes (α 0º) . Helical antennas
have been widely used as simple and practical radiators over the last five decades
due to their remarkable and unique properties. The rigorous analysis of a helix is
extremely complicated. Therefore, radiation properties of the helix, such as gain, far-
field pattern, axial ratio, and input impedance have been investigated using
experimental methods, approximate analytical techniques, and numerical analyses.
Basic radiation properties of helical antennas are reviewed in this report. The
geometry of a conventional helix is shown below

Fig.15.1: Geometry of Helical Antenna

The parameters that describe a helix are summarized below.

D  diameter of helix

S  spacing between turns

N  number of turns

C  circumference of helix  πDA

total axial length  NS

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α pitch angle
If one turn of the helix is unrolled, the relationships between S,C,α and the length of
wire per turn, L , are obtained as:

S  L sinα  C tanα

L  (S2 C2)1/2  (S2π2 D2)½

Calculation for HPBW:

HPBW= Difference in angle between points on polar plot drawn at 3 dB less to the
max gain given by that particular antenna(refrer “introduction to antenna’)

Procedure: Refer fig 15.2, to establish the setup follow the following procedure:

Helical antenna (LHCP-LHCP/ LHCP-RHCP)

Fig.15.2 Setup for helical antenna on MAT-10

1. Connect LHCP helical antenna to the Tx. Keep antenna in horizontal direction.
2. Now connect RHCP helical antenna to Rx at the stepper monopod.
3. Set the distance between the antennas to be round 1m. Remove any stray object
from around the antennas, especially in LOS (line of sight) as in fig.15.2
4. Now rotate the LHCP helical antenna around its axis in steps of 10 degrees using
stepper motor controller. Take the level readings of receiver at each step and note
down.

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5. Note the max. reading out of the whole set of readings. This will form the 0dB
reference reading. Now subtract all the readings from these reference readings and
note down. Now use this set of readings for drawing a plot.
6. Plot the readings on a polar plot with log scales
7. This plot with both the feeds of helical antennas in horizontal plane shall from E-
plane plot.
8. Without disturbing the setup- rotate the LHCP helical antenna at receiver from
horizontal to vertical plane.
9. Rotate the LHCP helical antenna around its axis in steps of 10 degrees using stepper
motor controller. Take the level readings of receiver at each step and note down.
10. Plot the readings on a polar plot with log scales
11. This plot with both the feeds of helical antennas in horizontal plane shall from H-
plane plot.
12. From the polar plot of E-plane, measure the angle where 0dB reference is located.
This is direction of main lobe or boresight direction.
13. Measure the angle when this reading is -3dB on its either side.
14. The difference between the angular positions of the -3dB points is the E-palne beam
width of conical horn antenna.
15. Measure H-plane beamwidth of LHCP helical antenna from H-plane plot.
16. Exchange LHCP and RHCP and repeat whole procedure for RHCP antenna at
transmitter now.

Observation:
Table15.1:

LHCP Receiver RHCP Receiver

S. Angle Transmitter Relative Transmitter Relative

NO. voltage Transmitter voltage Transmitter
(in voltage voltage
degree) (dBµV/dBmV) (dBµV/dBmV)
(dBµV/dBmV) (dBµV/dBmV)

1. 0

2. 10

~36 ~360

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Results :

1. Radiation pattern on polar plot is plotted as below:

Fig.15.3: Radiation pattern for helical antenna (dB).

2. Polarization discrimination between LHCP and RHCP Helical antenna is

performed using radiation pattern

3. HPBW of LHCP and RHCP helical antenna is ………….and ............. respectively.

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Experiment No.-16
Aim: Design a log periodic antenna of frequency 0.054-0.216GHz and gain of 7-11dB
using PCAAD.

Software Required: PCAAD 6.0

Theory: A log-periodic antenna (LP), also known as a log-periodic array or log-

periodic aerial, is a multi-element, directional antenna designed to operate over a wide
band of frequencies. The most common form of log-periodic antenna is the log-periodic
dipole array or LPDA, The LPDA consists of a number of half-wave dipole driven
elements of gradually increasing length, each consisting of a pair of metal rods. The
dipoles are mounted close together in a line, connected in parallel to the feedline with
alternating phase. Electrically, it simulates a series of two or three-element Yagi
antennas connected together, each set tuned to a different frequency.

Fig.no.16.1: Basic arrangement of a Log Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA).

The LPDA normally consists of a series of half wave dipole "elements" each consisting of
a pair of metal rods, positioned along a support boom lying along the antenna axis. The
elements are spaced at intervals following a logarithmic function of the frequency, known
as d or sigma. The successive elements gradually decrease in length along the boom. The
relationship between the lengths is a function known as tau. Sigma and tau are the key
design elements of the LPDA design. The radiation pattern of the antenna is
unidirectional, with the main lobe along the axis of the boom, off the end with the shortest
elements. Each dipole element is resonant at a wavelength approximately equal to twice
its length. The bandwidth of the antenna, the frequency ranges over which it has

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maximum gain, is approximately between the resonant frequencies of the longest and
shortest element.

Every element in the LPDA antenna is a driven element, that is, connected electrically to
the feedline. A parallel wire transmission line usually runs along the central boom, and
each successive element is connected in opposite phase to it. The feedline can often be
seen zig-zagging across the support boom holding the elements.

The basic geometry is that shown in below Figure 16.2 Each element is shorter than the
element to its left. Ratio of each element to each adjacent element is constant, and is
referred to as tau (t). The other critical dimension is the spacing between elements,
designated “d” in Figure. Distance d1,2 for example, is the distance between the left most
element and its nearest neighbor. The distance between two adjacent elements is equal to:

Fig.no.16.2 A closer look at the LPDA (Note: adjacent elements are fed out of phase).

Two factors, tau (t) and sigma (s), are for the most part the only factors we need to
consider. Tau, as mentioned, is the ratio of the length of one element to its next longest
neighbor. Sigma is known as the “relative spacing constant” and along with t determines
the angle of the antenna’s apex, a.

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I: PROCEDURE (LPDA design): The routine gives an approximate design for a log
periodic dipole array, for a specified bandwidth and gain, based on the formulas (C.A.
Balanis, antenna theory: analysis & design, 2nd edition, john wiley and sons, new York,
1997). The routine computes the necessary number of dipoles in the array and the
spacings, lengths and radii for each element.
Steps to follow the experiment are as follows:
1. Begin by entering the lower frequency=0.054GHz
2. Upper frequency=0.216GHz
3. Enter desired gain (between 7-11dB)= 7.5 and compute
4. Enter radius of largest dipole=1cm
5. The routine prints out the log periodic array scale factors, sigma=0.147
tau=0.822
6. It is followed by calculation of a list of spacing, length, radius for each element in
the array. Spacings are measured from the largest dipole, the last spacing is not
used. (use scroll bar to scroll through the elements).

Observation:

Table 16.1 :
Results from reference* are compared with PCAAD for LPDA design
S.no. QUANTITY REFRENCE* PCAAD 6.0

1. sigma 0.147 0.147

2. tau 0.822 0.822

3. First dipole length 264.8cm 264.8cm

4. Spacing to second 77.8cm 77.8cm

dipole

5. Third dipole radius 0.64cm 0.64cm

6. Last dipole radius 55.2cm 55.2cm

*Ref: D.M. Pozar, PCAAD, ANTENNA DESIGN ASSOCIIATES, LEVERETT, MA,2002

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II: PROCEDURE (LPDA analysis):

Along with the results obtained from LPDA design open the option of LPDA
analysis
The routine performs a complete analysis of PLDA using a moment method solution that
includes all mutual coupling terms. Dipole currents are expanded using piecewise
sinusoidal (PWS) modes. The array is fed with a transmission line having alternating
terminals and analyzed using port admittance matrices. The routine computes the input
impedance at the feed port, the array directivity and gain and the patterns for the array.
1. Begin by entering frequency =0.216 GHz
2. Feed line impedance =50ohms
3. No. of dipoles=3
4. No. of modes/dipoles=3
5. The routine will then compute all necessary dimensions and spacing’s for the
array and automatically enter these values into the scroll boxes. Alternatively, you
can manually enter the length, spacing and radius for each dipole in the array. The
dipoles are numbered starting from the largest element.
Table 16.2:

s.no. element Length (cm) Spacing (cm) Radius (cm)

1 #1 (longest) 44.312 13.02773 0.55541

2 #2 36.42447 10.70879 0.45655

3 #3(smallest) 29.94091 0.0 0.37528

6. Click Get Data to enter sigma and tau parameters of each element in LPDA array
Table 16.3:

Parameter #1 or #2 or #3

sigma 0.147 (constant)

tau 0.822(constant)

Length of largest dipole (cm) *Pick from table

16.2*
Radius of largest dipole(cm)

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 Antenna and Wave Propagation Lab

7. Select the pattern type and parameters with the PATTERN TYPE SELECT
BUTTON
8. When all data is entered, click the Compute Button to calculate the moment
method solution. The input impedance, directivity and gain and front to back ratio
etc. are listed:
Input impedance (ohm) = 36.3+i0.8 Directivity (dB) = 2.8
Gain (dB) = -15.3 Front to back ratio= 0.7
Table 16.4:

dipole Current (M/P)

1 0.22/10.0

2 0.15/233.3

3 0.09/9.05

9. The geometry of the LPDA can be viewed in 3-D by Clicking on Show

Geometry. As shown in graphic below the dipoles are all parallel to the x-axis
with the main beam in z direction. The feed is assumed to be located at the
terminals of the largest dipole and a matched load is assumed to be located at the
terminals of the largest dipole.

Fig.no.16.3: Design/Geometry of log periodic antenna.

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 Antenna and Wave Propagation Lab

Fig.no.16.4: Rectangular polar plot in E and H plane through PCAAD

Results: Similar to rectangular plot, Cartesian plot and 3-D volumetric plot are also
plotted. Hence, we have successfully designed and analyzed a log periodic antenna of
frequency 0.054-0.216 GHz and gain from 7-11dB with the help of PCAAD software.
The radiation plots have been analysed.

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