MATERIAL TESTING

Introduction
When an engineer designs some structure or machine, she must know the effects which the
application of forces may have on the material before she can use it. Various mechanical tests
have been devised over the years to determine such effects.
Thus, for example, in a tensile test we measure the force required to stretch a specimen of the
metal until it breaks; whilst in various hardness tests we produce a small dent in the surface by
means of using a compressive force and take the force used divided by the surface area of the
impression produced by it as a measure of hardness.
It is on tests and values specified by such bodies that the engineer bases his designs and accepts
her materials.
Material testing
Material testing is accomplished for the purpose of for estimating the behavior of material
under loading (tensile, compressive, shear, torsion and impact, cyclic loading etc.) of metal and
for Properties and Testing of materials.., providing necessary data for the product
designers, equipment designers, tool and die designers and system designers. The material
behavior data under loading is used by designers for design calculations and determining
whether a material can meet the desired functional requirements of the designed product or part.
Also, it is very important that the material shall be tested so that their mechanical properties
especially their strength can be assessed and compared. Therefore the test procedure for
developing standard specification of materials has to be evolved.
Material testing Methods
If the test-piece is destroyed during the testing process, Such tests are therefore known as
destructive tests, and can only be applied to individual test-pieces. This type of testing is used to
determine the mechanical properties of a material,
Tests of a different nature and purpose are used to examine manufactured components for
internal flaws and faults, e.g. X-rays used to seek internal cavities in castings. These tests are
generally referred to as non-destructive tests (NDT), since the component, so to speak, 'lives to
tell the tale'. Material specimen is not deformed or fractured during the test. This type of testing
is used to inspect materials for defects, such as cracks, voids, and inclusions.

DESTRUCTIVE TESTS: Tensile Test, Hardness Test, Impact Test, Creep Test

THE TENSILE TEST

The tensile test of a material involves a test-piece
of known cross sectional area being gripped in
the jaws of a testing-machine and then subject to
a tensile force which is increased in increments.
For each increment of force, the amount by
which the length of a known 'gauge length' on the
test-piece increases is measured. This process
continues until the test-piece fractures.

Fig. 1 Schematic universal testing machine

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

Force-extension diagrams

Examination of a typical force-extension diagram

(Figure 2) for an annealed carbon steel shows that at
first the amount of extension is very small compared
with the increase in force. Such extension, as there is, is
directly proportional to the force; that is, OA is a
straight line. If the force is released at any point before
A is reached, the test-piece will return to its original
length. Thus the extension between O and A is elastic
and the material is said to obey Hooke's law. We have
the force proportional to the extension and so:
Stress  strain, Stress = E x strain
Where E is the tensile modulus of elasticity, also known
as Young's modulus
Figure 2 Force-extension diagram for an annealed low-carbon steel.

If the test-piece is stressed past point A, known as the elastic limit or the limit of proportionality,
the material suddenly 'gives', that is it suffers a sudden extension for very little increase in force.
This is called the yield point (Y), and, if the force is now removed, a small permanent extension
will remain in the material. Any extension which occurs past the point A has an element which is
of a plastic nature. As the force is increased further, the material stretches rapidly - first
uniformly along its entire length, and then locally to form a 'neck'. This 'necking' occurs just after
the maximum force has been reached, at M, and since the cross-section decreases rapidly at the
neck, the force at B required to break the specimen is much less than the maximum load at M.

This might be an appropriate moment to point out the difference between a force-extension
diagram and a stress-strain diagram, since the terms are often loosely and imprecisely used.
Figure 2 clearly represents a force-extension diagram, since the total force is plotted against the
total extension, and, as the force decreases past the point M, for the reasons mentioned above,
this decrease is indicated by the diagram. If, however, we wished to plot stress (force per unit
area of cross-section of the specimen), we would need to measure the minimum cross-section of
the specimen, as well as its length, for each increment of force. This would be particularly
important for the values of force after the point M, since in this part of the test the cross-section
is decreasing rapidly, due to the fonnation of the 'neck'. Thus, if the stress were calculated on
this decreasing diameter, the resulting stress-strain diagram would follow a path indicated by
the broken line to Bi (Figure2 ).
In practice, however, the original cross-section of the material is used and the term 'engineering
stress' used for the force at any stage of the loading cycle divided by the original area of cross-
section. Thus, a nominal value of the tensile strength of a material is calculated using the
maximum force (at M) and the original cross-sectional area of the test-piece:

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

In terms of structural or constructional engineering, the elastic limit A will be of far greater
significance.

Unfortunately, force-extension diagrams for

heat-treated steels, and for most other alloys,
do not often show a well-defined yield point,
and the 'elastic portion' of the graph merges
gradually into the 'plastic section', as shown in
the examples in Figure 3.2. This makes it
almost impossible to assess the yield stress of
such an alloy and, in cases like this, yield
stress is replaced by a value known as proof stress.

Figure 4. The determination of O. 1 per cent proof stress

The 0.1 per cent proof stress of an alloy (denoted by the symbol Rp0.1)
is defined as that stress which will produce a permanent extension of 0.1
per cent in the gauge length of the test-piece. This is very roughly
equivalent to the permanent extension remaining in a normalised steel at
its yield point. The 0.1 per cent proof stress of a material is derived as
shown in Figure 4. The relevant part of the force-extension diagram is
plotted as described earlier. A distance OA, equal to 0.1 per cent of the
gauge length, is marked along the horizontal axis. A line is then drawn
from A, parallel to the straight-line portion of the force-extension
diagram. The line from A intersects the diagram at B and this indicates
the proof force which would produce a permanent extension of 0.1 per cent in the gauge length
of the specimen. From this value of force, the 0.1 per cent proof stress can be calculated:

It will be obvious from the above, that if the yield stress (or 0.1 per cent proof stress) is exceeded
in a material, then fairly rapid plastic deformation and failure are likely to occur

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

 The percentage elongation
This is a measure of the ductility of the material. The two halves of the broken test-piece are
fitted together (Figure 3.4) and the extended gauge length is measured, then:

The two test-pieces in Figure 3.4(i) are

of similar material and of equal
diameter. Consequently, the
dimensions and shape of both 'necked'
portions will also be similar, that is the
increase in length will be the same in
each test-piece.
However, since different gauge lengths
have been used it follows that the
percentage elongation reported on
gauge length would be different for
each.

Figure 3.4 The determination of the percentage elongation

Proportional test-pieces
The two test-pieces in Figure 3.4(i) are of similar material and of equal diameter. Consequently,
the dimensions and shape of both 'necked' portions will also be similar, that is the increase in
length will be the same in each test-piece. However, since different gauge lengths have been
used it follows that the percentage elongation reported on gauge length would be different for
each. Therefore, in order that the values of the percentage elongation shall be comparable, it is
obvious that test piece should be geometrically similar; that is, there must be a standard
relationship or ratio between cross-sectional area and gauge length. Test pieces which are
geometrically similar and fulfil these conditions are known as proportional test-pieces. The
British Standards Institution lays down that, for proportional test-pieces:

Where Lo is the gauge length and So the original area of cross-section.

This formula has been accepted by international agreement. For test pieces of
Circular cross-section, it gives a value:
Lo = 5d (approximately)
Where d is the diameter of the gauge length. Thus a test-piece 200 mm2 in cross-sectional area
will have a diameter of 15.96 mm (16 mm) and a gauge length of 80 mm.

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

TERMS USED IN TENSILE TESTING
Hook’s Law
Hook’s law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit (up to proportional limit),
stress is proportional to strain.
Strain
Strain is the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.
Modulus of Elasticity
The ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain or compressive stress to compressive strain is called
modulus of elasticity. It is denoted by E. It is also called as Young’s modulus of elasticity.
E = Tensile Stress/Tensile Strain
Poisson’s Ratio
The ratio of lateral strain to linear strain in metal is called poisson’s ratio. Its value is constant for
a particular material but varies for different materials.
Proof Resilience
The maximum amount of energy which can be stored in an elastic limit is known as proof
resilience.
Modulus of Resilience
The proof resilience per unit volume of a material is modulus of resilience or elastic toughness.

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

 HARDNESS TESTS
It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and
machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal. The hardness of a
metal may be determined by the following tests.
(a) Brinell hardness test
(b) Rockwell hardness test
(c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test
(d) Shore scleroscope

A.) The Brinell hardness test

A hardened steel ball is forced into the surface of a test-piece by means of a suitable standard
load (Figure 3.6). The diameter of the impression is then measured, using some form of
calibrated microscope, and the Brinell hardness number (H) is found from:

In carrying out a Brinell test, certain conditions must be fulfilled. First, the depth of impression
must not be too great relative to the thickness of the test-piece, otherwise we may produce the
situation shown in Figure 3.7 A. Here it is the table of the machine, rather than the test-piece,
which is supporting the load. Hence it is recommended that the thickness of the test-piece shall
be at least eight times the depth of the impression. The width of the test-piece must also be
adequate to support the load (Figure 3.6), otherwise the edges of the impression may collapse
due to the lack of support and so give a falsely low reading.

Figure 3.7 This illustrates the necessity of using the correct ball
diameter in relation to the thickness of the test-piece.

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

Materials of non-uniform cross-section also present a problem. Thus the surface skin of cold-
rolled metal plate or strip will be much harder than the interior layers and the use of a small ball
in the Brinell test would therefore suggest a higher hardness index than if a larger ball were used,
since in the latter case the ball would be supported by the softer metal of the interior. Similarly,
case-hardened steels consist of a very hard skin supported by softer but tougher metal beneath
and the only satisfactory way to deal with such a situation is to cut a slice through the
component, polish and etch it, so that the extent of the case can be seen, and then make hardness
measurements at appropriate points across the section using the smallest ball or, preferably, the
Vickers diamond pyramid test
Balls of 10 mm, 5 mm and 1 mm diameter are available; so one appropriate to the thickness of
the test-piece should be chosen, bearing in mind that the larger the ball it is possible to use, the
more accurate is the result likely to be. Having decided upon a suitable ball, we must now select
a load which will produce an impression of reasonable proportions. If, for example, in testing a
soft metal we use a load which is too great relative to the size of the ball, we shall get an
impression similar to that indicated in Figure 3.8(i). Here the ball has sunk to its full diameter,
and the result is meaningless. On the other hand, the impression shown in Figure 3.8(ii) would be
obtained if the load were too small relative to the ball diameter, and here the result would be
uncertain. For different materials, then, the ratio P/D2 has been standardised (Table 3.2) in order
to obtain accurate and comparable results. P is still measured in 'kg force' and D in mm.

B.) The Vickers pyramid hardness test

This test uses a square-based diamond pyramid

as the indentor. One great advantage of this is
that all the impressions will be the same square
shape, regardless of how big an indentation
force is used. Consequently the operator does
not have to choose a P/D2 ratio as he does in
the Brinell test, though he must still observe
the relationship between the depth of
impression and thickness of specimen, for reasons similar to those indicated in the case of the
Brinell test and illustrated in
Figure 3.7. Here the thickness needs to be at least 1.5 times the diagonal
length of the indentation (BS 427: Vickers Hardness Test

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

A further advantage of the Vickers hardness test is that the hardness values for very hard
materials (above an index of 500) are likely to be more accurate than the corresponding Brinell
numbers - a diamond does not deform under high pressure to the same extent as does a steel ball,
and so the result will be less uncertain. In this test, the diagonal length of the square impression
is measured by means of a microscope which has a variable slit built into the eyepiece
(Figure 3.9(iii)). The width of the slit is adjusted so that its edges coincide with the corners of the
impression, and the relative diagonal length of the impression is then obtained from a small
instrument geared to the movement of the slit, and working on the principle of a revolution
counter. The ocular reading thus obtained is converted to a Vickers pyramid hardness number
(VPN) by reference to tables (in some quarters, this test is referred to as the diamond pyramid
hardness (DPH) test). The size of the impression is related to hardness in the same way as is the
Brinell number, i.e.

where P is in kgf. The surface area A of the indentation is

c?/(2 sin 6/2), where 9 is the angle of the diamond pyramid apex, i.e. 136°, and d is the
arithmetic mean of the diagonals (in mm). Since the impression made by the diamond is
generally much smaller than that produced by the Brinell indentor, a smoother surface finish is
required on the test-piece. This is produced by rubbing with fine emery paper of about '400 grit'.
Surface damage is negligible, making the Vickers test more suitable for testing finished
components. The specified time of contact between the indentor and the test-piece in most
hardness tests is 15 seconds. In the Vickers testing machine (Figure 3.10), this period of contact
is timed automatically by a piston working in an oil dashpot.

Figure 3.10 The loading system for the Vickers pyramid hardness
machine. It is essentially a second-order lever system. The fifteen second period of load
application is timed by an oil dashpot system.

C.) The Rockwell hardness test

It is particularly useful for rapid routine testing of finished material, since the hardness number is
indicated on a dial, and no subsequent measurement of the diameter is involved. The test-piece,
which needs no preparation save the removal of dirt and scale from the surface, is placed on the
table of the instrument and the indentor is brought into contact with the surface under 'light load'.
This takes up the 'slack' in the system and the scale is then adjusted to zero. 'Full load' is then
applied, and when it is subsequently released (timing being automatic), the test-piece remains
under the 'light load' whilst the hardness index is read directly from the scale. Although the
penetration depth h (Figure 3.11) of the impression is measured by the instrument, this is

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

converted to hardness values which appear on the dial. The Rockwell hardness number is given
by:
Rockwell hardness = E – h
where E is a constant determined by the form of the indentor; for a diamond cone indentor E is
100, for a steel ball 130 (BS 891: Rockwell Hardness Test; BS 4175: Rockwell Superficial
Hardness Test).

Figure 3.11 The Rockwell test

There are several different scales on the dial, the scale being determined by the indentor and 'full
load' used. The most important
Scales are:
1 Scale B, which is used in conjunction with a 1/16 inch diameter steel ball and a 100 kgf load.
This is used mainly for softer metals, such as copper alloys, aluminium alloys, normalised steel
and mild steel.
2 Scale C, which is used in conjunction with a diamond cone of 120° angle and a 150 kgf load.
This is used mainly for hardened steels and other very hard materials such as hard cast irons.
3 Scale A, which is used in conjunction with the diamond cone and a
60 kgf load. This is used for extremely hard materials, such as tool steels.
The Rockwell machine is very rapid in action, and can be used by relatively unskilled operators.
Since the size of the impression is also very small, it is particularly useful for the routine testing
of stock or individual components on a production basis.

D.) The Shore scleroscope

This is a small portable instrument which can be used for testing the hardness of large
components such as rolls, drop-forgings, dies, castings and gears. Such components could not be
placed on the table of one of the more orthodox machines mentioned above. The scleroscope
embodies a small diamond-tipped 'tup', or hammer, of mass approximately 2.5 g, which is
released so that it falls from a standard height of about 250 mm inside a graduated glass tube
placed on the test surface. The height of rebound is taken as the hardness index.
Soft materials absorb more of the kinetic energy of the hammer, as they are more easily
penetrated by the diamond point, and so the height of rebound is less. Conversely, a greater
height of rebound is obtained from hard materials.

IMPACT TESTS
These tests are used to indicate the toughness of a material, and particularly its capacity for
resisting mechanical shock. Brittleness, resulting from a variety of causes, is often not revealed

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

during a tensile test. For example, nickel-chromium constructional steels suffer from a defect
known as 'temper brittleness' (see Section 13.2). This is caused by faulty heat-treatment, yet a
tensile test-piece derived from a satisfactorily treated material and one produced from a similar
material but which has been incorrectly heat-treated might both show approximately the same
tensile strengths and elongations. In an impact test, however, the difference would be apparent;
the unsatisfactory material would prove to be extremely brittle as compared with the correctly
treated one, which would be tough. With the Izod and Charpy impact tests, a heavy pendulum,
mounted on ball-bearings, is allowed to strike a test-piece after being released from a fixed
height (Figure 3.12). The tests differ in the form of test- pieces used and height from which the
pendulum swings. The striking energy is partially absorbed in breaking the test-piece, and as the
pendulum swings past, it carries with it a drag pointer which it leaves at its highest point of
swing. This indicates the amount of mechanical energy used in fracturing the test-piece.

Figure 3.12 The Avery-Denison universal

impact-testing machine. This machine can
be used for either Charpy or Izod impact
tests. For Izod tests, the pendulum is
released from the lower position, to give a
striking energy of 170 J and for the Charpy
test it is released from the upper position to
give a striking energy of 300 J. The scale
carries a set of graduations for each test.
The machine can also be used for
impacttension tests

The Izod impact test

This test employs a standard notched test-piece (Figure 3.13) which is clamped firmly in a vice.
The striking energy is approximately 163 J. The test-piece is notched so that there is an initial
'crack' to initiate fracture. It is essential, however, that this notch always be standard, for which
reason a standard gauge is supplied to test the dimensional accuracy of the notch, both in this and
other impact tests dealt with below (BS 131: Notched-bar Tests). Examination of the fractured
cross-section of the test-piece reveals further useful information. In the most ductile materials the
fractured surface is likely to be of a 'fibrous' nature and will be rather dull and 'silky' in
appearance (Figure 3.14(i)) since plastic flow of the crystalline structure has occurred. With very
brittle materials, the fractured surface will be relatively bright, sparkling and 'crystalline' since
crystals have not been plastically deformed. As fracture has followed the crystal boundaries,
each small crystal reflects a bright point of light (Figure 3.14(iv)). Many metals will fall
somewhere between these extremes and the fractured surface will show a combination of ductile
and 'crystalline' areas. For steels in particular, it is possible to estimate quite accurately the

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

percentage crystalline area of the fractured surface of the test-piece and to use this as a measure
of the notch-ductility.

Figure 3.13 Details of standard test-pieces used in both the Izod and Charpy tests

The Charpy impact test

This test is of continental origin, and differs from the Izod test in that the test-piece is supported
at each end (Figure 3.12); whereas the Izod test uses a test-piece held cantilever fashion. Here the
load on the pendulum can be varied so that the impact energy is either 150 J or 300 J.

The function of the V notch in metal is to ensure that the specimen will break as a result of the
impact load to which it is subjected. Without the notch, many alloys would simply bend without
breaking, and it would therefore be impossible to determine their ability to absorb energy. It is
therefore important to observe that the blow in Charpy test is delivered at a point directly behind
the notch and in the Izod test the blow is struck on the same side of the notch towards the end of
the cantilever.
.
CREEP
When stressed over a long period of time, some metals extend very gradually and may ultimately
fail at a stress well below the tensile strength of the material. This phenomenon of slow but
continuous extension under a steady force is known as 'creep'. Such slow extension is more
prevalent at high temperatures, and for this reason the effects of creep must be taken into account
in the design of steam and chemical plant, gas and steam turbines and furnace equipment.
Creep occurs generally in three stages (Figure 3.15), termed primary, secondary and tertiary
creep. During the primary creep period, the strain is changing but the rate at which it is changing
with time decreases.
During the secondary creep period, the strain increases steadily with time. During the tertiary
creep period the rate at which the strain is changing increases and eventually failure occurs. A
family of curves can be produced which show the creep for different initial stresses and
temperatures. At low stress and/or low temperature (curve I in the figure) some primary creep
may occur but this falls to a negligible amount in the secondary stage when the creep curve

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

becomes almost horizontal. With increased stress and/or temperature (curves II and III) the rate
of secondary creep increases, leading to tertiary creep and inevitable catastrophic failure.

Creep tests are carried out on test-pieces which

are similar in form to ordinary test-pieces. A test-
piece is enclosed in a thermostatically controlled
electric tube furnace which can be maintained
accurately at a fixed temperature over the long
period of time occupied by the test. The test-piece
is statically stressed, and some form of sensitive
extensometer
is used to measure the extremely small extensions at suitable time

FATIGUE TEST
A fatigue test is a method used to determine the durability and performance of materials under
cyclic loading. This test helps to understand how a material behaves under repeated stress, which
is crucial for predicting its lifespan and ensuring safety in various applications, such as in
construction, automotive, aerospace, and other engineering fields.

1. Purpose:
 To evaluate how a material withstands repeated cycles of stress or strain.
 To determine the fatigue life, which is the number of cycles a material can endure
before failure.

Test Parameters:

Stress Range (Δσ): The difference between the maximum and minimum stress applied in each
cycle.
Stress Ratio (R): The ratio of the minimum stress to the maximum stress (R = σ_min / σ_max).
Frequency (f): The number of cycles per second, typically measured in Hertz (Hz).
Amplitude: The peak value of the applied stress or strain.

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

Wear stress =(Ϭ max + Ϭ min)/2
Alternating stress =(Ϭ max – Ϭ min)/2

Test Procedure:
Specimen Preparation: Standardized specimens of the material are prepared according to specific
dimensions and shapes.
Loading: The specimen is subjected to cyclic loading using a fatigue testing machine, which can
apply axial, torsional, bending, or combined stresses.
Monitoring: The number of cycles until failure is recorded, along with any changes in the
material properties, such as crack initiation and propagation.
Data Analysis: The results are analyzed to create S-N curves (Stress-Number of cycles) or ε-N
curves (Strain-Number of cycles), which illustrate the relationship between stress or strain and
the number of cycles to failure.

Failure Modes:
Crack Initiation: The initial phase where microcracks form at stress concentration points, such as
surface defects or grain boundaries.
Crack Propagation: The growth of these cracks under cyclic loading, leading to a progressive
weakening of the material.
Final Fracture: The stage where the remaining cross-section can no longer sustain the applied
load, resulting in sudden failure.

Importance of Fatigue Testing:

Design and Safety: Helps in designing components that can withstand cyclic loads without
premature failure, ensuring safety and reliability.
Material Selection: Assists in choosing the appropriate materials for applications involving
repeated loading.
Predictive Maintenance: Provides data for predictive maintenance schedules, preventing
unexpected failures in service.

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) encompasses a range of techniques used to evaluate the
properties of a material, component, or system without causing damage. Here are details on
several common NDT methods, including their procedures:
1. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Principle:
Ultrasonic testing: Ultrasonic testing uses high-frequency sound waves to inspect materials. The
sound waves are transmitted through the material, and any defects will reflect the sound waves.
By analyzing the reflected sound waves, inspectors can determine the location and size of
defects.

Procedure:
There are two methods of receiving the
ultrasound waveform: reflection and
attenuation. In reflection (or pulse-echo)
mode, the transducer performs both the
sending and the receiving of the pulsed
waves as the "sound" is reflected back to
the device. Reflected ultrasound comes
from an interface, such as the back wall of
the object or from an imperfection within
the object. The diagnostic machine displays
these results in the form of a signal with an
amplitude representing the intensity of the
reflection and the distance, representing the
arrival time of the reflection. In attenuation
(or through-transmission) mode, a
transmitter sends ultrasound through one
surface, and a separate receiver detects the
amount that has reached it on another
surface after travelling through the
medium. Imperfections or other conditions
in the space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus
revealing their presence. Using the couplant increases the efficiency of the process by reducing
the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to separation between the surfaces.

2. Radiographic Testing (RT)

Principle: Uses X-rays or gamma rays to create images of the internal structure of a material.
Radiographic testing (X-ray): X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation that can pass
through some materials but are absorbed by others. In radiographic testing, X-rays are used to
create an image of the inside of an object. This image can reveal defects such as cracks, voids,
and inclusions.

Procedure:

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

 1. Setup: Position the material between the radiation source and a detector (such as a film
or digital sensor).
2. Exposure: Expose the material to radiation. The radiation passes through the material
and is absorbed at different rates depending on the material’s density and thickness.
3. Imaging: Capture the resulting image on the detector. Variations in absorption create a
contrast image that reveals internal features.
4. Development: (For film-based RT) Develop the film to produce a visible image.
5. Evaluation: Inspect the radiographic image for indications of internal defects such as
cracks, voids, or inclusions.

3. Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)

Principle: Magnetic particle testing: Magnetic particle testing is used to inspect ferromagnetic
materials (materials that are attracted to magnets) for surface and subsurface cracks. In magnetic
particle testing, a strong magnetic field is applied to the material. Then, magnetic particles are
applied to the surface of the material. The magnetic particles will be attracted to any cracks in the
material.
Procedure:
1. Preparation: Clean the surface of the test material to remove any dirt, oil, or scale.
2. Magnetization: Apply a magnetic field to the material using a magnet or electrical
current.
3. Application of Particles: Apply iron particles (dry or suspended in a liquid) to the
surface. These particles will gather at areas of magnetic flux leakage, indicating flaws.
4. Inspection: Visually inspect the surface under proper lighting conditions to identify the
accumulation of particles that indicate defects.
5. Demagnetization: Demagnetize the material if necessary.

There are two types of magnetic particle testing procedures — wet and dry. These methods both
rely on the same general MPI process where an inspector magnetizes a material to identify
defects. The difference occurs in the magnetic particles the inspector applies to make the defects
easy to see.

Wet Magnetic Particle Testing

Wet magnetic particle testing (WMPT) applies the particles through a liquid carrier. Inspectors
can apply this liquid carrier through a spray or free-flowing liquid. This method allows for quick
and even coverage. The liquid also offers long-term mobility for the particles, so they can easily
collect at the flux leakage fields for strong defect visibility.

WMPT is ideal for smooth surfaces where the defects are small. On rough surfaces, the small
particles in the liquid c arrier tend to settle in the surface texture and lose their mobility.
Dry Magnetic Particle Testing
In dry magnetic particle testing (DMPT), an inspector uses a powder to apply magnetic particles
to a material. When inspectors apply the magnetic powder, they dust it across the surface to
create a thin layer.

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

Once the powder is applied, the inspector must gently blow off excess powder. This step requires
care because the force of air must be strong enough to remove the excess without removing the
powder that has settled in the flux leakage field.

DMPT is preferred for rough surfaces like as-cast surfaces and unground welds. It’s also ideal
for detecting shallow subsurface defects. Inspectors typically rely on an electromagnetic yoke to
apply the magnetic field to the testing material because the AC or half-wave DC current pulses
and gives the powder mobility.
4. Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT)
Principle: Liquid penetrant testing: Liquid penetrant testing is used to inspect non-porous
materials for surface-breaking defects such as cracks, holes, and porosity. In liquid penetrant
testing, a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the material. The penetrant will seep into
any cracks in the material. Then, the surface of the material is cleaned, and a developer is
applied. The developer will draw the penetrant out of the cracks, making them visible to the
inspector.

Procedure:
1. Preparation: Clean the surface of the test material to remove contaminants.
2. Application of Penetrant: Apply a liquid penetrant to the surface and allow it to seep
into any surface-breaking defects.
3. Removal of Excess Penetrant: Remove excess penetrant from the surface, usually with
a solvent or water, leaving penetrant only in defects.
4. Application of Developer: Apply a developer that draws the penetrant out of the defects,
making them visible.
5. Inspection: Inspect the surface under appropriate lighting (visible or UV light) to identify
indications of defects.
6. Cleaning: Clean the surface to remove any remaining penetrant and developer.
5. Visual Inspection
Principle:
Visual testing: The most basic and inexpensive NDT method, visual testing involves inspecting a
material for surface defects such as cracks, scratches, and corrosion.
Procedure:
1. Preparation: Ensure adequate lighting and cleanliness of the inspection area.
2. Inspection: Visually examine the material’s surface using the naked eye or magnifying
tools.
3. Documentation: Record any observed defects, noting their location, size, and nature.

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

6. Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
Principle: Uses electromagnetic induction to detect flaws in conductive materials.
Procedure:
1. Preparation: Clean the surface of the material.
2. Coil Application: Place the eddy current probe or coil near the surface of the material.
3. Inspection: Pass an alternating current through the coil to generate a magnetic field.
Monitor changes in the impedance of the coil, which indicate flaws.
4. Analysis: Interpret the signals to determine the presence and characteristics of defects.
Each of these NDT methods has its specific applications, advantages, and limitations, making
them suitable for different types of inspections and materials. Proper training and experience are
essential to accurately perform and interpret the results of these tests.

METALLOGRAPHY
Metallography is the science and art of studying the microstructure of metals and alloys. It
involves preparing a sample of the metal, polishing it to a mirror finish, and then etching it with a
chemical solution to reveal its grain structure. The microstructure of a metal can tell you a lot
about its properties, such as its strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance.

1. Sectioning:
 Cutting: Samples are cut from larger pieces using various methods such as
abrasive cutting, diamond saws, or laser cutting. The choice of method depends
on the hardness and size of the material.
 Minimizing Damage: Care is taken to minimize thermal and mechanical damage
during cutting to preserve the original microstructure.
2. Mounting:
 Embedding: The sample is embedded in a resin or plastic mount to facilitate
handling and protect the edges during further preparation.
 Types of Mounting: Cold mounting (using two-part epoxy resins) and hot
mounting (using thermoplastic resins under heat and pressure) are common
techniques.
3. Grinding:
 Abrasive Papers: Samples are ground using progressively finer abrasive papers
(e.g., silicon carbide papers) to remove saw marks and achieve a flat surface.
 Uniform Surface: Grinding ensures a uniform surface and removes any
deformed layer caused by sectioning.
4. Polishing:
 Polishing Cloths: Further polishing is done using cloths impregnated with fine
diamond particles or alumina suspensions.
 Mirror Finish: The goal is to achieve a mirror-like finish free of scratches and
deformation.
5. Etching:
 Chemical Etchants: The polished sample is chemically etched to reveal
microstructural features. Different etchants are used for different metals and
alloys.

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

  Selective Attack: Etching selectively attacks specific phases or grain boundaries,
making them visible under a microscope.
Microscopy Techniques
After sample preparation, various microscopy techniques are employed to examine the
microstructure of the metal:
1. Optical Microscopy:
 Bright Field: The most common mode, where light is transmitted through or
reflected off the sample.
 Dark Field: Enhances contrast by illuminating the sample with oblique light,
highlighting surface features.
 Polarized Light: Used for anisotropic materials to study grain orientation and
phase differences.
 Differential Interference Contrast (DIC): Provides 3D-like images to highlight
surface topography.
2. Electron Microscopy:
 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): Provides high-resolution images of the
sample surface. SEM can also be equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy (EDS) for elemental analysis.
 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): Offers even higher resolution
images and allows for the study of internal structures at the atomic level. TEM
requires very thin samples, typically less than 100 nanometers thick.
 Focused Ion Beam (FIB): Used for site-specific analysis and sample preparation
for TEM.
3. Other Techniques:
 X-ray Diffraction (XRD): Identifies crystalline phases and measures
crystallographic structures and orientations.
 Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD): Used with SEM to study
crystallographic orientation and phase identification.
Image Analysis
Digital image analysis software is employed to quantify and analyze the microstructural features
observed in micrographs. Key tasks include:
 Grain Size Measurement: Determining the size and distribution of grains in the
microstructure.
 Phase Quantification: Measuring the volume fraction of different phases present in the
sample.
 Inclusion Analysis: Identifying and quantifying non-metallic inclusions within the metal.
 Porosity Analysis: Assessing the size, shape, and distribution of pores or voids in the
material.
Applications of Metallography
Metallography has wide-ranging applications across various industries, including:
 Quality Control and Assurance: Ensuring that metal products meet specified standards
and identifying any defects or deviations from desired properties.
 Failure Analysis: Investigating failed components to determine the root cause of failure,
such as fatigue, corrosion, or manufacturing defects.
 Research and Development: Studying the effects of different processing techniques
(e.g., heat treatment, alloying) on the microstructure and properties of metals.

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7

  Material Selection: Helping engineers select appropriate materials for specific
applications by providing detailed microstructural information.
Common Metallographic Features
 Grain Structure: The arrangement and size of crystals in the metal. Fine grains typically
enhance strength and toughness, while coarse grains may lead to brittleness.
 Phases: Different regions within the metal with distinct physical and chemical properties.
The distribution and composition of phases affect the overall properties of the alloy.
 Inclusions: Non-metallic particles such as oxides, sulfides, and silicates that can form
during the manufacturing process. Inclusions can act as stress concentrators and reduce
the material's mechanical properties.
 Porosity: Voids or pores within the material that can arise from casting processes or
incomplete sintering in powdered metallurgy. High porosity can weaken the metal and
lead to failure.
Advanced Metallographic Techniques
 3D Metallography: Advanced techniques such as X-ray computed tomography (XCT)
allow for 3D visualization and analysis of the internal structure of materials without
sectioning.
 Automated Image Analysis: Automation in image analysis provides faster and more
accurate quantification of microstructural features, enhancing consistency and
reproducibility.
 In-situ Microscopy: Techniques that allow for the observation of microstructural
changes under various conditions (e.g., heating, mechanical loading) in real-time.

MATERIAL TESTING TOPIC 6, 7