Coal

For other uses, see Coal (disambiguation). tralia with 328 million tonnes (27.1% of world coal ex-
Coal (Old English col) is a combustible black or port) and Indonesia with 316 million tonnes (26.1%),[4]
while the largest importers were Japan with 207 million
tonnes (17.5% of world coal import), China with 195 mil-
lion tonnes (16.6%) and South Korea with 126 million
tonnes (10.7%).[5]

1 Etymology
The word originally took the form col in Old English,
from Proto-Germanic *kula(n), which in turn is hypothe-
sized to come from the Proto-Indo-European root *g(e)u-
lo- “live coal”.[6] Germanic cognates include the Old
Frisian kole, Middle Dutch cole, Dutch kool, Old High
German chol, German Kohle and Old Norse kol, and the
Irish word gual is also a cognate via the Indo-European
root.[6] In Old Turkic languages, kül is “ash(es), cinders”,
Bituminous coal öčür is “quench”. The compound “charcoal” in Turkic is
öčür(ülmüş) kül, literally “quenched ashes, cinders, coals”
brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş.[7]
rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal The word took on the meaning “mineral consisting of fos-
seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can silized carbon” in the thirteenth century.[6]
be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later expo-
sure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is com-
posed primarily of carbon, along with variable quantities
of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and 2 Formation
nitrogen.[1] A fossil fuel, coal forms when dead plant mat-
ter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into
lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous
coal, and lastly anthracite. This involves biological and
geological processes that take place over time.
H
Throughout history, coal has been used as an energy re- O

source, primarily burned for the production of electricity

and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such H
as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy
for the generation of electricity worldwide, as well as
one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of
carbon dioxide releases. The extraction of coal, its use
in energy production and its byproducts are all associated
with environmental and health effects including Climate
change.[2]
Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining. Since
1983, the world’s top coal producer has been China.[3] Example chemical structure of coal
In 2011 China produced 3,520 million tonnes of coal –
49.5% of 7,695 million tonnes world coal production. In At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense
2011 other large producers were United States (993 mil- forests in low-lying wetland areas. Due to natural pro-
lion tonnes), India (589), European Union (576) and Aus- cesses such as flooding, these forests were buried un-
tralia (416).[3] In 2010 the largest exporters were Aus- derneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over

1
2 3 RANKS

them, they were compressed. The temperature also rose

as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process contin-
ued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation
and oxidation, usually by mud or acidic water. This
trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were even-
tually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under
high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was
slowly converted to coal. As coal contains mainly car-
bon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called
carbonization.[8]
The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period pro-
vided ideal conditions for coal formation, although coal
is known from most geological periods. The exception
is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event,
where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian
strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed
to have originated from residues of algae.[9][10]

3 Ranks

Coal ranking system used in the United States (US Geological

Survey)

and is an important source of light aromatic hydro-

carbons for the chemical synthesis industry.

• Bituminous coal is a dense sedimentary rock, usually

black, but sometimes dark brown, often with well-
defined bands of bright and dull material; it is used
primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation,
with substantial quantities used for heat and power
applications in manufacturing and to make coke.
Coastal exposure of the Point Aconi Seam (Nova Scotia)
• “Steam coal” is a grade between bituminous coal and
As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic anthracite, once widely used as a fuel for steam lo-
material over time, under suitable conditions, its comotives. In this specialized use, it is sometimes
metamorphic grade increases successively into: known as “sea coal” in the US.[11] Small steam coal
(dry small steam nuts or DSSN) was used as a fuel
for domestic water heating.
• Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has in-
dustrial importance as a fuel in some regions, for ex- • Anthracite, the highest rank of coal, is a harder,
ample, Ireland and Finland. In its dehydrated form, glossy black coal used primarily for residential and
peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil commercial space heating. It may be divided fur-
spills on land and water. It is also used as a con- ther into metamorphically altered bituminous coal
ditioner for soil to make it more able to retain and and “petrified oil”, as from the deposits in Pennsyl-
slowly release water. vania.
• Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal • Graphite is one of the more difficult coals to ignite
and used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power and is not commonly used as fuel — it is mostly used
generation. Jet, a compact form of lignite, is some- in pencils, and when powdered, as a lubricant.
times polished and has been used as an ornamental
stone since the Upper Palaeolithic.
The classification of coal is generally based on the content
• Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from of volatiles. However, the exact classification varies be-
those of lignite to those of bituminous coal, is used tween countries. According to the German classification,
primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation coal is classified as follows:[12]
 3

The middle six grades in the table represent a progres-

sive transition from the English-language sub-bituminous
to bituminous coal, while the last class is an approxi-
mate equivalent to anthracite, but more inclusive (US an-
thracite has < 6% volatiles).
Cannel coal (sometimes called “candle coal”) is a variety
of fine-grained, high-rank coal with significant hydrogen
content. It consists primarily of "exinite" macerals, now
termed “liptinite”.

3.1 Hilt’s law

Main article: Hilt’s law

Hilt’s law is a geological term that states that, in a small

area, the deeper the coal, the higher its rank (grade). The
law holds true if the thermal gradient is entirely vertical,
but metamorphism may cause lateral changes of rank, ir-
respective of depth.

3.2 Content

4 Early uses as fuel

Further information: History of coal mining
The earliest recognized use is from the Shenyang area Chinese coal miners in an illustration of the Tiangong Kaiwu
of China 4000 BC where Neolithic inhabitants had be- encyclopedia, published in 1637
gun carving ornaments from black lignite.[16] Coal from
the Fushun mine in northeastern China was used to smelt
copper as early as 1000 BCE.[17] Marco Polo, the Ital- 200) has been found at the Roman settlement at Heron-
ian who traveled to China in the 13th century, described bridge, near Chester, and in the Fenlands of East Anglia,
coal as “black stones ... which burn like logs”, and said where coal from the Midlands was transported via the
coal was so plentiful, people could take three hot baths a Car Dyke for use in drying grain.[24] Coal cinders have
week.[18] In Europe, the earliest reference to the use of been found in the hearths of villas and Roman forts, par-
coal as fuel is from the geological treatise On stones (Lap. ticularly in Northumberland, dated to around AD 400.
16) by the Greek scientist Theophrastus (circa 371–287 In the west of England, contemporary writers described
BC):[19][20] the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the al-
tar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath), al-
Among the materials that are dug because though in fact easily accessible surface coal from what
they are useful, those known as anthrakes became the Somerset coalfield was in common use in
[coals] are made of earth, and, once set on quite lowly dwellings locally.[25] Evidence of coal’s use
fire, they burn like charcoal. They are found for iron-working in the city during the Roman period
in Liguria ... and in Elis as one approaches has been found.[26] In Eschweiler, Rhineland, deposits of
Olympia by the mountain road; and they are bituminous coal were used by the Romans for the smelt-
used by those who work in metals. ing of iron ore.[23]
— Theophrastus, On Stones (16) translation No evidence exists of the product being of great im-
portance in Britain before the High Middle Ages, after
about AD 1000.[27] Mineral coal came to be referred to
Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age as “seacoal” in the 13th century; the wharf where the
(3000–2000 BC), where it has been detected as forming material arrived in London was known as Seacoal Lane,
part of the composition of funeral pyres.[21][22] In Roman so identified in a charter of King Henry III granted in
Britain, with the exception of two modern fields, “the 1253.[28] Initially, the name was given because much coal
Romans were exploiting coals in all the major coalfields was found on the shore, having fallen from the exposed
in England and Wales by the end of the second century coal seams on cliffs above or washed out of underwater
AD”.[23] Evidence of trade in coal (dated to about AD coal outcrops,[27] but by the time of Henry VIII, it was un-
4 5 USES TODAY

Coal miner in Britain, 1942

Coal rail cars

derstood to derive from the way it was carried to London 5.1 Coal as fuel
by sea.[29] In 1257–59, coal from Newcastle upon Tyne
was shipped to London for the smiths and lime-burners Further information: Electricity generation, Clean coal
building Westminster Abbey.[27] Seacoal Lane and New- technology, Coal electricity, Global warming, and List
castle Lane, where coal was unloaded at wharves along of coal power stations
the River Fleet, are still in existence.[30] (See Industrial
processes below for modern uses of the term.)
Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electric-
These easily accessible sources had largely become ex- ity and heat through combustion. World coal consump-
hausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by the tion was about 7.25 billion tonnes in 2010[34] (7.99 billion
13th century, when underground extraction by shaft min- short tons) and is expected to increase 48% to 9.05 billion
ing or adits was developed.[21] The alternative name was tonnes (9.98 billion short tons) by 2030.[35] China pro-
“pitcoal”, because it came from mines. The develop- duced 3.47 billion tonnes (3.83 billion short tons) in 2011.
ment of the Industrial Revolution led to the large-scale India produced about 578 million tonnes (637.1 million
use of coal, as the steam engine took over from the water short tons) in 2011. 68.7% of China’s electricity comes
wheel. In 1700, five-sixths of the world’s coal was mined from coal. The US consumed about 13% of the world to-
in Britain. Britain would have run out of suitable sites for tal in 2010, i.e. 951 million tonnes (1.05 billion short
watermills by the 1830s if coal had not been available as tons), using 93% of it for generation of electricity.[36]
a source of energy.[31] In 1947, there were some 750,000 46% of total power generated in the US was using coal.[37]
miners in Britain,[32] but by 2004, this had shrunk to some The United States Energy Information Administration es-
5,000 miners working in around 20 collieries.[33] timates coal reserves at 948×109 short tons (860 Gt).[38]
One estimate for resources is 18,000 Gt.[39]
When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually
pulverized and then burned in a furnace with a boiler.[40]
5 Uses today The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is
then used to spin turbines which turn generators and cre-
ate electricity.[41] The thermodynamic efficiency of this
process has been improved over time; some older coal-
fired power stations have thermal efficiencies in the vicin-
ity of 25%[42] whereas the newest supercritical and “ultra-
supercritical” steam cycle turbines, operating at temper-
atures over 600 °C and pressures over 27 MPa (over
3900 psi), can achieve thermal efficiencies in excess of
45% (LHV basis) using anthracite fuel,[43][44] or around
43% (LHV basis) even when using lower-grade lignite
fuel.[45] Further thermal efficiency improvements are also
achievable by improved pre-drying (especially relevant
with high-moisture fuel such as lignite or biomass) and
cooling technologies.[46]
An alternative approach of using coal for electricity gen-
Castle Gate Power Plant near Helper, Utah, USA
eration with improved efficiency is the integrated gasifi-
cation combined cycle (IGCC) power plant. Instead of
5.3 Gasification 5

pulverizing the coal and burning it directly as fuel in the

steam-generating boiler, the coal is gasified (see coal gasi-
fication) to create syngas, which is burned in a gas turbine
to produce electricity (just like natural gas is burned in
a turbine). Hot exhaust gases from the turbine are used
to raise steam in a heat recovery steam generator which
powers a supplemental steam turbine. Thermal efficien-
cies of current IGCC power plants range from 39% to
42%[47] (HHV basis) or ~42–45% (LHV basis) for bitu-
minous coal and assuming utilization of mainstream gasi-
fication technologies (Shell, GE Gasifier, CB&I). IGCC
power plants outperform conventional pulverized coal-
fueled plants in terms of pollutant emissions, and allow
for relatively easy carbon capture. Coke oven at a smokeless fuel plant in Wales, United Kingdom
At least 40% of the world’s electricity comes from
coal,[40][48] and in 2012, about one-third of the United
the coking coal can be divided into various grades. These
States’ electricity came from coal, down from approx-
[49][50] grades are:
imately 49% in 2008. As of 2012 in the United
States, use of coal to generate electricity was declining,
as plentiful supplies of natural gas obtained by hydraulic • Steel Grade I (Ash content not exceeding 15%)
fracturing of tight shale formations became available at
• Steel Grade II (Exceeding 15% but not exceeding
low prices.[49]
18%)
In Denmark, a net electric efficiency of > 47% has been
obtained at the coal-fired Nordjyllandsværket CHP Plant • Washery Grade I (Exceeding 18% but not exceeding
and an overall plant efficiency of up to 91% with cogener- 21%)
[51]
ation of electricity and district heating. The multifuel-
• Washery Grade II (Exceeding 21% but not exceed-
fired Avedøreværket CHP Plant just outside Copenhagen
ing 24%)
can achieve a net electric efficiency as high as 49%. The
overall plant efficiency with cogeneration of electricity • Washery Grade III (Exceeding 24% but not exceed-
and district heating can reach as much as 94%.[52] ing 28%)
An alternative form of coal combustion is as coal-water • Washery Grade IV (Exceeding 28% but not exceed-
slurry fuel (CWS), which was developed in the Soviet ing 35%)[56]
Union. Other ways to use coal are combined heat and
power cogeneration and an MHD topping cycle.
The coke must be strong enough to resist the weight of
The total known deposits recoverable by current tech- overburden in the blast furnace, which is why coking
nologies, including highly polluting, low-energy content coal is so important in making steel using the conven-
types of coal (i.e., lignite, bituminous), is sufficient for tional route. However, the alternative route is direct re-
many years. Consumption is increasing and maximal pro- duced iron, where any carbonaceous fuel can be used to
duction could be reached within decades (see world coal make sponge or pelletised iron. Coke from coal is grey,
reserves, below). On the other hand, much may have to hard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8 million
be left in the ground to avoid climate change.[53][54] Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Some cokemaking processes pro-
duce valuable byproducts, including coal tar, ammonia,
light oils, and coal gas.
5.2 Coking coal and use of coke
Petroleum coke is the solid residue obtained in oil refin-
Main article: Coke (fuel) ing, which resembles coke, but contains too many impu-
Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low- rities to be useful in metallurgical applications.
ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal (metallurgical coal), from
which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in
an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 5.3 Gasification
°C (1,832 °F), so the fixed carbon and residual ash are
fused together. Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as Main articles: Coal gasification and Underground coal
a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.[55] gasification
The result is pig iron, and is too rich in dissolved carbon,
so it must be treated further to make steel. The coking Coal gasification can be used to produce syngas, a mix-
coal should be low in sulfur and phosphorus, so they do ture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2 ) gas.
not migrate to the metal. Based on the ash percentage, Often syngas is used to fire gas turbines to produce
6 5 USES TODAY

electricity, but the versatility of syngas also allows it to greater than those released in the extraction and refine-
be converted into transportation fuels, such as gasoline ment of liquid fuel production from crude oil. If CCS
and diesel, through the Fischer-Tropsch process; alterna- technologies are employed, reductions of 5–12% can be
tively, syngas can be converted into methanol, which can achieved in Coal to Liquid (CTL) plants and up to a 75%
be blended into fuel directly or converted to gasoline via reduction is achievable when co-gasifying coal with com-
the methanol to gasoline process.[57] Gasification com- mercially demonstrated levels of biomass (30% biomass
bined with Fischer-Tropsch technology is currently used by weight) in coal/biomass-to-liquids plants.[64] For fu-
by the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make ture synthetic fuel projects, carbon dioxide sequestration
motor vehicle fuels from coal and natural gas. Alter- is proposed to avoid releasing CO2 into the atmosphere.
natively, the hydrogen obtained from gasification can be Sequestration adds to the cost of production.
used for various purposes, such as powering a hydrogen
economy, making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels.
During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and 5.5 Refined coal
steam while also being heated and pressurized. Dur-
ing the reaction, oxygen and water molecules oxidize the Main article: Refined coal
coal into carbon monoxide (CO), while also releasing
hydrogen gas (H2 ). This process has been conducted in Refined coal is the product of a coal-upgrading tech-
both underground coal mines and in the production of nology that removes moisture and certain pollutants
town gas which was piped to customers to burn for illu- from lower-rank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite
mination, heating, and cooking. (brown) coals. It is one form of several precombustion
treatments and processes for coal that alter coal’s charac-
C (as Coal) + O2 + H2 O → H2 + CO teristics before it is burned. The goals of precombustion
coal technologies are to increase efficiency and reduce
emissions when the coal is burned. Depending on the sit-
If the refiner wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is col- uation, precombustion technology can be used in place
lected at this state and routed into a Fischer-Tropsch re- of or as a supplement to postcombustion technologies to
action. If hydrogen is the desired end-product, however, control emissions from coal-fueled boilers.
the syngas is fed into the water gas shift reaction, where
more hydrogen is liberated.
5.6 Industrial processes
CO + H2 O → CO2 + H2
Finely ground bituminous coal, known in this application
as sea coal, is a constituent of foundry sand. While the
5.4 Liquefaction molten metal is in the mould, the coal burns slowly, re-
leasing reducing gases at pressure, and so preventing the
Main article: Coal liquefaction metal from penetrating the pores of the sand. It is also
contained in 'mould wash', a paste or liquid with the same
function applied to the mould before casting.[65] Sea coal
Coal can also be converted into synthetic fuels equivalent can be mixed with the clay lining (the “bod”) used for
to gasoline or diesel by several different direct processes the bottom of a cupola furnace. When heated, the coal
(which do not intrinsically require gasification or indirect decomposes and the bod becomes slightly friable, easing
conversion).[58] In the direct liquefaction processes, the the process of breaking open holes for tapping the molten
coal is either hydrogenated or carbonized. Hydrogena- metal.[66]
tion processes are the Bergius process,[59] the SRC-I and
SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes, the NUS Cor-
poration hydrogenation process[60][61] and several other 5.7 Production of chemicals
single-stage and two-stage processes.[62] In the process of
low-temperature carbonization, coal is coked at tempera- Coal is an important feedstock in production of a
tures between 360 and 750 °C (680 and 1,380 °F). These wide range of chemical fertilizers and other chemical
temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer products.[67] The main route to these products is coal
in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar gasification to produce syngas. Primary chemicals that
is then further processed into fuels. An overview of coal are produced directly from the syngas include methanol,
liquefaction and its future potential is available.[63] hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which are the chemical
Coal liquefaction methods involve carbon dioxide (CO2 ) building blocks from which a whole spectrum of deriva-
emissions in the conversion process. If coal liquefaction tive chemicals are manufactured, including olefins, acetic
is done without employing either carbon capture and stor- acid, formaldehyde, ammonia, urea and others. The ver-
age (CCS) technologies or biomass blending, the result satility of syngas as a precursor to primary chemicals and
is lifecycle greenhouse gas footprints that are generally high-value derivative products provides the option of us-
6.1 Coal as a traded commodity 7

See also: Coal Industry Nationalisation Act 1946 and

Coal Industry Commission Act 1919

6.1 Coal as a traded commodity

In North America, Central Appalachian coal futures con-

tracts are currently traded on the New York Mercantile
Exchange (trading symbol QL). The trading unit is 1,550
short tons (1,410 t) per contract, and is quoted in U.S.
dollars and cents per ton. Since coal is the principal fuel
Production of chemicals from coal
for generating electricity in the United States, coal futures
contracts provide coal producers and the electric power
ing relatively inexpensive coal to produce a wide range of industry an important tool for hedging and risk manage-
[73]
valuable commodities. ment.

Historically, production of chemicals from coal has been In addition to the NYMEX contract, the Intercontinental
used since the 1950s and has become established in the Exchange (ICE) has European (Rotterdam) and South
market. According to the 2010 Worldwide Gasification African (Richards Bay) coal futures available for trading.
Database,[68] a survey of current and planned gasifiers, The trading unit for these contracts is 5,000 tonnes (5,500
from 2004 to 2007 chemical production increased its short tons), and are also quoted in U.S. dollars and cents
gasification product share from 37% to 45%. From 2008 per ton.[74]
to 2010, 22% of new gasifier additions were to be for The price of coal increased from around $30.00 per short
chemical production. ton in 2000 to around $150.00 per short ton as of Septem-
Because the slate of chemical products that can be made ber 2008. As of October 2008, the price per short ton had
via coal gasification can in general also use feedstocks de- declined to $111.50. Prices further declined to $71.25 as
rived from natural gas and petroleum, the chemical in- of October 2010.[75] In early 2015, it was trading near
dustry tends to use whatever feedstocks are most cost- $56/ton.[76]
effective. Therefore, interest in using coal tends to in-
crease for higher oil and natural gas prices and during
periods of high global economic growth that may strain 7 Environmental and health effects
oil and gas production. Also, production of chemicals
from coal is of much higher interest in countries like Main article: Environmental impact of the coal industry
South Africa, China, India and the United States where
there are abundant coal resources. The abundance of coal
combined with lack of natural gas resources in China
is strong inducement for the coal to chemicals industry 7.1 Health effects
pursued there. In the United States, the best example
of the industry is Eastman Chemical Company which The use of coal as fuel causes adverse health impacts and
has been successfully operating a coal-to-chemicals plant deaths.[77]
at its Kingsport, Tennessee, site since 1983. Similarly,
Sasol has built and operated coal-to-chemicals facilities The deadly London smog was caused primarily by the
in South Africa. heavy use of coal. In the United States coal-fired power
plants were estimated in 2004 to cause nearly 24,000 pre-
Coal to chemical processes do require substantial quan- mature deaths every year, including 2,800 from lung can-
tities of water. As of 2013 much of the coal to cer.[78] Annual health costs in Europe from use of coal to
chemical production was in the People’s Republic of generate electricity are €42.8 billion, or $55 billion.[79]
China[69][70] where environmental regulation and water Yet the disease and mortality burden of coal use today
management[71] was weak.[72] falls most heavily upon China.[80][81][82]
Breathing in coal dust causes coalworker’s pneumoconio-
sis which is known colloquially as “black lung”, so-called
6 Coal industry because the coal dust literally turns the lungs black from
their usual pink color.[83] In the United States alone, it is
Main pages: Category:Coal companies, Coal mining, estimated that 1500 former employees of the coal indus-
Coal industry in China, Coal industry in Pakistan, Coal try die every
[84]
year from the effects of breathing in coal
industry in India, Coal industry in New Zealand, and mine dust.
Coal companies of Australia Around 10% of coal is ash,[85] Coal ash is hazardous
8 7 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH EFFECTS

Though coal burning has increasingly been supplanted by

less-toxic natural gas use in recent years, a 2010 study by
the Clean Air Task Force still estimated that “air pollu-
tion from coal-fired power plants accounts for more than
13,000 premature deaths, 20,000 heart attacks, and 1.6
million lost workdays in the U.S. each year.” The total
monetary cost of these health impacts is over $100 bil-
lion annually.[91]
The WHO classifies coal as a “dirty fuel” and encourages
the movement away from such fuels towards cleaner al-
ternatives.

7.2 Environmental effects

Coal mining and coal fueling of power station and

industrial processes can cause major environmental
damage.[92]
Water systems are affected by coal mining.[93] For ex-
ample, mining affects groundwater and water table levels
and acidity. Spills of fly ash, such as the Kingston Fossil
Plant coal fly ash slurry spill, can also contaminate land
Aerial photograph of Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry and waterways, and destroy homes. Power stations that
spill site taken the day after the event burn coal also consume large quantities of water. This
can affect the flows of rivers, and has consequential im-
and toxic to human beings and other living things.[86] pacts on other land uses.
Coal ash contains the radioactive elements uranium and One of the earliest known impacts of coal on the water
thorium. Coal ash and other solid combustion byproducts cycle was acid rain. Approximately 75 Tg/S per year of
are stored locally and escape in various ways that expose sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) is released from burning coal. After
those living near coal plants to radiation and environmen- release, the sulfur dioxide is oxidized to gaseous H2 SO2
tal toxics.[87] which scatters solar radiation, hence its increase in the
Huge amounts of coal ash and other waste is produced atmosphere exerts a cooling effect on climate. This ben-
annually. In 2013, the US alone consumed on the order of eficially masks some of the warming caused by increased
983 million short tonnes of coal per year.[88] Use of coal greenhouse gases. However, the sulfur is precipitated out [94]
on this scale generates hundreds of millions of tons of ash of the atmosphere as acid rain in a matter of weeks,
and other waste products every year. These include fly whereas carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for
ash, bottom ash, and flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that hundreds of years. Release of SO 2 also contributes to
[95]
contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other the widespread acidification of ecosystems.
heavy metals, along with non-metals such as selenium.[89] Disused coal mines can also cause issues. Subsidence can
occur above tunnels, causing damage to infrastructure or
The American Lung Association, the American Nurses’
Association, and the Physicians for Social Responsibil- cropland. Coal mining can also cause long lasting fires,
and it has been estimated that thousands of coal seam fires
ity released a report in 2009 which details in depth the
detrimental impact of the coal industry on human health, are burning at any given time.[96] For example, there is a
including workers in the mines and individuals living in coal seam fire in Germany that has been burning since
communities near plants burning coal as a power source. 1668, and is still burning in the 21st century.[97]
This report provides medical information regarding dam- Some environmental impacts are modest, such as dust
age to the lungs, heart, and nervous system of Americans nuisance. However, perhaps the largest and most long
caused by the burning of coal as fuel. It details how the air term effect of coal use is the release of carbon dioxide,
pollution caused by the plume of coal smokestack emis- a greenhouse gas that causes climate change and global
sions is a cause of asthma, strokes, reduced intelligence, warming, according to the IPCC and the EPA. Coal is the
artery blockages, heart attacks, congestive heart failure, largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO2
cardiac arrhythmias, mercury poisoning, arterial occlu- in the atmosphere.[98]
sion, and lung cancer.[2] The production of coke from coal produces ammonia,
More recently, the Chicago School of Public Health re- coal tar, and gaseous compounds as by-products which
leased a largely similar report, echoing many of the same if discharged to land, air or waterways can act as envi-
findings.[90] ronmental pollutants.[99] The Whyalla steelworks is one
7.3 Clean coal technology 9

example of a coke producing facility where liquid am-

monia is discharged to the marine environment.
In 1999, world gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal
usage were 8,666 million tonnes of carbon dioxide.[100] In
2011, world gross emissions from coal usage were 14,416
million tonnes.[101] For every megawatt-hour generated,
coal-fired electric power generation emits around 2,000
pounds of carbon dioxide, which is almost double the ap-
proximately 1100 pounds of carbon dioxide released by a
natural gas-fired electric plant.[102] Because of this higher
carbon efficiency of natural gas generation, as the market
in the United States has changed to reduce coal and in-
crease natural gas generation, carbon dioxide emissions An oxyfuel CCS power plant operation processes the exhaust
may have fallen.[103] Those measured in the first quarter gases so as to separate the CO2 so that it may be stored or se-
of 2012 were the lowest of any recorded for the first quar- questered
ter of any year since 1992.[104] In 2013, the head of the
UN climate agency advised that most of the world’s coal the purpose of carbon capture as demanded by the clean
reserves should be left in the ground to avoid catastrophic coal concept:
global warming.[105]
• Pre-combustion capture – This involves gasification
7.3 Clean coal technology of a feedstock (such as coal) to form synthesis gas,
which may be shifted to produce a H2 and CO2 -rich
Main article: Clean coal technology gas mixture, from which the CO2 can be efficiently
captured and separated, transported, and ultimately
sequestered,[114] This technology is usually associ-
“Clean” coal technology is a collection of technologies ated with Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
being developed to mitigate the environmental impact of process configurations.[115]
coal energy generation.[106] Those technologies are be-
ing developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions • Post-combustion capture – This refers to capture of
to the atmosphere. Some of the techniques that would CO2 from exhaust gases of combustion processes,
be used to accomplish this include chemically washing typically using sorbents, solvents, or membrane sep-
minerals and impurities from the coal, gasification (see arations to remove CO2 from the bulk gases.[116]
also IGCC), improved technology for treating flue gases
to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and • Oxy-fuel combustion – Fossil fuels such as coal are
at higher efficiency, carbon capture and storage technolo- burned in a mixture of recirculated flue gas and oxy-
gies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and gen, rather than in air, which largely eliminates ni-
dewatering lower rank coals (brown coals) to improve the trogen from the flue gas enabling efficient, low-cost
calorific value, and thus the efficiency of the conversion CO2 capture.[117]
into electricity. Figures from the United States Environ-
mental Protection Agency show that these technologies The Kemper County IGCC Project, a 582 MW coal gasi-
have made today’s coal-based generating fleet 77 percent fication-based power plant, will use pre-combustion cap-
cleaner on the basis of regulated emissions per unit of en- ture of CO2 to capture 65% of the CO2 the plant pro-
ergy produced.[107] duces, which will be utilized/geologically sequestered in
[118]
Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric enhanced oil recovery operations.
problems resulting from burning coal. Historically, the The Saskatchewan Government’s Boundary Dam Inte-
primary focus was on SO2 and NOₓ, the most impor- grated Carbon Capture and Sequestration Demonstration
tant gases in causation of acid rain, and particulates which Project will use post-combustion, amine-based scrubber
cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on hu- technology to capture 90% of the CO2 emitted by Unit
man health. More recent focus has been on carbon diox- 3 of the power plant; this CO2 will be pipelined to and
ide (due to its impact on global warming)[108] and con- utilized for enhanced oil recovery in the Weyburn oil
cern over toxic species such as mercury.[109] Concerns ex- fields.[119]
ist regarding the economic viability of these technologies An early example of a coal-based plant using (oxy-
and the timeframe of delivery,[110] potentially high hid- fuel) carbon-capture technology is Swedish company
den economic costs in terms of social and environmental Vattenfall's Schwarze Pumpe power station located in
damage,[111] and the costs and viability of disposing of Spremberg, Germany, built by German firm Siemens,
removed carbon and other toxic matter.[112][113] which went on-line in September 2008.[120][121] The fa-
Several different technological methods are available for cility captures CO2 and acid rain producing pollutants,
10 11 UNDERGROUND FIRES

separates them, and compresses the CO2 into a liquid. 10 Energy density and carbon im-
Plans are to inject the CO2 into depleted natural gas fields
or other geological formations. Vattenfall opines that this
pact
technology is considered not to be a final solution for CO2
reduction in the atmosphere, but provides an achievable See also: Energy value of coal
solution in the near term while more desirable alternative
solutions to power generation can be made economically The energy density of coal, i.e. its heating value, is
practical.[121] roughly 24 megajoules per kilogram[131] (approximately
6.7 kilowatt-hours per kg). For a coal power plant with a
40% efficiency, it takes an estimated 325 kg (717 lb) of
coal to power a 100 W lightbulb for one year.[132]
As of 2006, the average efficiency of electricity-
8 Bioremediation generating power stations was 31%; in 2002, coal repre-
sented about 23% of total global energy supply, an equiv-
alent of 3.4 billion tonnes of coal, of which 2.8 billion
The white rot fungus Trametes versicolor can grow on
[122] tonnes were used for electricity generation.[133]
and metabolize naturally occurring coal. The bacteria
Diplococcus has been found to degrade coal, raising its The US Energy Information Agency’s 1999 report on
temperature.[123] CO2 emissions for energy generation quotes an emission
factor of 0.963 kg CO2 /kWh for coal power, compared to
0.881 kg CO2 /kWh (oil), or 0.569 kg CO2 /kWh (natural
gas).[134]

9 Economic aspects
11 Underground fires
Coal (by liquefaction technology) is one of the backstop Main article: Coal seam fire
resources that could limit escalation of oil prices and miti-
gate the effects of transportation energy shortage that will
occur under peak oil. This is contingent on liquefaction Thousands of coal fires are burning around the world.[135]
production capacity becoming large enough to satiate the Those burning underground can be difficult to locate and
very large and growing demand for petroleum. Estimates many cannot be extinguished. Fires can cause the ground
of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal suggest that above to subside, their combustion gases are dangerous to
domestic U.S. production of fuel from coal becomes cost- life, and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface
competitive with oil priced at around $35 per barrel,[124] wildfires. Coal seams can be set on fire by spontaneous
with the $35 being the break-even cost. With oil prices as combustion or contact with a mine fire or surface fire.
low as around $40 per barrel in the U.S. as of December Lightning strikes are an important source of ignition. The
2008, liquid coal lost some of its economic allure in the coal continues to burn slowly back into the seam un-
U.S., but will probably be re-vitalized, similar to oil sand til oxygen (air) can no longer reach the flame front. A
projects, with an oil price around $70 per barrel. grass fire in a coal area can set dozens of coal seams on
fire.[136][137] Coal fires in China burn an estimated 120
In China, due to an increasing need for liquid energy in
million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric
the transportation sector, coal liquefaction projects were tons of CO2 , amounting to 2–3% of the annual worldwide
given high priority even during periods of oil prices be-
production of CO2 from fossil fuels.[138][139] In Centralia,
low $40 per barrel.[125] This is probably because China Pennsylvania (a borough located in the Coal Region of
prefers not to be dependent on foreign oil, instead utiliz- the United States), an exposed vein of anthracite ignited
ing its enormous domestic coal reserves. As oil prices in 1962 due to a trash fire in the borough landfill, located
were increasing during the first half of 2009, the coal liq- in an abandoned anthracite strip mine pit. Attempts to
uefaction projects in China were again boosted, and these extinguish the fire were unsuccessful, and it continues to
projects are profitable with an oil barrel price of $40.[126] burn underground to this day. The Australian Burning
China is the largest producer of coal in the world. It is Mountain was originally believed to be a volcano, but the
the world’s largest energy consumer, and relies on coal smoke and ash come from a coal fire that has been burn-
to supply 69% of its energy needs.[127] An estimated 5 ing for some 6,000 years.[140]
million people worked in China’s coal-mining industry in At Kuh i Malik in Yagnob Valley, Tajikistan, coal de-
2007.[128] posits have been burning for thousands of years, creat-
Coal pollution costs the EU €43 billion each year.[129] ing vast underground labyrinths full of unique minerals,
Measures to cut air pollution may have beneficial long- some of them very beautiful. Local people once used this
term economic impacts for individuals.[130] method to mine ammoniac. This place has been well-
12.1 World coal reserves 11

known since the time of Herodotus, but European geog-

raphers misinterpreted the Ancient Greek descriptions as
the evidence of active volcanism in Turkestan (up to the
19th century, when the Russian army invaded the area).
The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and
buttes in the Powder River Basin in Wyoming and in west-
ern North Dakota is called porcelanite, which resembles
the coal burning waste “clinker” or volcanic "scoria".[141]
Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning
of coal. In the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to
54 billion tons of coal burned within the past three mil-
lion years.[142] Wild coal fires in the area were reported
by the Lewis and Clark Expedition as well as explorers A coal mine in Wyoming, United States. The United States has
and settlers in the area.[143] the world’s largest coal reserves.

ready market in Asia as exports reached 13 million tons

12 Production trends in 2012.[148]

12.1 World coal reserves

The 948 billion short tons of recoverable coal reserves

estimated by the Energy Information Administration are
equal to about 4,196 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equiva-
lent).[38] The amount of coal burned during 2007 was es-
timated at 7.075 billion short tons, or 133.179 quadrillion
BTU’s.[149] This is an average of 18.8 million BTU
per short ton. In terms of heat content, this is about
57,000,000 barrels (9,100,000 m3 ) of oil equivalent per
day. By comparison in 2007, natural gas provided
51,000,000 barrels (8,100,000 m3 ) of oil equivalent per
Continental United States coal regions
day, while oil provided 85,800,000 barrels (13,640,000
m3 ) per day.
British Petroleum, in its 2007 report, estimated at 2006
end that there were 147 years reserves-to-production ra-
tio based on proven coal reserves worldwide. This figure
only includes reserves classified as “proven"; exploration
drilling programs by mining companies, particularly in
under-explored areas, are continually providing new re-
serves. In many cases, companies are aware of coal de-
posits that have not been sufficiently drilled to qualify as
“proven”. However, some nations haven't updated their
Coal output in 2005
information and assume reserves remain at the same lev-
els even with withdrawals.
In 2006, China was the top producer of coal with 38%
Of the three fossil fuels, coal has the most widely dis-
share followed by the United States and India, accord-
tributed reserves; coal is mined in over 100 countries, and
ing to the British Geological Survey. As of 2012 coal
on all continents except Antarctica. The largest reserves
production in the United States was falling at the rate
are found in the United States, Russia, China, Australia
of 7% annually[144] with many power plants using coal
and India. Note the table below.
shut down or converted to natural gas; however, some
of the reduced domestic demand was taken up by in-
creased exports[145] with five coal export terminals be-
ing proposed in the Pacific Northwest to export coal
12.2 Major coal producers
from the Powder River Basin to China and other Asian
markets;[146] however, as of 2013, environmental oppo- See also: List of countries by coal production
sition was increasing.[147] High-sulfur coal mined in Illi-
nois which was unsaleable in the United States found a The reserve life is an estimate based only on current pro-
12 15 REFERENCES

duction levels and proved reserves level for the countries • Coal assay
shown, and makes no assumptions of future production
or even current production trends. Countries with annual • Coal blending
production higher than 100 million tonnes are shown. For
• Coal homogenization
comparison, data for the European Union is also shown.
Shares are based on data expressed in tonnes oil equiva- • Coal measures (stratigraphic unit)
lent.
• Coal phase out

12.3 Major coal consumers • Coal-tar

Countries with annual consumption higher than 20 mil- • Coalbed methane

lion tonnes are shown.
• Fluidized bed combustion

• Fossil fuel
12.4 Major coal exporters
• Fossil fuel phase-out
Countries with annual gross export higher than 10 mil-
lion tonnes are shown. In terms of net export the largest • Gytta
exporters are still Australia (328.1 millions tonnes),
Indonesia (316.2) and Russia (100.2). • Major coal producing regions

• Mountaintop removal mining

12.5 Major coal importers • Petroleum

Countries with annual gross import higher than 20 mil- • The Coal Question
lion tonnes are shown. In terms of net import the largest
importers are still Japan (206.0 millions tonnes), China • Tonstein
(172.4) and South Korea (125.8).[155]
• World Coal Association

13 Cultural usage
15 References
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[125] Tingting, Si; Jing, Li (12 December 2008). “Coal- [145] Lipton, Eric (19 December 2012). “Power Company
to-liquids project rescheduled to launch in early 2009”. Loses Some of Its Appetite for Coal”. The New York
China Daily. Retrieved 12 December 2008. Times. Retrieved 20 December 2012.

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by 2013”. Bloomberg. 7 January 2009. Retrieved 10 Jan- House to exam coal exports”. The San Francisco Chron-
uary 2009. icle. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 26
March 2013. Retrieved March 26, 2013.
[127] “China”. United States Energy Information Administra-
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Hopes on Exports as U.S. Market Shrinks”. The New York
[128] Elegant, Simon; Zhangjiachang (2 March 2007). “Where Times. Retrieved June 15, 2013.
The Coal Is Stained With Blood”. TIME. Retrieved 25
July 2014. [148] Suhr, Jim (May 1, 2013). “Report: Ill. coal enjoyed
record exports in 2012”. San Francisco Chronicle. Asso-
[129] “The human cost of coal in the UK: 1600 deaths a year”.
ciated Press. Archived from the original on 2 May 2013.
New Scientist.
Retrieved May 2, 2013.
[130] “Environmentalism”. The Economist. 4 February 2014.
[149] “EIA International Energy Statistics : Coal : Consump-
Retrieved 7 January 2016.
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[131] Fisher, Juliya (2003). “Energy Density of Coal”. The
[150] World Energy Council – World Energy Resources: 2013
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24 hours a day for a year?". Howstuffworks. Retrieved 25
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[133] Analysis: Efficiency of coal-fired power stations – evo-
[152] EIA International Energy Annual – Total Coal Consump-
lution and prospects. EurActiv. Retrieved on 24 August
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2012.
05-11.
[134] CO2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Generation of
Electric Power in the United States, DOE, EPA, 1999. [153] Table 114. World Metallurgical Coal Flows By Importing
Eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 24 August 2012. Regions and Exporting Countries 1,2/ (million short tons).
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[135] “Sino German Coal fire project”. Retrieved 9 September
2005. [154] World Coal Flows by Importing and Exporting Regions.
Eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
[136] “Committee on Resources-Index”. Archived from the
original on 25 August 2005. Retrieved 9 September 2005. [155] EIA International Energy Annual: Coal Overview 2010.
Eia.gov. Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
[137] “Snapshots 2003” (PDF). fire.blm.gov. Archived (PDF)
from the original on 18 February 2006. Retrieved 9 [156] “Kentucky: Secretary of State – State Mineral”. 20 Oc-
September 2005. tober 2009. Archived from the original on 27 May 2011.
Retrieved 7 August 2011.
[138] “EHP 110-5, 2002: Forum”. Archived from the original
on 31 July 2005. Retrieved 9 September 2005. [157] “Utah State Rock – Coal”. Pioneer: Utah’s Online Library.
Utah State Library Division. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
[139] “Overview about ITC’s activities in China”. Archived
from the original on 16 June 2005. Retrieved 9 September
2005.
16 Further reading
[140] “Fire in The Hole”. Retrieved 5 June 2011.

[141] “North Dakota’s Clinker”. Retrieved 9 September 2005. • Walter Licht, Thomas Dublin (2005). The Face of
Decline: The Pennsylvania Anthracite Region in the
[142] “BLM-Environmental Education- The High Plains”. Twentieth Century. Cornell University Press. ISBN
Archived from the original on 12 March 2005. Retrieved 0-8014-8473-1. OCLC 60558740.
9 September 2005.
• Long, Priscilla (1991). Where the Sun Never Shines:
[143] Lyman, Robert M.; Volkmer, John E. (March 2001).
A History of America’s Bloody Coal Industry. New
“Pyrophoricity (spontaneous combustion) of Powder
York, NY: Paragon House. ISBN 1-55778-465-5.
River Basin coals–: Considerations for coalbed methane
development” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) OCLC 25236866.
on 12 September 2005. Retrieved 9 September 2005. • Rottenberg, Dan (2003). In the Kingdom of Coal;
[144] “EIA projects little change in U.S. coal production in An American Family and the Rock That Changed the
2013”. U.S. Energy Information Agency. 3 December World. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-93522-9. OCLC
2012. Retrieved 20 December 2012. 52348860.
 17

• Robert H. Williams; Eric D. Larson (Decem-

ber 2003). “A comparison of direct and indi-
rect liquefaction technologies for making fluid fu-
els from coal” (PDF). Energy for Sustainable De-
velopment. VII (4): 103–129. doi:10.1016/s0973-
0826(08)60382-8. Archived from the original
(PDF) on 28 May 2006.

• Outwater, Alice (1996). Water: A Natural History.

New York, NY: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-03780-
1. OCLC 37785911.
• Smith, Duane A. (May 1993). Mining Amer-
ica: The Industry and the Environment, 1800–1980.
Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. p. 210.
ISBN 0-87081-306-4.

• Freese, Barbara (2003). Coal: A Human History.

Penguin Books. ISBN 0-7382-0400-5. OCLC
51449422.

17 External links
• "Coal". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.).
1911. pp. 574–593.
• World Coal Association

• Coal Online – International Energy Agency

• Coal Research at the National Energy Technology
Laboratory
• Energy KIDS – Coal page from U. S. Department
of Energy.
• European Association for Coal and Lignite

• Coal news and industry magazine

• Global Coal Plant Tracker
18 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

18 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

18.1 Text
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RenamedUser01302013, Sxoa, Happyjaehun, Rajkiandris, Davidmydad, Tommy2010, TuHan-Bot, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Djem-
bayz, Sparksaj97, Kudokun1997, John Cline, Checkingfax, Fæ, Josve05a, Dolovis, Timmytoddler, Darrenjohnrobinson, MithrandirAgain,
Akshat.mundra, PunkyMcPunkersen, YorkieLoverForever101, Anir1uph, Cctsa, Struthers00, Kiwi128, 36fireball, YPg4Gm, 2sc945, Bat-
toe19, Ebrambot, H3llBot, Teodan511, Vaaarr, Wayne Slam, Mcmatter, StasMalyga, Rygel, M.C., Ocdncntx, Arpit sinha, L Kensington,
Halfpipe123, Quite vivid blur, ChuispastonBot, RockMagnetist, Peter Karlsen, EdoBot, Nrupprecht, Feeilth, DASHBotAV, Sleepybones,
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Pixie Bot, Madara12, Tholme, Strike Eagle, Mouchumi, Regulov, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Twglade, Yesmate123, Ymblanter, Educ-
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drew Lightbody, XSxYxBeAsTxBOSS, Zedshort, Reecej97, Halojoner, Insidiae, Glacialfox, Siddhantkhandelwal11, Sylvester345, Mins-
bot, Sarvu deshpande, Lieutenant of Melkor, Kimfreeman, Fudpudding, Anbu121, Jakebarrington, BattyBot, R3venans, Tolaade, Knowles,
Beyonce, Jet neck, Smileguy91, Srinivaskannan, HueSatLum, Cyberbot II, Oranjblud, Harsh 2580, Charraze, Dexbot, Webclient101, Mo-
gism, Hearnzy, Lugia2453, Leahinlondon, Rothesloon, Bluey56056, Ethan.A.Gray of Craiglea (UK), BurritoBazooka, Eagleash, Rfass-
bind, Getaeffinglife, Faizan, Strug, EricLarson80, CensoredScribe, Monochrome Monitor, Kharkiv07, Zenibus, Tronlegacy2000, Not-
tNott, Jojowok2001, George8211, Cypherquest, Wackyike, Njol, Monkbot, Xoegki, Kinetic37, Qwertyxp2000, Nidfeo, TFFX, Mario
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Meejklol, Edwiki2005, Azealia911, GeneralizationsAreBad, Cammylad, Myfriendkrisna, KasparBot, DivermanAU, Arpita584, Ricardo
A. Olea, KSFT, Kingshowman, Kinoko kokonotsu, NobleHumanBeing, Silver595, Joemc999xxx999, Schacher49, Iwin1xDlolswag, In-
ternetArchiveBot, BeautifulEncyclopedist, Destroyer of Sophistry and Falsehood, A Civilized Man Amongst Savages, Friendly Stalinist,
AnnaGoFast, RobbieIanMorrison, GreenC bot, Samjamesgayness, Bellatitiwill, Begrbdu and Anonymous: 2035

18.2 Images
• File:2005coal.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/2005coal.png License: Public domain Contributors:
english wikipedia Original artist: en:User:Anwar saadat
• File:Aerial_view_of_ash_slide_site_Dec_23_2008_TVA.gov_123002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
4/45/Aerial_view_of_ash_slide_site_Dec_23_2008_TVA.gov_123002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Tennessee Valley Au-
thority website http://www.tva.gov/emergency/photo_gallery/pages/123002.htm Original artist: Tennessee Valley Authority
• File:Ashtabulacoalcars_e2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Ashtabulacoalcars_e2.jpg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Decumanus at English
Wikipedia
• File:Coal_Rank_USGS.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Coal_Rank_USGS.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: “An introduction to coal quality”, US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 1625-F Original artist: Stanley P. Schwe-
infurth
20 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Coal_anthracite.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Coal_anthracite.jpg License: Public domain

Contributors: http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subcommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/images/Coal,%20anthracite_jpg Original
artist: ?
• File:Coal_bituminous.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Coal_bituminous.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Coal_mine_Wyoming.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Coal_mine_Wyoming.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.wy.blm.gov/minerals/coal/ Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/
Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Coal_to_chemicals_routes_diagram.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Coal_to_chemicals_routes_
diagram.jpg License: PD Contributors:
Available online
Original artist:
National Energy Technology Laboratory
• File:Coke_Ovens_Abercwmboi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Coke_Ovens_Abercwmboi.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Crystal_energy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg License: LGPL Contribu-
tors: Own work conversion of Image:Crystal_128_energy.png Original artist: Dhatfield
• File:Flag_of_Albania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Here, based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: Government
of Argentina
• File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_
Herzegovina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kseferovic
• File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The flag of Bulgaria. The colors are specified at http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0034&
n=000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp
• File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Colombia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: SKopp
• File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
• File based on the specification given at [1]. Original artist: User:Verdy p, User:-xfi-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig-
inal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk)
• File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors:
• Flags of the World – Hungary Original artist: SKopp
• File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/
lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
• File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html
Original artist: Various
• File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
18.2 Images 21

• File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-

nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -xfi-
• File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, construction sheet. Redo by: cs:User:-xfi- Original artist: Made by Andrew Duhan for the
Sodipodi SVG flag collection, and is public domain.
• File:Flag_of_Laos.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006
• File:Flag_of_Mongolia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Mongolia.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Current version is SVG implementation of the Mongolian flag as described by Mongolian National Standard MNS
6262:2011 (Mongolian State Flag. General requirements [1]
Original artist: User:Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass
and many others
• File:Flag_of_North_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from flagspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Serbia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: From http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/cir/o_skupstini/simboli/simboli.asp. Original artist: sodipodi.com
• File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Per specifications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National flag Original artist: Flag de-
sign by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users
• File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color
guidelines (Russian/English) Original artist: Various
• File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Türk Bayrağı Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
• File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ДСТУ 4512:2006 — Державний прапор України. Загальні технічні умови Original artist: Government of Ukraine
• File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Oʻzbekiston Respublikasining Davlat bayrogʻi. The officially defined colours are Pantone
313C for blue and 361C for green (source: [1], [2]). Drawn by User:Zscout370.
• File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/
Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lưu Ly vẽ lại theo nguồn trên
• File:Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work after www.flag.de Original artist: User:Madden
• File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.
svg License: Public domain Contributors:
• -xfi-'s file
• -xfi-'s code
• Zirland’s codes of colors
Original artist:
(of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-.
• File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_the_People’{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
22 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_

China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp
• File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li-
cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:
PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Grand_Junction_Trip_92007_098.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Castle_Gate_Power_
Plant%2C_Utah_2007.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Teratornis using
CommonsHelper. Original artist: Staplegunther at English Wikipedia
• File:Men_of_the_Mine-_Life_at_the_Coal_Face,_Britain,_1942_D8263.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/a/a4/Men_of_the_Mine-_Life_at_the_Coal_Face%2C_Britain%2C_1942_D8263.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://media.iwm.org.uk/iwm/mediaLib//42/media-42296/large.jpg Original artist: Ministry of Information Photo Division Photographer
• File:Oxyfuel_CCS_fossil_fuel_power_plant_operation.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/
Oxyfuel_CCS_fossil_fuel_power_plant_operation.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: KVDP
• File:Schlaegel_und_Eisen_nach_DIN_21800.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Schlaegel_und_
Eisen_nach_DIN_21800.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vorlage vom Heraldiker erhalten nach DIN 21800 Original artist:
unbekannt; uploaded by T. Rystau (de:Benutzer:Ollemarkeagle)
• File:Struktura_chemiczna_węgla_kamiennego.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Struktura_
chemiczna_w%C4%99gla_kamiennego.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original
artist:
• pl.wiki: Karol007
• File:Sydney_Mines_Point_Aconi_Seam_038.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Sydney_Mines_
Point_Aconi_Seam_038.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rygel, M.C.
• File:Tiangong_Kaiwu_Coal_Mining.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/27/Tiangong_Kaiwu_Coal_Mining.gif
License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Us_coal_regions_1996.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Us_coal_regions_1996.png License:
Public domain Contributors: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1996/of96-092/index.htm Original artist: ?
• File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
• File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester

18.3 Content license

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