Napoleon

This article is about Napoleon I. For other uses, see new political situation by returning to Corsica in hopes
Napoleon (disambiguation). of starting a political career. After that venture failed, he
came back to the military and rose rapidly through the
ranks, ending up as commander of the Army of Italy af-
ter saving the governing Directory by suppressing a revolt
from royalist insurgents. At age 26, he began his first mil-
itary campaign against the Austrians and their Italian al-
lies, scoring a series of decisive victories, conquering the
Italian Peninsula in a year, and becoming a national hero.
In 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served
as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup
in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Re-
public. His rising ambition inspired him to go further,
and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French.
Intractable differences with the British meant that the
French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805. Napoleon
shattered this coalition with decisive victories in the Ulm
Campaign and a historic triumph over Russia and Austria
at the Battle of Austerlitz, which led to the elimination
of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, the Fourth Coali-
tion took up arms against him because Prussia became
worried about growing French influence on the conti-
nent. Napoleon quickly knocked out Prussia at the battles
of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army
Imperial coat of arms deep into Eastern Europe and annihilated the Russians in
June 1807 at the Battle of Friedland. France then forced
Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoléon Bonaparte; the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the
/nəˈpoʊliən, -ˈpoʊljən/;[2] French: [napɔleɔ̃ bɔna- Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace
paʁt], Italian: [napoleoŋe bɔŋaparte], born "Napoleone to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of
di Buonaparte" (Italian: [napoleoŋe dj buɔŋaparte]); the French Empire. In 1809, the Austrians challenged the
15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French military French again during the War of the Fifth Coalition, but
and political leader who rose to prominence during the Napoleon solidified his grip over Europe after triumphing
French Revolution and led several successful campaigns at the Battle of Wagram in July.
during the Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he Hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off
was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, and British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon in-
again in 1815. Napoleon dominated European and vaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of
global affairs for more than a decade while leading Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted
France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic with British support. The Peninsular War lasted six years,
Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory
of his battles, building a large empire that ruled over for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring
continental Europe before its final collapse in 1815. One diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states,
of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and especially Russia. Unwilling to bear the economic con-
campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. sequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely vio-
Napoleon’s political and cultural legacy has ensured his lated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into
status as one of the most celebrated and controversial another war. The French launched a major invasion of
leaders in human history.[3][4] Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign
He was born in Corsica to a relatively modest family from witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruc-
the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in tion of Russian cities, and inspired a renewed push against
1789, Napoleon was serving as an artillery officer in the Napoleon by his enemies. In 1813, Prussia and Austria
French army. He attempted to capitalize quickly on the joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France.

1
2 1 ORIGINS AND EDUCATION

A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Al-

lied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in
October 1813. The Allies then invaded France and cap-
tured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to
abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba
near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power.
However, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815
and took control of France once again. The Allies re-
sponded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated
Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June. The British
exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the
South Atlantic, where he spent the remainder of his years.
His death in 1821 at the age of 51 was received with sur-
prise, shock, and grief throughout Europe, leaving behind
a memory that still persists.[5][6]
Napoleon had an extensive and powerful influence on the
modern world, bringing liberal reforms to the numerous
territories that he conquered and controlled, such as the
Low Countries, Switzerland, and large parts of modern
Italy and Germany. He implemented fundamental liberal
policies in France and throughout Western Europe.[note 1]
His legal achievement, the Napoleonic Code, has influ-
enced the legal systems of more than 70 nations around
the world. British historian Andrew Roberts stated, “The
ideas that underpin our modern world—meritocracy, Napoleon’s father Carlo Buonaparte was Corsica's representative
equality before the law, property rights, religious toler- to the court of Louis XVI of France.
ation, modern secular education, sound finances, and so
on—were championed, consolidated, codified and geo-
graphically extended by Napoleon. To them he added a
rational and efficient local administration, an end to ru-
ral banditry, the encouragement of science and the arts,
the abolition of feudalism and the greatest codification of
laws since the fall of the Roman Empire.”[13]

1 Origins and education

Napoleon was born on 15 August 1769, to Carlo Maria di

Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino, in his family’s
ancestral home Casa Buonaparte in Ajaccio, the capital
of the island of Corsica. He was their fourth child and
third son. This was a year after the island was transferred
to France by the Republic of Genoa.[14] He was chris-
tened Napoleone di Buonaparte, probably named after an
uncle (an older brother who did not survive infancy was
the first of the sons to be called Napoleone). In his 20s,
he adopted the more French-sounding Napoléon Bona-
parte.[15][note 2]
The nationalist Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli; portrait by
The Corsican Buonapartes were descended from minor Richard Cosway, 1798
Italian nobility of Tuscan origin, who had come to Cor-
sica from Liguria in the 16th century.[16][17]
His father Nobile Carlo Buonaparte was an attorney, and maternal grandmother had married into the Swiss Fesch
was named Corsica’s representative to the court of Louis family in her second marriage, and Napoleon’s uncle, the
XVI in 1777. The dominant influence of Napoleon’s cardinal Joseph Fesch, would fulfill the role as protector
childhood was his mother, Letizia Ramolino, whose firm of the Bonaparte family for some years.
discipline restrained a rambunctious child.[18] Napoleon’s He had an elder brother, Joseph, and younger siblings:
2.1 Siege of Toulon 3

Lucien, Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline, and Jérôme. A Upon graduating in September 1785, Bonaparte was
boy and girl were born before Joseph but died in infancy. commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery reg-
Napoleon was baptised as a Catholic.[19] iment.[21][note 4] He served in Valence and Auxonne until
Napoleon’s noble, moderately affluent background af- after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789, and took
forded him greater opportunities to study than were avail- nearly two years’ leave in Corsica and Paris during this pe-
able to a typical Corsican of the time.[20] In January 1779, riod. At this time, he was a fervent Corsican nationalist,
he was enrolled at a religious school in Autun. In May, and wrote to Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli in May 1789,
he was admitted to a military academy at Brienne-le- “As the nation was perishing I was born. Thirty thousand
Frenchmen were vomited on to our shores, drowning the
Château.[21] His first language was Corsican, and he al-
ways spoke French with a marked Corsican accent and throne of liberty in waves of blood. Such was the odious
[22] sight which was the first to strike me.”[29]
never learned to spell French properly. He was teased
by other students for his accent and applied himself to He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica,
reading.[23] An examiner observed that Napoleon “has al- fighting in a complex three-way struggle among royalists,
ways been distinguished for his application in mathemat- revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He was a sup-
ics. He is fairly well acquainted with history and geogra- porter of the republican Jacobin movement, organising
phy... This boy would make an excellent sailor.”[24][note 3] clubs in Corsica,[30] and was given command over a bat-
On completion of his studies at Brienne in 1784, talion of volunteers. He was promoted to captain in the
Napoleon was admitted to the elite École Militaire in regular army in July 1792, despite exceeding his leave
Paris. He trained to become an artillery officer and, of absence [31]
and leading a riot against a French army in
when his father’s death reduced his income, was forced Corsica.
to complete the two-year course in one year.[26] He was He returned to Corsica and came into conflict with
the first Corsican to graduate from the École Militaire.[26] Paoli, who had decided to split with France and sabotage
He was examined by the famed scientist Pierre-Simon the French assault on the Sardinian island of La Mad-
Laplace.[27] dalena.[32] Bonaparte and his family fled to the French
mainland in June 1793 because of the split with Paoli.[33]

2 Early career
2.1 Siege of Toulon

Main article: Siege of Toulon

In July 1793, Bonaparte published a pro-republican

Napoleon Bonaparte, aged 23, lieutenant-colonel of a battalion

of Corsican Republican volunteers Bonaparte at the Siege of Toulon
4 2 EARLY CAREER

pamphlet entitled Le souper de Beaucaire (Supper at war and royalist counter-revolution in Vendée, a region in
Beaucaire) which gained him the support of Augustin west central France on the Atlantic Ocean. As an infantry
Robespierre, younger brother of the Revolutionary leader command, it was a demotion from artillery general—for
Maximilien Robespierre. With the help of his fellow which the army already had a full quota—and he pleaded
Corsican Antoine Christophe Saliceti, Bonaparte was ap- poor health to avoid the posting.[42]
pointed artillery commander of the republican forces at
the Siege of Toulon.[34]
He adopted a plan to capture a hill where republican guns
could dominate the city’s harbour and force the British to
evacuate. The assault on the position led to the capture
of the city, but during it Bonaparte was wounded in the
thigh. He was promoted to brigadier general at the age
of 24. Catching the attention of the Committee of Public
Safety, he was put in charge of the artillery of France’s
Army of Italy.[35]
Napoleon spent time as inspector of coastal fortifications
on the Mediterranean coast near Marseille while he was
waiting for confirmation of the Army of Italy post. He Journée du 13 Vendémiaire. Artillery fire in front of the Church
devised plans for attacking the Kingdom of Sardinia as of Saint-Roch, Paris, Rue Saint-Honoré
part of France’s campaign against the First Coalition. Au-
gustin Robespierre and Saliceti were ready to listen to the He was moved to the Bureau of Topography of the Com-
freshly promoted artillery general.[36] mittee of Public Safety and sought unsuccessfully to be
The French army carried out Bonaparte’s plan in the transferred to Constantinople in order to offer his ser-
Battle of Saorgio in April 1794, and then advanced to vices to the Sultan.[43] During this period, he wrote the
seize Ormea in the mountains. From Ormea, they headed romantic novella Clisson et Eugénie, about a soldier and
west to outflank the Austro-Sardinian positions around his lover, in a clear parallel to Bonaparte’s own relation-
Saorge. After this campaign, Augustin Robespierre sent ship with Désirée.[44] On 15 September, Bonaparte was
Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to de- removed from the list of generals in regular service for his
termine that country’s intentions towards France.[37] refusal to serve in the Vendée campaign. He faced a dif-
ficult financial situation and reduced career prospects.[45]
On 3 October, royalists in Paris declared a rebellion
2.2 13 Vendémiaire against the National Convention.[46] Paul Barras, a leader
of the Thermidorian Reaction, knew of Bonaparte’s mil-
Main article: 13 Vendémiaire itary exploits at Toulon and gave him command of the
improvised forces in defence of the Convention in the
Some contemporaries alleged that Bonaparte was put un- Tuileries Palace. Napoleon had seen the massacre of the
der house arrest at Nice for his association with the Robe- King’s Swiss Guard there three years earlier [21]
and realised
spierres following their fall in the Thermidorian Reaction that artillery would be the key to its defence.
in July 1794, but Napoleon’s secretary Bourrienne dis- He ordered a young cavalry officer named Joachim Mu-
puted the allegation in his memoirs. According to Bourri- rat to seize large cannons and used them to repel the at-
enne, jealousy was responsible, between the Army of the tackers on 5 October 1795—13 Vendémiaire An IV in the
Alps and the Army of Italy (with whom Napoleon was French Republican Calendar. 1,400 royalists died and the
seconded at the time).[38] Bonaparte dispatched an im- rest fled.[46] He had cleared the streets with “a whiff of
passioned defense in a letter to the commissar Salicetti, grapeshot", according to 19th-century historian Thomas
and he was subsequently acquitted of any wrongdoing.[39] Carlyle in The French Revolution: A History.[47][48]
He was released within two weeks and, due to his tech- The defeat of the royalist insurrection extinguished the
nical skills, was asked to draw up plans to attack Italianthreat to the Convention and earned Bonaparte sudden
positions in the context of France’s war with Austria. He fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new government,
also took part in an expedition to take back Corsica from the Directory. Murat married one of Napoleon’s sis-
the British, but the French were repulsed by the British ters and became his brother-in-law; he also served un-
Royal Navy.[40] der Napoleon as one of his generals. Bonaparte was pro-
By 1795, Bonaparte had become engaged to Désirée moted to Commander[33] of the Interior and given command
Clary, daughter of François Clary. Désirée’s sister Julie of the Army of Italy.
Clary had married Bonaparte’s elder brother Joseph.[41] Within weeks, he was romantically attached to Joséphine
In April 1795, he was assigned to the Army of the West, de Beauharnais, the former mistress of Barras. The cou-
which was engaged in the War in the Vendée—a civil ple married on 9 March 1796 in a civil ceremony.[49]
2.4 Egyptian expedition 5

2.3 First Italian campaign March 1797. The Austrians were alarmed by the French
thrust that reached all the way to Leoben, about 100 km
Main article: Italian campaigns of the French Revolution- from Vienna, and finally decided to sue for peace.[51] The
ary Wars Treaty of Leoben, followed by the more comprehensive
Two days after the marriage, Bonaparte left Paris to take Treaty of Campo Formio, gave France control of most of
northern Italy and the Low Countries, and a secret clause
promised the Republic of Venice to Austria. Bonaparte
marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending 1,100
years of independence. He also authorized the French to
loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark.[52]
His application of conventional military ideas to real-
world situations enabled his military triumphs, such as
creative use of artillery as a mobile force to support his
infantry. He stated later in life: “I have fought sixty bat-
tles and I have learned nothing which I did not know at
the beginning. Look at Caesar; he fought the first like the
last.”[53]
Bonaparte could win battles by concealment of troop de-
ployments and concentration of his forces on the “hinge”
of an enemy’s weakened front. If he could not use his
favourite envelopment strategy, he would take up the cen-
tral position and attack two co-operating forces at their
hinge, swing round to fight one until it fled, then turn to
face the other.[54] In this Italian campaign, Bonaparte’s
army captured 150,000 prisoners, 540 cannons, and 170
standards.[55] The French army fought 67 actions and won
18 pitched battles through superior artillery technology
and Bonaparte’s tactics.[56]
During the campaign, Bonaparte became increasingly in-
fluential in French politics. He founded two newspapers:
one for the troops in his army and another for circulation
Bonaparte at the Pont d'Arcole, by Baron Antoine-Jean Gros, in France.[57] The royalists attacked Bonaparte for looting
(ca. 1801), Musée du Louvre, Paris Italy and warned that he might become a dictator.[58] All
told, Napoleon’s forces extracted an estimated $45 mil-
command of the Army of Italy. He immediately went lion in funds from Italy during their campaign there, an-
on the offensive, hoping to defeat the forces of Piedmont other $12 million in precious metals and jewels; atop that,
before their Austrian allies could intervene. In a series his forces confiscated more than three-hundred price-
of rapid victories during the Montenotte Campaign, he less paintings and sculptures.[59] Bonaparte sent General
knocked Piedmont out of the war in two weeks. The Pierre Augereau to Paris to lead a coup d'état and purge
French then focused on the Austrians for the remainder the royalists on 4 September—Coup of 18 Fructidor.
of the war, the highlight of which became the protracted This left Barras and his Republican allies in control again
struggle for Mantua. The Austrians launched a series but dependent on Bonaparte, who proceeded to peace ne-
of offensives against the French to break the siege, but gotiations with Austria. These negotiations resulted in
Napoleon defeated every relief effort, scoring victories the Treaty of Campo Formio, and Bonaparte returned
at the battles of Castiglione, Bassano, Arcole, and Rivoli. to Paris in December as a hero.[60] He met Talleyrand,
The decisive French triumph at Rivoli in January 1797 led France’s new Foreign Minister—who served in the same
to the collapse of the Austrian position in Italy. At Rivoli, capacity for Emperor Napoleon—and they began to pre-
the Austrians lost up to 14,000 men while the French lost pare for an invasion of Britain.[33]
about 5,000.[50]
The next phase of the campaign featured the French inva-
sion of the Habsburg heartlands. French forces in South- 2.4 Egyptian expedition
ern Germany had been defeated by the Archduke Charles
in 1796, but the Archduke withdrew his forces to protect Main article: French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Vienna after learning about Napoleon’s assault. In the After two months of planning, Bonaparte decided that
first encounter between the two commanders, Napoleon France’s naval power was not yet strong enough to con-
pushed back his opponent and advanced deep into Aus- front the British Royal Navy. He decided on a military
trian territory after winning at the Battle of Tarvis in expedition to seize Egypt and thereby undermine Britain’s
6 3 RULER OF FRANCE

French army.[67]
On 1 August, the British fleet under Horatio Nelson cap-
tured or destroyed all but two French vessels in the Battle
of the Nile, defeating Bonaparte’s goal to strengthen the
French position in the Mediterranean.[68] His army had
succeeded in a temporary increase of French power in
Egypt, though it faced repeated uprisings.[69] In early
1799, he moved an army into the Ottoman province
of Damascus (Syria and Galilee). Bonaparte led these
13,000 French soldiers in the conquest of the coastal
towns of Arish, Gaza, Jaffa, and Haifa.[70] The attack on
Napoleon Bonaparte Before the Sphinx, (ca. 1868) by Jean- Jaffa was particularly brutal. Bonaparte discovered that
Léon Gérôme, Hearst Castle many of the defenders were former prisoners of war, os-
tensibly on parole, so he ordered the garrison and 1,400
prisoners to be executed by bayonet or drowning to save
bullets.[68] Men, women, and children were robbed and
murdered for three days.[71]
Bonaparte began with an army of 13,000 men; 1,500
were reported missing, 1,200 died in combat, and thou-
sands perished from disease—mostly bubonic plague. He
failed to reduce the fortress of Acre, so he marched
his army back to Egypt in May. To speed up the re-
Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July 1798 by Louis-François, treat, Bonaparte ordered plague-stricken men to be poi-
Baron Lejeune, 1808 soned with opium; the number who died remains dis-
puted, ranging from a low of 30 to a high of 580. He
also brought out 1,000 wounded men.[72] Back in Egypt
[33]
access to its trade interests in India. Bonaparte wished on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious
to establish a French presence in the Middle East, with invasion at Abukir.[73]
the ultimate dream of linking with Tipu Sultan, a Mus-
lim enemy of the British in India.[61]
Napoleon assured the Directory that “as soon as he had 3 Ruler of France
conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the In-
dian princes and, together with them, attack the English Main articles: 18 Brumaire and Napoleonic era
in their possessions.”[62] The Directory agreed in order to While in Egypt, Bonaparte stayed informed of European
secure a trade route to India.[63] affairs. He learned that France had suffered a series of
In May 1798, Bonaparte was elected a member of the defeats in the War of the Second Coalition.[74] On 24 Au-
French Academy of Sciences. His Egyptian expedition gust 1799, he took advantage of the temporary departure
included a group of 167 scientists, with mathematicians, of British ships from French coastal ports and set sail for
naturalists, chemists, and geodesists among them. Their France, despite the fact that he had received no explicit
discoveries included the Rosetta Stone, and their work orders from Paris.[68] The army was left in the charge of
was published in the Description de l'Égypte in 1809.[64] Jean Baptiste Kléber.[75]
En route to Egypt, Bonaparte reached Malta on 9 June Unknown to Bonaparte, the Directory had sent him or-
1798, then controlled by the Knights Hospitaller. Grand ders to return to ward off possible invasions of French
Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim surren- soil, but poor lines of communication prevented the de-
dered after token resistance, and Bonaparte captured an livery of these messages.[74] By the time that he reached
important naval base with the loss of only three men.[65] Paris in October, France’s situation had been improved
General Bonaparte and his expedition eluded pursuit by by a series of victories. The Republic, however, was
the Royal Navy and landed at Alexandria on 1 July.[33] He bankrupt and the ineffective Directory was unpopular
fought the Battle of Shubra Khit against the Mamluks, with the French population.[76] The Directory discussed
Egypt’s ruling military caste. This helped the French Bonaparte’s “desertion” but was too weak to punish
practice their defensive tactic for the Battle of the Pyra- him.[74]
mids, fought on 21 July, about 24 km (15 mi) from Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a
the pyramids. General Bonaparte’s forces of 25,000 hero’s welcome. He drew together an alliance with direc-
roughly equalled those of the Mamluks’ Egyptian cavalry. tor Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, his brother Lucien, speaker
Twenty-nine French[66] and approximately 2,000 Egyp- of the Council of Five Hundred Roger Ducos, director
tians were killed. The victory boosted the morale of the Joseph Fouché, and Talleyrand, and they overthrew the
3.1 French Consulate 7

General Bonaparte surrounded by members of the Council of

Five Hundred during the Coup of 18 Brumaire, by François Bou-
chot

Directory by a coup d'état on 9 November 1799 (“the

18th Brumaire” according to the revolutionary calendar),
closing down the council of five hundred. Napoleon be-
came “first consul” for ten years, with two consuls ap-
pointed by him who had consultative voices only. His Bonaparte, First Consul, by Ingres. Posing the hand inside the
power was confirmed by the new "Constitution of the waistcoat was often used in portraits of rulers to indicate calm
Year VIII", originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon and stable leadership.
a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by
direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed).
The constitution preserved the appearance of a republic In the first few months of the Consulate, with war in Eu-
but in reality established a dictatorship.[77][78] rope still raging and internal instability still plaguing the
country, Napoleon’s grip on power remained very tenu-
ous.
3.1 French Consulate In the spring of 1800, Napoleon and his troops crossed
the Swiss Alps into Italy, aiming to surprise the Austrian
Main articles: French Consulate and War of the Second armies that had reoccupied the peninsula when Napoleon
Coalition was still in Egypt.[note 5] After a difficult crossing over
Napoleon established a political system that histo- the Alps, the French army entered the plains of North-
rian Martyn Lyons called “dictatorship by plebiscite.”[79] ern Italy virtually unopposed.[82] While one French army
Worried by the democratic forces unleashed by the Rev- approached from the north, the Austrians were busy with
olution, but unwilling to ignore them entirely, Napoleon another stationed in Genoa, which was besieged by a sub-
resorted to regular electoral consultations with the French stantial force. The fierce resistance of this French army,
people on his road to imperial power.[79] He drafted the under André Masséna, gave the northern force some time
Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own elec- to carry out their operations with little interference.[83]
tion as First Consul, taking up residence at the Tuileries. After spending several days looking for each other, the
The constitution was approved in a rigged plebiscite held two armies collided at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June.
the following January, with 99.94 percent officially listed General Melas had a numerical advantage, fielding about
as voting “yes.”[80] Napoleon’s brother, Lucien, had fal- 30,000 Austrian soldiers while Napoleon commanded
sified the returns to show that 3 million people had 24,000 French troops.[84] The battle began favorably for
participated in the plebiscite; the real number was 1.5 the Austrians as their initial attack surprised the French
million.[79] Political observers at the time assumed the and gradually drove them back. Melas stated that he'd
eligible French voting public numbered about 5 million won the battle and retired to his headquarters around 3
people, so the regime artificially doubled the participation pm, leaving his subordinates in charge of pursuing the
rate to indicate popular enthusiasm for the Consulate.[79] French.[85] The French lines never broke during their tac-
8 3 RULER OF FRANCE

reported that Austria, emboldened by British support,

would not acknowledge the new territory that France
had acquired. As negotiations became increasingly frac-
tious, Bonaparte gave orders to his general Moreau to
strike Austria once more. Moreau and the French swept
through Bavaria and scored an overwhelming victory at
Hohenlinden in December 1800. As a result, the Aus-
trians capitulated and signed the Treaty of Lunéville in
February 1801. The treaty reaffirmed and expanded ear-
lier French gains at Campo Formio.[89] Britain now re-
mained the only nation that was still at war with France.

3.1.1 Temporary peace in Europe

See also: Haitian Revolution

After a decade of constant warfare, France and Britain

signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, bringing
the Revolutionary Wars to an end. Amiens called for
the withdrawal of British troops from recently conquered
colonial territories as well as for assurances to curtail the
expansionary goals of the French Republic.[83] With Eu-
rope at peace and the economy recovering, Napoleon’s
popularity soared to its highest levels under the Consulate,
both domestically and abroad.[90] In a new plebiscite dur-
Napoleon as commander of the Army ing the spring of 1802, the French public came out in huge
numbers to approve a constitution that made the Con-
sulate permanent, essentially elevating Napoleon to dic-
tator for life.[90] Whereas the plebiscite two years earlier
tical retreat; Napoleon constantly rode out among the had brought out 1.5 million people to the polls, the new
troops urging them to stand and fight. Late in the after- referendum enticed 3.6 million to go and vote (72% of all
noon, a full division under Desaix arrived on the field and eligible voters).[91] There was no secret ballot in 1802 and
reversed the tide of the battle. A series of artillery bar- few people wanted to openly defy the regime; the consti-
rages and cavalry charges decimated the Austrian army, tution gained approval with over 99% of the vote.[91] His
which fled over the Bormida River back to Alessandria, broad powers were spelled out in the new constitution:
leaving behind 14,000 casualties.[86] The following day, Article 1. The French people name, and the Senate pro-
the Austrian army agreed to abandon Northern Italy once
claims Napoleon-Bonaparte First Consul for Life.[92] Af-
more with the Convention of Alessandria, which granted ter 1802, he was generally referred to as Napoleon rather
them safe passage to friendly soil in exchange for their
than Bonaparte.[28]
fortresses throughout the region.[86]
The brief peace in Europe allowed Napoleon to focus on
Although critics have blamed Napoleon for several tacti- the French colonies abroad. Saint-Domingue had man-
cal mistakes preceding the battle, they have also praised aged to acquire a high level of political autonomy during
his audacity for selecting a risky campaign strategy, the Revolutionary Wars, with Toussaint Louverture in-
choosing to invade the Italian peninsula from the north stalling himself as de facto dictator by 1801. Napoleon
when the vast majority of French invasions came from the saw his chance to recuperate the formerly wealthy colony
west, near or along the coastline.[87] As Chandler points when he signed the Treaty of Amiens. During the Rev-
out, Napoleon spent almost a year getting the Austrians olution, the National Convention voted to abolish slav-
out of Italy in his first campaign; in 1800, it took him only ery in February 1794. Under the terms of Amiens, how-
a month to achieve the same goal.[87] German strategist ever, Napoleon agreed to appease British demands by not
and field marshal Alfred von Schlieffen concluded that abolishing slavery in any colonies where the 1794 de-
“Bonaparte did not annihilate his enemy but eliminated cree had never been implemented. The resulting Law
him and rendered him harmless” while "[attaining] the of 20 May never applied to colonies like Guadeloupe
object of the campaign: the conquest of North Italy.”[88] or Guyane, even though rogue generals and other offi-
Napoleon’s triumph at Marengo secured his political au- cials used the pretext of peace as an opportunity to re-
thority and boosted his popularity back home, but it did instate slavery in some of these places. The Law of 20
not lead to an immediate peace. Bonaparte’s brother, May officially restored the slave trade to the Caribbean
Joseph, led the complex negotiations in Lunéville and colonies, not slavery itself.[93] Napoleon sent an expedi-
3.2 French Empire 9

tion under General Leclerc designed to reassert control throughout Europe, becoming one of the contributing po-
over Sainte-Domingue. Although the French managed litical factors for the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars.
to capture Toussaint Louverture, the expedition failed To expand his power, Napoleon used these assassina-
when high rates of disease crippled the French army. In tion plots to justify the creation of an imperial system
May 1803, the last 8000 French troops left the island based on the Roman model. He believed that a Bourbon
and the slaves proclaimed an independent republic that restoration would be more difficult if his family’s succes-
they called Haïti in 1804.[94] Seeing the failure of his sion was entrenched in the constitution.[100] Launching
colonial efforts, Napoleon decided in 1803 to sell the yet another referendum, Napoleon was elected as Em-
Louisiana Territory to the United States, instantly dou-
peror of the French by a tally exceeding 99%.[91] As with
bling the size of the U.S. The selling price in the Louisiana the Life Consulate two years earlier, this referendum pro-
Purchase was less than three cents per acre, a total of $15
duced heavy participation, bringing out almost 3.6 mil-
million.[3][95] lion voters to the polls.[91]
The peace with Britain proved to be uneasy and Napoleon’s coronation took place on 2 December 1804.
controversial.[96] Britain did not evacuate Malta as
Two separate crowns were brought for the ceremony: a
promised and protested against Bonaparte’s annexation of
golden laurel wreath recalling the Roman Empire and a
Piedmont and his Act of Mediation, which established
replica of Charlemagne’s crown.[101] Napoleon entered
a new Swiss Confederation. Neither of these territo-
the ceremony wearing the laurel wreath and kept it on
ries were covered by Amiens, but they inflamed tensions
his head throughout the proceedings.[101] For the official
significantly.[97] The dispute culminated in a declaration
coronation, he raised the Charlemagne crown over his
of war by Britain in May 1803; Napoleon responded by
own head in a symbolic gesture, but never placed it on top
reassembling the invasion camp at Boulogne.[68] because he was already wearing the golden wreath.[101]
Instead he placed the crown on Josephine’s head, the
event commemorated in the officially sanctioned painting
3.2 French Empire by Jacques-Louis David.[101] Napoleon was also crowned
King of Italy, with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, at the
Main article: First French Empire Cathedral of Milan on 26 May 1805. He created eighteen
See also: Coronation of Napoleon I and Napoleonic Marshals of the Empire from amongst his top generals to
secure the allegiance of the army.

3.2.1 War of the Third Coalition

Main article: War of the Third Coalition

Great Britain had broken the Peace of Amiens by declar-

The Coronation of Napoleon by Jacques-Louis David in 1804.

Wars

During the Consulate, Napoleon faced several roy-

alist and Jacobin assassination plots, including the
Conspiration des poignards (Dagger plot) in October 1800 Napoleon and the Grande Armée receive the surrender of
and the Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise (also known as the Austrian General Mack after the Battle of Ulm in October 1805.
Infernal Machine) two months later.[98] In January 1804, The decisive finale of the Ulm Campaign raised the tally of cap-
his police uncovered an assassination plot against him that tured Austrian soldiers to 60,000. With the Austrian army de-
involved Moreau and which was ostensibly sponsored by stroyed, Vienna would fall to the French in November.
the Bourbon family, the former rulers of France. On
the advice of Talleyrand, Napoleon ordered the kidnap- ing war on France in May 1803.[102] In December 1804,
ping of the Duke of Enghien, violating the sovereignty an Anglo-Swedish agreement became the first step to-
of Baden. The Duke was quickly executed after a se- wards the creation of the Third Coalition. By April 1805,
cret military trial, even though he had not been involved Britain had also signed an alliance with Russia.[103] Aus-
in the plot.[99] Enghien’s execution infuriated royal courts tria had been defeated by France twice in recent mem-
10 3 RULER OF FRANCE

ory and wanted revenge, so it joined the coalition a few culminated in the Battle of Ulm, Mack finally surren-
months later.[104] dered after realizing that there was no way to break out of
Before the formation of the Third Coalition, Napoleon the French encirclement. For just 2,000 French casual-
had assembled an invasion force, the Armée d'Angleterre, ties, Napoleon had managed to capture a total of 60,000 [113]
around six camps at Boulogne in Northern France. He Austrian soldiers through his army’s rapid marching.
intended to use this invasion force to strike at Eng- The Ulm Campaign is generally regarded as a strate-
land. They never invaded, but Napoleon’s troops re- gic masterpiece and was influential in the development [114]
ceived careful and invaluable training for future military of the Schlieffen Plan in the late 19th century. For
[105] the French, this spectacular victory on land was soured
operations. The men at Boulogne formed the core
for what Napoleon later called La Grande Armée. At by the decisive victory that the Royal Navy attained at
the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October. After Trafalgar,
the start, this French army had about 200,000 men or-
ganized into seven corps, which were large field units that Britain had total domination of the seas for the duration
of the Napoleonic Wars.
contained 36 to 40 cannons each and were capable of
independent action until other corps could come to the
rescue.[106] A single corps properly situated in a strong
defensive position could survive at least a day without sup-
port, giving the Grande Armée countless strategic and tac-
tical options on every campaign. On top of these forces,
Napoleon created a cavalry reserve of 22,000 organized
into two cuirassier divisions, four mounted dragoon divi-
sions, one division of dismounted dragoons, and one of
light cavalry, all supported by 24 artillery pieces.[107] By
1805, the Grande Armée had grown to a force of 350,000
men,[107] who were well equipped, well trained, and led Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz, by François Gérard 1805.
by competent officers.[108] The Battle of Austerlitz, also known as the Battle of the Three
Napoleon knew that the French fleet could not defeat the Emperors, was one of Napoleon’s many victories, where the
Royal Navy in a head-to-head battle, so he planned to lure French Empire defeated the Third Coalition.
it away from the English Channel through diversionary
tactics.[109] The main strategic idea involved the French Following the Ulm Campaign, French forces managed to
Navy escaping from the British blockades of Toulon and capture Vienna in November. The fall of Vienna pro-
Brest and threatening to attack the West Indies. In the vided the French a huge bounty as they captured 100,000
face of this attack, it was hoped, the British would weaken muskets, 500 cannons, and the intact bridges across the
their defense of the Western Approaches by sending ships Danube.[115] At this critical juncture, both Tsar Alexan-
to the Caribbean, allowing a combined Franco-Spanish der I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II decided to en-
fleet to take control of the channel long enough for French gage Napoleon in battle, despite reservations from some
armies to cross and invade.[109] However, the plan unrav- of their subordinates. Napoleon sent his army north in
eled after the British victory at the Battle of Cape Finis- pursuit of the Allies, but then ordered his forces to re-
terre in July 1805. French Admiral Villeneuve then re- treat so that he could feign a grave weakness. Desperate
treated to Cádiz instead of linking up with French naval to lure the Allies into battle, Napoleon gave every indica-
forces at Brest for an attack on the English Channel.[110] tion in the days preceding the engagement that the French
army was in a pitiful state, even abandoning the domi-
By August 1805, Napoleon had realized that the strate- nant Pratzen Heights near the village of Austerlitz. At
gic situation had changed fundamentally. Facing a po- the Battle of Austerlitz, in Moravia on 2 December, he
tential invasion from his continental enemies, he decided deployed the French army below the Pratzen Heights and
to strike first and turned his army’s sights from the En- deliberately weakened his right flank, enticing the Allies
glish Channel to the Rhine. His basic objective was to de- to launch a major assault there in the hopes of rolling up
stroy the isolated Austrian armies in Southern Germany the whole French line. A forced march from Vienna by
before their Russian allies could arrive. On 25 Septem- Marshal Davout and his III Corps plugged the gap left by
ber, after great secrecy and feverish marching, 200,000 Napoleon just in time. Meanwhile, the heavy Allied de-
French troops began to cross the Rhine on a front of 260 ployment against the French right weakened their center
km (160 mi).[111][112] Austrian commander Karl Mack on the Pratzen Heights, which was viciously attacked by
had gathered the greater part of the Austrian army at the the IV Corps of Marshal Soult. With the Allied center
fortress of Ulm in Swabia. Napoleon swung his forces demolished, the French swept through both enemy flanks
to the southeast and the Grande Armée performed an and sent the Allies fleeing chaotically, capturing thou-
elaborate wheeling movement that outflanked the Aus- sands of prisoners in the process. The battle is often seen
trian positions. The Ulm Maneuver completely surprised as a tactical masterpiece because of the near-perfect exe-
General Mack, who belatedly understood that his army cution of a calibrated but dangerous plan — of the same
had been cut off. After some minor engagements that stature as Cannae, the celebrated triumph by Hannibal
3.2 French Empire 11

some 2,000 years before.[116] and Russia themselves formed an unexpected alliance.[61]
The Allied disaster at Austerlitz significantly shook the In the end, Napoleon [121]
had made no effective alliances in
faith of Emperor Francis in the British-led war effort. the Middle East.
France and Austria agreed to an armistice immediately
and the Treaty of Pressburg followed shortly after on 26
3.2.3 War of the Fourth Coalition and Tilsit
December. Pressburg took Austria out of both the war
and the Coalition while reinforcing the earlier treaties of
Main article: War of the Fourth Coalition
Campo Formio and of Lunéville between the two pow-
ers. The treaty confirmed the Austrian loss of lands to
France in Italy and Bavaria, and lands in Germany to After Austerlitz, Napoleon established the Confederation
Napoleon’s German allies. It also imposed an indem- of the Rhine in 1806. A collection of German states in-
nity of 40 million francs on the defeated Habsburgs and tended to serve as a buffer zone between France and Cen-
allowed the fleeing Russian troops free passage through tral Europe, the creation of the Confederation spelled the
hostile territories and back to their home soil. Napoleon end of the Holy Roman Empire and significantly alarmed
went on to say, “The battle of Austerlitz is the finest of all I the Prussians. The brazen reorganization of German ter-
have fought.”[117] Frank McLynn suggests that Napoleon ritory by the French risked threatening Prussian influ-
was so successful at Austerlitz that he lost touch with ence in the region, if not eliminating it outright. War
reality, and what used to be French foreign policy be- fever in Berlin rose steadily throughout the summer of
came a “personal Napoleonic one”.[118] Vincent Cronin 1806. At the insistence of his court, especially his wife
disagrees, stating that Napoleon was not overly ambitious Queen Louise, Frederick William III decided to chal-
for himself, “he embodied the ambitions of thirty million lenge the French domination of Central Europe by going
Frenchmen”.[119] to war.[122]

3.2.2 Middle-Eastern alliances

Main articles: Franco-Ottoman alliance and Franco-

Persian alliance
Napoleon continued to entertain a grand scheme to es-

Napoleon reviews the Imperial Guard before the Battle of Jena.

The initial military maneuvers began in September 1806.

In a letter to Marshal Soult detailing the plan for the
campaign, Napoleon described the essential features
The Iranian Envoy Mirza Mohammed Reza-Qazvini meeting of Napoleonic warfare and introduced the phrase le
with Napoleon I at the Finckenstein Palace, 27 April 1807, to bataillon-carré (“square battalion”).[123] In the bataillon-
sign the Treaty of Finckenstein. carré system, the various corps of the Grande Armée
would march uniformly together in close supporting
tablish a French presence in the Middle East in order to distance.[123] If any single corps was attacked, the oth-
put pressure on Britain and Russia, and perhaps form an ers could quickly spring into action and arrive to help.
alliance with the Ottoman Empire.[61] In February 1806, Napoleon invaded Prussia with 180,000 troops, rapidly
Ottoman Emperor Selim III finally recognized Napoleon marching on the right bank of the River Saale. As in
as Emperor. He also opted for an alliance with France, previous campaigns, his fundamental objective was to
calling France “our sincere and natural ally.”[120] That destroy one opponent before reinforcements from an-
decision brought the Ottoman Empire into a losing war other could tip the balance of the war. Upon learn-
against Russia and Britain. A Franco-Persian alliance was ing the whereabouts of the Prussian army, the French
also formed between Napoleon and the Persian Empire of swung westwards and crossed the Saale with overwhelm-
Fat′h-Ali Shah Qajar. It collapsed in 1807, when France ing force. At the twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt,
12 3 RULER OF FRANCE

fought on 14 October, the French convincingly defeated stantine, to make peace with Napoleon. Given the vic-
the Prussians and inflicted heavy casualties. With sev- tory he had just achieved, the French emperor offered the
eral major commanders dead or incapacitated, the Prus- Russians relatively lenient terms–demanding that Russia
sian king proved incapable of effectively commanding join the Continental System, withdraw its forces from
the army, which began to quickly disintegrate. In a Wallachia and Moldavia, and hand over the Ionian Is-
vaunted pursuit that epitomized the “peak of Napoleonic lands to France.[129] By contrast, Napoleon dictated very
warfare,” according to historian Richard Brooks,[124] the harsh peace terms for Prussia, despite the ceaseless ex-
French managed to capture 140,000 soldiers, over 2,000 hortations of Queen Louise. Wiping out half of Prussian
cannons and hundreds of ammunition wagons, all in a sin- territories from the map, Napoleon created a new king-
gle month. Historian David Chandler wrote of the Prus- dom of 1,100 square miles called Westphalia. He then
sian forces: “Never has the morale of any army been more appointed his young brother Jérôme as the new monarch
completely shattered.”[123] Despite their overwhelming of this kingdom. Prussia’s humiliating treatment at Tilsit
defeat, the Prussians refused to negotiate with the French caused a deep and bitter antagonism which festered as the
until the Russians had an opportunity to enter the fight. Napoleonic era progressed. Moreover, Alexander’s pre-
tensions at friendship with Napoleon led the latter to se-
riously misjudge the true intentions of his Russian coun-
terpart, who would violate numerous provisions of the
treaty in the next few years. Despite these problems, the
Treaties of Tilsit at last gave Napoleon a respite from war
and allowed him to return to France, which he had not
seen in over 300 days.[130]

3.2.4 Peninsular War and Erfurt

Main article: Peninsular War

The settlements at Tilsit gave Napoleon time to organize

his empire. One of his major objectives became enforc-
ing the Continental System against the British. He de-
The Treaties of Tilsit: Napoleon meeting with Alexander I of cided to focus his attention on the Kingdom of Portugal,
Russia on a raft in the middle of the Neman River which consistently violated his trade prohibitions. Af-
ter defeat in the War of the Oranges in 1801, Portugal
Following his triumph, Napoleon imposed the first ele- adopted a double-sided policy. At first, John VI agreed
ments of the Continental System through the Berlin De- to close his ports to British trade. The situation changed
cree issued in November 1806. The Continental System, dramatically after the Franco-Spanish defeat at Trafalgar;
which prohibited European nations from trading with John grew bolder and officially resumed diplomatic and
Britain, was widely violated throughout his reign.[125][126] trade relations with Britain.
In the next few months, Napoleon marched against the ad-
Unhappy with this change of policy by the Portuguese
vancing Russian armies through Poland and was involved
government, Napoleon sent an army to invade Portu-
in the bloody stalemate at the Battle of Eylau in February
gal. On 17 October 1807, 24,000 French troops under
1807.[127] After a period of rest and consolidation on both
General Junot crossed the Pyrenees with Spanish cooper-
sides, the war restarted in June with an initial struggle at
ation and headed towards Portugal to enforce Napoleon’s
Heilsberg that proved indecisive. On 14 June, however,
orders.[131] This attack was the first step in what would
Napoleon finally obtained an overwhelming victory overeventually become the Peninsular War, a six-year strug-
the Russians at the Battle of Friedland, wiping out the
gle that significantly sapped French strength. Through-
majority of the Russian army in a very bloody struggle.
out the winter of 1808, French agents became increas-
The scale of their defeat convinced the Russians to make
ingly involved in Spanish internal affairs, attempting to
peace with the French. On 19 June, Czar Alexander sent
incite discord between members of the Spanish royal
an envoy to seek an armistice with Napoleon. The latter
family. On 16 February 1808, secret French machina-
assured the envoy that the Vistula River represented the
tions finally materialized when Napoleon announced that
natural borders between French and Russian influence in
he would intervene to mediate between the rival political
Europe. On that basis, the two emperors began peace ne-
factions in the country.[132] Marshal Murat led 120,000
gotiations at the town of Tilsit after meeting on an iconic
troops into Spain and the French arrived in Madrid on
raft on the River Niemen. The very first thing Alexander
24 March,[133] where wild riots against the occupation
said to Napoleon was probably well-calibrated: “I hate
erupted just a few weeks later. Napoleon appointed his
the English as much as you do.”[128] brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as the new King of Spain in
Alexander faced pressure from his brother, Duke Con- the summer of 1808. The appointment enraged a heav-
3.2 French Empire 13

lar War continued on long after his absence. He never

returned to Spain after the 1808 campaign. Several
months after Corunna, the British sent another army to
the peninsula under the future Duke of Wellington. The
war then settled into a complex and asymmetric strate-
gic deadlock where all sides struggled to gain the up-
per hand. The highlight of the conflict became the bru-
tal guerrilla warfare that engulfed much of the Span-
ish countryside. Both sides committed the worst atroc-
ities of the Napoleonic Wars during this phase of the
conflict. The vicious guerrilla fighting in Spain, largely
absent from the French campaigns in Central Europe,
severely disrupted the French lines of supply and commu-
nication. Although France maintained roughly 300,000
troops in Iberia during the Peninsular War, the vast ma-
jority were tied down to garrison duty and to intelligence
operations.[136] The French were never able to concen-
trate all of their forces effectively, prolonging the war
until events elsewhere in Europe finally turned the tide in
favor of the Allies. After the invasion of Russia in 1812,
the number of French troops in Spain vastly declined as
Napoleon needed reinforcements to conserve his strate-
gic position in Europe. By 1814, after scores of battles
and sieges throughout Iberia, the Allies had managed to
push the French out of the peninsula.

Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s brother, as King of Spain 3.2.5 War of the Fifth Coalition and Marie Louise

Main article: War of the Fifth Coalition

ily religious and conservative Spanish population. Resis- After four years on the sidelines, Austria sought another
tance to French aggression soon spread throughout the
country. The shocking French defeat at the Battle of
Bailén in July gave hope to Napoleon’s enemies and partly
persuaded the French emperor to intervene in person.
Before going to Iberia, Napoleon decided to address sev-
eral lingering issues with the Russians. At the Congress of
Erfurt in October 1808, Napoleon hoped to keep Russia
on his side during the upcoming struggle in Spain and dur-
ing any potential conflict against Austria. The two sides
reached an agreement, the Erfurt Convention, that called
upon Britain to cease its war against France, that rec-
ognized the Russian conquest of Finland from Sweden,
and that affirmed Russian support for France in a pos-
sible war against Austria “to the best of its ability.”[134]
Napoleon then returned to France and prepared for war.
Napoleon at the Battle of Wagram, painted by Horace Vernet.
The Grande Armée, under the Emperor’s personal com-
mand, rapidly crossed the Ebro River in November 1808 war with France to avenge its recent defeats. Austria
and inflicted a series of crushing defeats against the Span-
could not count on Russian support because the latter was
ish forces. After clearing the last Spanish force guarding
at war with Britain, Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire in
the capital at Somosierra, Napoleon entered Madrid on 41809. Frederick William of Prussia initially promised to
December with 80,000 troops.[135] He then unleashed hishelp the Austrians, but reneged before conflict began.[137]
soldiers against Moore and the British forces. The British
A report from the Austrian finance minister suggested
were swiftly driven to the coast, and they withdrew from
that the treasury would run out of money by the middle
Spain entirely after a last stand at the Battle of Corunna
of 1809 if the large army that the Austrians had formed
in January 1809. since the Third Coalition remained mobilized.[137] Al-
Napoleon would end up leaving Iberia in order to deal though Archduke Charles warned that the Austrians were
with the Austrians in Central Europe, but the Peninsu- not ready for another showdown with Napoleon, a stance
14 3 RULER OF FRANCE

that landed him in the so-called “peace party,” he did his forces in what was the largest battle of his career up
not want to see the army demobilized either.[137] On 8 until then. Napoleon finished off the battle with a concen-
February 1809, the advocates for war finally succeeded trated central thrust that punctured a hole in the Austrian
when the Imperial Government secretly decided on an- army and forced Charles to retreat. Austrian losses were
other confrontation against the French. very heavy, reaching well over 40,000 casualties.[145] The
In the early morning of 10 April, leading elements of the French were too exhausted to pursue the Austrians imme-
Austrian army crossed the Inn River and invaded Bavaria. diately, but Napoleon eventually caught up with Charles
The early Austrian attack surprised the French; Napoleon at Znaim and the latter signed an armistice on 12 July.
himself was still in Paris when he heard about the inva-
sion. He arrived at Donauwörth on the 17th to find the
Grande Armée in a dangerous position, with its two wings
separated by 75 miles (121 km) and joined together by
a thin cordon of Bavarian troops. Charles pressed the
left wing of the French army and hurled his men towards
the III Corps of Marshal Davout. In response, Napoleon
came up with a plan to cut off the Austrians in the cele-
brated Landshut Maneuver.[138] He realigned the axis of
his army and marched his soldiers towards the town of
Eckmühl. The French scored a convincing win in the re-
sulting Battle of Eckmühl, forcing Charles to withdraw
his forces over the Danube and into Bohemia. On 13
May, Vienna fell for the second time in four years, al-
though the war continued since most of the Austrian army
had survived the initial engagements in Southern Ger-
many.
By 17 May, the main Austrian army under Charles had
arrived on the Marchfeld. Charles kept the bulk of his
troops several miles away from the river bank in hopes First French Empire at its greatest extent in 1811
of concentrating them at the point where Napoleon de- French Empire
cided to cross. On 21 May, the French made their first French satellite states
Allied states
major effort to cross the Danube, precipitating the Battle
of Aspern-Essling. The Austrians enjoyed a comfortable
numerical superiority over the French throughout the bat- In the Kingdom of Holland, the British launched the
tle; on the first day, Charles disposed of 110,000 soldiers Walcheren Campaign to open up a second front in the
against only 31,000 commanded by Napoleon.[139] By the war and to relieve the pressure on the Austrians. The
second day, reinforcements had boosted French numbers British army only landed at Walcheren on 30 July, by
up to 70,000.[140] The battle was characterized by a vi- which point the Austrians had already been defeated. The
cious back-and-forth struggle for the two villages of As- Walcheren Campaign was characterized by little fight-
pern and Essling, the focal points of the French bridge- ing but heavy casualties thanks to the popularly dubbed
head. By the end of the fighting, the French had lost As- "Walcheren Fever.” Over 4000 British troops were lost in
pern but still controlled Essling. A sustained Austrian ar- a bungled campaign, and the rest withdrew in Decem-
tillery bombardment eventually convinced Napoleon to ber 1809.[146] The main strategic result from the cam-
withdraw his forces back onto Lobau Island. Both sides paign became the delayed political settlement between
inflicted about 23,000 casualties on each other.[141] It was the French and the Austrians. Emperor Francis wanted
the first defeat Napoleon suffered in a major set-piece to wait and see how the British performed in their theater
battle, and it caused excitement throughout many parts before entering into negotiations with Napoleon. Once it
of Europe because it proved that he could be beaten on became apparent that the British were going nowhere, the
the battlefield.[142] Austrians agreed to peace talks.
After the setback at Aspern-Essling, Napoleon took more The resulting Treaty of Schönbrunn in October 1809 was
than six weeks in planning and preparing for contin- the harshest that France had imposed on Austria in re-
gencies before he made another attempt at crossing the cent memory. Metternich and Archduke Charles had
Danube.[143] From 30 June to the early days of July, the preservation of the Habsburg Empire as their funda-
the French recrossed the Danube in strength, with more mental goal, and to this end they succeeded by making
than 180,000 troops marching across the Marchfeld to- Napoleon seek more modest goals in return for promises
wards the Austrians.[143] Charles received the French with of friendship between the two powers.[147] Nevertheless,
150,000 of his own men.[144] In the ensuing Battle of Wa- while most of the hereditary lands remained a part of
gram, which also lasted two days, Napoleon commanded the Habsburg realm, France received Carinthia, Carniola,
3.2 French Empire 15

and the Adriatic ports, while Galicia was given to the Poland. On receipt of intelligence reports on Russia’s war
Poles and the Salzburg area of the Tyrol went to the preparations, Napoleon expanded his Grande Armée to
Bavarians.[147] Austria lost over three million subjects, more than 450,000 men.[151] He ignored repeated advice
about one-fifth of her total population, as a result of these against an invasion of the Russian heartland and prepared
territorial changes.[148] Although fighting in Iberia contin- for an offensive campaign; on 24 June 1812 the invasion
ued, the War of the Fifth Coalition would be the last ma- commenced.[152]
jor conflict on the European continent for the next three
years.
Napoleon turned his focus to domestic affairs after the
war. Empress Joséphine had still not given birth to a child
from Napoleon, who became worried about the future of
his empire following his death. Desperate for a legitimate
heir, Napoleon divorced Joséphine in January 1810 and
started looking for a new wife. Hoping to cement the
recent alliance with Austria through a family connection,
Napoleon married the Archduchess Marie Louise, who
was 18 years old at the time. On 20 March 1811, Marie
Louise gave birth to a baby boy, whom Napoleon made
heir apparent and bestowed the title of King of Rome. His
son never actually ruled the empire, but historians still
refer to him as Napoleon II. Napoleon’s withdrawal from Russia, a painting by Adolph
Northen

3.2.6 Invasion of Russia

In an attempt to gain increased support from Polish na-
tionalists and patriots, Napoleon termed the war the Sec-
Main article: French invasion of Russia
ond Polish War—the First Polish War had been the Bar
In 1808, Napoleon and Czar Alexander met at the
Confederation uprising by Polish nobles against Russia in
1768. Polish patriots wanted the Russian part of Poland
to be joined with the Duchy of Warsaw and an indepen-
dent Poland created. This was rejected by Napoleon, who
stated he had promised his ally Austria this would not
happen. Napoleon refused to manumit the Russian serfs
because of concerns this might provoke a reaction in his
army’s rear. The serfs later committed atrocities against
French soldiers during France’s retreat.[153]
The Russians avoided Napoleon’s objective of a deci-
sive engagement and instead retreated deeper into Rus-
sia. A brief attempt at resistance was made at Smolensk
in August; the Russians were defeated in a series of bat-
tles, and Napoleon resumed his advance. The Russians
again avoided battle, although in a few cases this was only
achieved because Napoleon uncharacteristically hesitated
to attack when the opportunity arose. Owing to the Rus-
The Moscow fire depicted by an unknown German artist sian army’s scorched earth tactics, the French found it in-
creasingly difficult to forage food for themselves and their
Congress of Erfurt to preserve the Russo-French alliance. horses.[154]
The leaders had a friendly personal relationship after their The Russians eventually offered battle outside Moscow
first meeting at Tilsit in 1807.[149] By 1811, however, ten- on 7 September: the Battle of Borodino resulted in ap-
sions had increased and Alexander was under pressure proximately 44,000 Russian and 35,000 French dead,
from the Russian nobility to break off the alliance. A wounded or captured, and may have been the bloodiest
major strain on the relationship between the two nations day of battle in history up to that point in time.[155] Al-
became the regular violations of the Continental System though the French had won, the Russian army had ac-
by the Russians, which led Napoleon to threaten Alexan- cepted, and withstood, the major battle Napoleon had
der with serious consequences if he formed an alliance hoped would be decisive. Napoleon’s own account was:
with Britain.[150] “The most terrible of all my battles was the one before
By 1812, advisers to Alexander suggested the possibility Moscow. The French showed themselves to be worthy of
of an invasion of the French Empire and the recapture of victory, but the Russians showed themselves worthy of
16 3 RULER OF FRANCE

being invincible.”[156] als in November 1813. Napoleon would remain as Em-

The Russian army withdrew and retreated past Moscow. peror of France, but it would be reduced to its “natural
Napoleon entered the city, assuming its fall would end the frontiers.” That meant that France could retain control of
war and Alexander would negotiate peace. However, on Belgium, Savoy and the Rhineland (the west bank of the
orders of the city’s governor Feodor Rostopchin, rather Rhine River), while giving up control of all the rest, in-
than capitulation, Moscow was burned. After five weeks, cluding all of Spain and the Netherlands, and most of Italy
Napoleon and his army left. In early November Napoleon and Germany. Metternich told Napoleon these were the
got concerned about loss of control back in France af- best terms the Allies were likely to offer; after further
victories, the terms would be harsher and harsher. Met-
ter the Malet coup of 1812. His army walked through
snow up to their knees and nearly 10,000 men and horses ternich’s motivation was to maintain France as a balance
against Russian threats, while ending the highly destabi-
froze to death on the night of 8/9 November alone. After
Battle of Berezina Napoleon succeeded to escape but had lizing series of wars.[163]
to abandon much of the remaining artillery and baggage Napoleon, expecting to win the war, delayed too long
train. On 5 December, shortly before arriving in Vilnius, and lost this opportunity; by December the Allies had
Napoleon left the army in a sledge.[157] withdrawn the offer. When his back was to the wall
The French suffered in the course of a ruinous retreat, in 1814 he tried to reopen peace negotiations on the
including from the harshness of the Russian Winter. The basis of accepting the Frankfurt proposals. The Allies
Armée had begun as over 400,000 frontline troops, with now had new, harsher terms that included the retreat of
fewer than 40,000 crossing the Berezina River in Novem- France to its 1791 boundaries, which meant the loss of
ber 1812.[158] The Russians had lost 150,000 in battle and Belgium. Napoleon would remain Emperor, however he
hundreds of thousands of civilians.[159] rejected the term. The British wanted Napoleon per-
manently removed; they prevailed. Napoleon adamantly
refused.[163][164]
3.2.7 War of the Sixth Coalition Napoleon withdrew back into France, his army reduced
to 70,000 soldiers, and little cavalry; he faced more than
Main article: War of the Sixth Coalition three times as many Allied troops.[165] The French were
There was a lull in fighting over the winter of 1812– surrounded: British armies pressed from the south, and
other Coalition forces positioned to attack from the Ger-
man states. Napoleon won a series of victories in the
Six Days’ Campaign, though these were not significant
enough to turn the tide. The leaders of Paris surrendered
to the Coalition in March 1814.[166]
On 1 April, Alexander addressed the Sénat conservateur.
Long docile to Napoleon, under Talleyrand’s prodding it
had turned against him. Alexander told the Sénat that
the Allies were fighting against Napoleon, not France,
and they were prepared to offer honorable peace terms if
Napoleon were removed from power. The next day, the
Sénat passed the Acte de déchéance de l'Empereur (“Em-
peror’s Demise Act”), which declared Napoleon deposed.
Napoleon had advanced as far as Fontainebleau when he
Napoleon’s farewell to his Imperial Guard, 20 April 1814
learned that Paris was lost. When Napoleon proposed
the army march on the capital, his senior officers and
marshals mutinied.[167] On 4 April, led by Ney, they con-
13 while both the Russians and the French rebuilt their
fronted Napoleon. Napoleon asserted the army would fol-
forces; Napoleon was able to field 350,000 troops.[160]
low him, and Ney replied the army would follow its gen-
Heartened by France’s loss in Russia, Prussia joined with
erals. While the ordinary soldiers and regimental officers
Austria, Sweden, Russia, Great Britain, Spain, and Por-
wanted to fight on, without any senior officers or marshals
tugal in a new coalition. Napoleon assumed command in
any prospective invasion of Paris would have been impos-
Germany and inflicted a series of defeats on the Coalition
sible. Bowing to the inevitable, on 4 April Napoleon ab-
culminating in the Battle of Dresden in August 1813.[161]
dicated in favour of his son, with Marie-Louise as regent.
Despite these successes, the numbers continued to mount However, the Allies refused to accept this under prodding
against Napoleon, and the French army was pinned down from Alexander, who feared that Napoleon might find
by a force twice its size and lost at the Battle of Leipzig. an excuse to retake the throne.[168] Napoleon was then
This was by far the largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars forced to announce his unconditional abdication only two
and cost more than 90,000 casualties in total.[162] days later.
The Allies offered peace terms in the Frankfurt propos-
3.2 French Empire 17

3.2.8 Exile to Elba 3.2.9 Hundred Days

Main article: Hundred Days

Separated from his wife and son, who had returned to

British etching from 1814 in celebration of Napoleon’s first exile Napoleon returned from Elba, by Karl Stenben, 19th century
to Elba at the close of the War of the Sixth Coalition
Austria, cut off from the allowance guaranteed to him
by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and aware of rumours
he was about to be banished to a remote island in the
Atlantic Ocean,[174] Napoleon escaped from Elba, in the
brig Inconstant on 26 February 1815 with 700 men over
The Allied Powers having declared that
him.[174] Two days later, he landed on the French main-
Emperor Napoleon was the sole obstacle to
land at Golfe-Juan and started heading north.[174]
the restoration of peace in Europe, Emperor
Napoleon, faithful to his oath, declares that The 5th Regiment was sent to intercept him and made
he renounces, for himself and his heirs, the contact just south of Grenoble on 7 March 1815.
thrones of France and Italy, and that there Napoleon approached the regiment alone, dismounted his
is no personal sacrifice, even that of his life, horse and, when he was within gunshot range, shouted
which he is not ready to do in the interests of to the soldiers, “Here I am. Kill your Emperor, if
France. you wish.”[175] The soldiers quickly responded with,
Done in the palace of Fontainebleau, 11 April “Vive L'Empereur!" Ney, who had boasted to the re-
1814. stored Bourbon king, Louis XVIII, that he would bring
— Act of abdication of Napoleon[169] Napoleon to Paris in an iron cage, affectionately kissed
his former emperor and forgot his oath of allegiance to
the Bourbon monarch. The two then marched together
towards Paris with a growing army. The unpopular Louis
In the Treaty of Fontainebleau, the Allies exiled him to XVIII fled to Belgium after realizing he had little polit-
ical support. On 13 March, the powers at the Congress
Elba, an island of 12,000 inhabitants in the Mediter-
ranean, 20 km (12 mi) off the Tuscan coast. They gave of Vienna declared Napoleon an outlaw. Four days later,
Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia each pledged
him sovereignty over the island and allowed him to retain
the title of Emperor. Napoleon attempted suicide with to put 150,000 men into the field to end his rule.[176]
a pill he had carried after nearly being captured by the Napoleon arrived in Paris on 20 March and governed
Russians during the retreat from Moscow. Its potency for a period now called the Hundred Days. By the start
had weakened with age, however, and he survived to be of June the armed forces available to him had reached
exiled while his wife and son took refuge in Austria.[170] 200,000, and he decided to go on the offensive to attempt
In the first few months on Elba he created a small navy to drive a wedge between the oncoming British and Prus-
and army, developed the iron mines, oversaw the con- sian armies. The French Army of the North crossed the
struction of new roads, issued decrees on modern agri- frontier into the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, in
cultural methods, and overhauled the island’s legal and modern-day Belgium.[177]
educational system.[171][172] Napoleon’s forces fought the Coalition armies, com-
A few months into his exile, Napoleon learned that his manded by the Duke of Wellington and Gebhard
ex-wife Josephine had died in France. He was devastated Leberecht von Blücher, at the Battle of Waterloo on 18
by the news, locking himself in his room and refusing to June 1815. Wellington’s army withstood repeated attacks
leave for two days.[173] by the French and drove them from the field while the
18 4 EXILE ON SAINT HELENA

Prussians arrived in force and broke through Napoleon’s

right flank.
Napoleon returned to Paris and found that both the legis-
lature and the people had turned against him. Realizing
his position was untenable, he abdicated on 22 June in
favour of his son. He left Paris three days later and settled
at Josephine’s former palace in Malmaison (on the west-
ern bank of the Seine about 17 kilometres (11 mi) west
of Paris). Even as Napoleon travelled to Paris, the Coali-
tion forces swept through France (arriving in the vicinity
of Paris on 29 June), with the stated intent of restoring
Longwood House, Saint Helena: site of Napoleon’s captivity
Louis XVIII to the French throne.
When Napoleon heard that Prussian troops had orders
to capture him dead or alive, he fled to Rochefort, con- the Romantic hero, the persecuted, lonely, and flawed
[182]
sidering an escape to the United States. British ships genius.
were blocking every port. Napoleon demanded asylum
from the British Captain Frederick Maitland on HMS
Bellerophon on 15 July 1815.[178] 4.1 Death
Further information: Napoleon’s death mask and Retour
des cendres
4 Exile on Saint Helena His personal physician, Barry O'Meara, warned Lon-

Napoleon on Saint Helena

Britain kept Napoleon on the island of Saint Helena in the

Atlantic Ocean, 1,870 km (1,162 mi) from the west coast
of Africa. Napoleon was moved to Longwood House
there in December 1815; it had fallen into disrepair, and
the location was damp, windswept and unhealthy. The
Times published articles insinuating the British govern-
ment was trying to hasten his death, and he often com-
plained of the living conditions in letters to the governor Bronze Death Mask of Napoleon I. Modeled in 1821; Cast in
1833.
and his custodian, Hudson Lowe.[179]
With a small cadre of followers, Napoleon dictated his don that his declining state of health was mainly caused
memoirs and grumbled about conditions. Lowe cut by the harsh treatment. Napoleon confined himself for
Napoleon’s expenditure, ruled that no gifts were allowed months on end in his damp and wretched habitation of
if they mentioned his imperial status, and made his sup- Longwood.[183]
porters sign a guarantee they would stay with the prisoner
In February 1821, Napoleon’s health began to deteriorate
indefinitely.[180] rapidly. He reconciled with the Catholic Church. He died
There were rumors of plots and even of his escape, but on 5 May 1821, after confession, Extreme Unction and
in reality no serious attempts were made.[181] For En- Viaticum in the presence of Father Ange Vignali. His last
glish poet Lord Byron, Napoleon was the epitome of words were, “France, l'armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine”
 19

(“France, army, head of the army, Joséphine”).[184][185]

Napoleon’s original death mask was created around 6
May, although it is not clear which doctor created
it.[186][note 6] In his will, he had asked to be buried on
the banks of the Seine, but the British governor said he
should be buried on Saint Helena, in the Valley of the
Willows.[184]

Napoleon on His Death Bed, by Horace Vernet, 1826

sis. Forshufvud and Weider observed that Napoleon had

attempted to quench abnormal thirst by drinking large
amounts of orgeat syrup that contained cyanide com-
Napoleon’s tomb at Les Invalides pounds in the almonds used for flavouring.[191]

In 1840, Louis Philippe I obtained permission from the They maintained that the potassium tartrate used in his
British to return Napoleon’s remains to France. On 15 treatment prevented his stomach from expelling these
December 1840, a state funeral was held. The hearse compounds and that his thirst was a symptom of the
proceeded from the Arc de Triomphe down the Champs- poison. Their hypothesis was that the calomel given to
Élysées, across the Place de la Concorde to the Esplanade Napoleon became an overdose, which killed him and left
des Invalides and then to the cupola in St Jérôme’s Chapel, extensive tissue damage behind.[191] According to a 2007
where it remained until the tomb designed by Louis Vis- article, the type of arsenic found in Napoleon’s hair shafts
conti was completed. In 1861, Napoleon’s remains were was mineral, the most toxic, and according to toxicologist
entombed in a porphyry sarcophagus in the crypt under Patrick Kintz, this supported the conclusion that he was
the dome at Les Invalides.[188] murdered.[192]
There have been modern studies that have supported the
original autopsy finding.[192] In a 2008 study, researchers
4.1.1 Cause of death
analysed samples of Napoleon’s hair from throughout his
life, as well as samples from his family and other con-
The cause of his death has been debated. Napoleon’s
temporaries. All samples had high levels of arsenic, ap-
physician, François Carlo Antommarchi, led the autopsy,
proximately 100 times higher than the current average.
which found the cause of death to be stomach cancer. An-
According to these researchers, Napoleon’s body was al-
tommarchi did not sign the official report.[189] Napoleon’s
ready heavily contaminated with arsenic as a boy, and the
father had died of stomach cancer, although this was
high arsenic concentration in his hair was not caused by
seemingly unknown at the time of the autopsy.[190] An-
intentional poisoning; people were constantly exposed to
tommarchi found evidence of a stomach ulcer; this was
arsenic from glues and dyes throughout their lives.[note 7]
the most convenient explanation for the British, who
Studies published in 2007 and 2008 dismissed evidence
wanted to avoid criticism over their care of Napoleon.[184]
of arsenic poisoning, and confirmed evidence of peptic
In 1955, the diaries of Napoleon’s valet, Louis Marc- ulcer and gastric cancer as the cause of death.[194]
hand, were published. His description of Napoleon in
the months before his death led Sten Forshufvud in a
1961 paper in Nature to put forward other causes for
his death, including deliberate arsenic poisoning.[191] Ar- 5 Religion
senic was used as a poison during the era because it
was undetectable when administered over a long period. Further information: Napoleon and the Catholic Church
Forshufvud, in a 1978 book with Ben Weider, noted Napoleon’s baptism took place in Ajaccio on 21 July
that Napoleon’s body was found to be well preserved 1771; he was piously raised as a Catholic but he never
when moved in 1840. Arsenic is a strong preserva- developed much faith.[195] As an adult, Napoleon was
tive, and therefore this supported the poisoning hypothe- a deist. Napoleon’s deity was an absent and distant
20 6 PERSONALITY

and Catholics, the Concordat of 1801 was signed on 15

July 1801 between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. It solidi-
fied the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of
France and brought back most of its civil status. The hos-
tility of devout Catholics against the state had now largely
been resolved. It did not restore the vast church lands and
endowments that had been seized during the revolution
and sold off. As a part of the Concordat, he presented
another set of laws called the Organic Articles.[196][197]
While the Concordat restored much power to the papacy,
the balance of church–state relations had tilted firmly in
Napoleon’s favour. He selected the bishops and super-
vised church finances. Napoleon and the pope both found
the Concordat useful. Similar arrangements were made
with the Church in territories controlled by Napoleon,
especially Italy and Germany.[198] Now, Napoleon could
win favor with the Catholics while also controlling Rome
in a political sense. Napoleon said in April 1801, “Skillful
conquerors have not got entangled with priests. They can
Reorganisation of the religious geography: France is divided into both contain them and use them.” French children were
59 dioceses and 10 ecclesiastical provinces. issued a catechism that taught them to love and respect
Napoleon.[199]
God. However he had a keen appreciation of the power
of organized religion in social and political affairs, and 5.2 Religious emancipation
paid a great deal of attention to bending it to his pur-
poses. He noted the influence of Catholicism’s rituals Further information: Napoleon and the Jews and
and splendors.[195] Napoleon had a civil marriage with Napoleon and Protestants
Joséphine de Beauharnais, without religious ceremony.
Napoleon was crowned Emperor on 2 December 1804
at Notre Dame de Paris in a ceremony presided over Napoleon emancipated Jews, as well as Protestants in
by Pope Pius VII. On 1 April 1810, Napoleon married Catholic countries and Catholics in Protestant countries,
the Austrian princess Marie Louise in a Catholic cere- from laws which restricted them to ghettos, and he ex-
mony. During his brother’s rule in Spain, he abolished panded their rights to property, worship, and careers.
the Spanish Inquisition in 1813. Despite the anti-semitic reaction to Napoleon’s policies
from foreign governments and within France, he be-
lieved emancipation would benefit France by attracting
5.1 Concordat Jews to the country given the restrictions they faced
elsewhere.[200]
Further information: Concordat of 1801 He stated, “I will never accept any proposals that will ob-
Seeking national reconciliation between revolutionaries ligate the Jewish people to leave France, because to me
the Jews are the same as any other citizen in our country.
It takes weakness to chase them out of the country, but it
takes strength to assimilate them.”[201] He was seen as so
favourable to the Jews that the Russian Orthodox Church
formally condemned him as “Antichrist and the Enemy
of God”.[202]

6 Personality
Historians emphasize the strength of the ambition that
took Napoleon from an obscure village to command of
most of Europe.[203] George F. E. Rudé stresses his “rare
combination of will, intellect and physical vigour.”[204]
At 5 ft 6 in (168 cm),[205] he was not physically imposing
Leaders of the Catholic Church taking the civil oath required by but in one-on-one situations he typically had a hypnotic
the Concordat effect on people and seemingly bent the strongest lead-
 21

he mistakenly was told that Napoleon was in command,

he ordered a hasty retreat that turned into a rout.[214] The
force of his personality neutralized material difficulties as
his soldiers fought with the confidence that with Napoleon
in charge they would surely win.[215]

7 Image
Further information: Cultural depictions of Napoleon
Napoleon has become a worldwide cultural icon who

Napoleon visiting the Palais Royal for the opening of the 8th ses-
sion of the Tribunat in 1807, by Merry-Joseph Blondel

ers to his will.[206] He understood military technology,

but was not an innovator in that regard.[207] He was an
innovator in using the financial, bureaucratic, and diplo-
matic resources of France. He could rapidly dictate a se-
ries of complex commands to his subordinates, keeping
in mind where major units were expected to be at each
future point, and like a chess master, “seeing” the best
plays moves ahead.[208]
Napoleon maintained strict, efficient work habits, prior-
itizing what needed to be done. He cheated at cards, Napoleon is often represented in his green colonel uniform of the
but repaid the losses; he had to win at everything he Chasseur à Cheval of the Imperial Guard, the regiment that often
attempted.[209] He kept relays of staff and secretaries at served as his personal escort, with a large bicorne and a hand-
work. Unlike many generals, Napoleon did not examine in-waistcoat gesture.
history to ask what Hannibal or Alexander or anyone else
did in a similar situation. Critics said he won many bat- symbolises military genius and political power. Martin
tles simply because of luck; Napoleon responded, “Give van Creveld described him as “the most competent hu-
me lucky generals,” aware that “luck” comes to leaders man being who ever lived”.[216] Since his death, many
who recognize opportunity, and seize it.[210] Dwyer states towns, streets, ships, and even cartoon characters have
that Napoleon’s victories at Austerlitz and Jena in 1805– been named after him. He has been portrayed in hun-
06 heightened his sense of self-grandiosity, leaving him dreds of films and discussed in hundreds of thousands of
even more certain of his destiny and invincibility.[211] books and articles.[217]
In terms of influence on events, it was more than During the Napoleonic Wars he was taken seriously by
Napoleon’s personality that took effect. He reorganized the British press as a dangerous tyrant, poised to in-
France itself to supply the men and money needed for vade. The British nicknamed him Boney. A nursery
wars.[212] He inspired his men—Wellington said his pres- rhyme warned children that Bonaparte ravenously ate
ence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 soldiers, for he naughty people; the "bogeyman".[218] The British Tory
inspired confidence from privates to field marshals.[213] press has depicted Napoleon as much smaller than aver-
He also unnerved the enemy. At the Battle of Auerstadt age height before, and that image persisted. Confusion
in 1806, King Frederick William III of Prussia outnum- about his height results from the difference between the
bered the French by 63,000 to 27,000; however, when French pouce and British inch—2.71 cm and 2.54 cm,
22 8 REFORMS

respectively. The myth of the “Napoleon Complex”— public worship in France. He has dissolved the Holy Ro-
named after him to describe men who have an inferior- man Empire prior to German Unification later in the 19th
ity complex—stems primarily from the fact that he was century. The sale of the Louisiana Territory to the United
listed, incorrectly, as 5 feet 2 inches (in French units) at States doubled the size of the United States.[223]
the time of his death.[219] He was 168 centimetres (5 ft 6 In May 1802, he instituted the Legion of Honour, a
in) tall, an average height for a man of that period.[note 8]
substitute for the old royalist decorations and orders of
In 1908 Alfred Adler, a psychologist, cited Napoleon chivalry, to encourage civilian and military achievements;
to describe an inferiority complex in which short peo- the order is still the highest decoration in France.[224]
ple adopt an over-aggressive behaviour to compensate
for lack of height; this inspired the term Napoleon com-
plex.[221] The stock character of Napoleon is a comically 8.1 Napoleonic Code
short “petty tyrant” and this has become a cliché in popu-
lar culture. He is often portrayed wearing a large bicorne Main article: Napoleonic Code
hat with a hand-in-waistcoat gesture—a reference to the Napoleon’s set of civil laws, the Code Civil—now of-
painting produced in 1812 by Jacques-Louis David.[222]
When he became First Consul and later Emperor,
Napoleon eschewed his general’s uniform and habitually
wore the green colonel uniform (non-Hussar) of a colonel
of the Chasseur à Cheval of the Imperial Guard, the reg-
iment that served as his personal escort many times, with
a large bicorne. He also habitually wore (usually on Sun-
days) the blue uniform of a colonel of the Imperial Guard
Foot Grenadiers (blue with white facings and red cuffs).
He also wore his Légion d'honneur star, medal and rib-
bon, and the Order of the Iron Crown decorations, white
French-style culottes and white stockings. This was in
contrast to the complex uniforms with many decorations
of his marshals and those around him.

8 Reforms

First page of the 1804 original edition of the Code Civil

ten known as the Napoleonic Code—was prepared by

committees of legal experts under the supervision of
Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès, the Second Con-
sul. Napoleon participated actively in the sessions of the
Council of State that revised the drafts. The development
of the code was a fundamental change in the nature of
the civil law legal system with its stress on clearly written
and accessible law. Other codes ("Les cinq codes") were
commissioned by Napoleon to codify criminal and com-
First remittance of the Légion d'Honneur, 15 July 1804, at Saint- merce law; a Code of Criminal Instruction was published,
Louis des Invalides, by Jean-Baptiste Debret (1812). which enacted rules of due process.[225]
The Napoleonic code was adopted throughout much of
Napoleon instituted various reforms, such as higher edu- Europe, though only in the lands he conquered, and re-
cation, a tax code, road and sewer systems, and estab- mained in force after Napoleon’s defeat. Napoleon said:
lished the Banque de France, the first central bank in “My true glory is not to have won forty battles ... Water-
French history. He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 loo will erase the memory of so many victories. ... But ...
with the Catholic Church, which sought to reconcile the what will live forever, is my Civil Code.”[226] The Code
mostly Catholic population to his regime. It was pre- influences a quarter of the world’s jurisdictions such as
sented alongside the Organic Articles, which regulated that of in Europe, the Americas and Africa.[227]
8.2 Warfare 23

Dieter Langewiesche described the code as a “revolution-

ary project” which spurred the development of bourgeois
society in Germany by the extension of the right to
own property and an acceleration towards the end of
feudalism. Napoleon reorganised what had been the Holy
Roman Empire, made up of more than a thousand enti-
ties, into a more streamlined forty-state Confederation of
the Rhine; this provided the basis for the German Con-
federation and the unification of Germany in 1871.[228]
The movement toward national unification in Italy was
similarly precipitated by Napoleonic rule.[229] These
changes contributed to the development of nationalism
and the nation state.[230]
Napoleon implemented a wide array of liberal reforms
in France and across Europe, especially in Italy and
Germany, as summarized by British historian Andrew
Roberts:

The ideas that underpin our modern world–

meritocracy, equality before the law, property
rights, religious toleration, modern secular ed-
ucation, sound finances, and so on–were cham-
pioned, consolidated, codified and geographi-
cally extended by Napoleon. To them he added Statue in Cherbourg-Octeville unveiled by Napoleon III in 1858.
a rational and efficient local administration, an Napoleon I strengthened the town’s defences to prevent British
end to rural banditry, the encouragement of naval incursions.
science and the arts, the abolition of feudalism
and the greatest codification of laws since the
fall of the Roman Empire.[231] Napoleonic warfare.[233] Though he consolidated the
practice of modern conscription introduced by the Direc-
tory, one of the restored monarchy’s first acts was to end
Napoleon directly overthrew feudal remains in much of it.[234]
western Europe. He liberalised property laws, ended
seigneurial dues, abolished the guild of merchants and His opponents learned from Napoleon’s innovations. The
craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalised di- increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed
vorce, closed the Jewish ghettos and made Jews equal to from his creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the
everyone else. The Inquisition ended as did the Holy Ro- growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery prac-
man Empire. The power of church courts and religious tices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than
authority was sharply reduced and equality under the law relying on infantry to wear away the enemy’s defenses,
was proclaimed for all men.[232] now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound
a break in the enemy’s line that was then exploited by
supporting infantry and cavalry. McConachy rejects the
8.2 Warfare alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by
the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of
Further information: Napoleonic weaponry and warfare the declining quality of the French infantry and, later,
and Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte France’s inferiority in cavalry numbers.[235] Weapons
In the field of military organisation, Napoleon borrowed and other kinds of military technology remained static
from previous theorists such as Jacques Antoine Hip- through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, but 18th-
polyte, Comte de Guibert, and from the reforms of pre- century operational mobility underwent change.[236]
ceding French governments, and then developed much Napoleon’s biggest influence was in the conduct of war-
of what was already in place. He continued the policy, fare. Antoine-Henri Jomini explained Napoleon’s meth-
which emerged from the Revolution, of promotion based ods in a widely used textbook that influenced all Euro-
primarily on merit.[233] pean and American armies.[237] Napoleon was regarded
Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, mobile by the influential military theorist Carl von Clausewitz as
artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff a genius in the operational art of war, and historians rank
system became more fluid and cavalry returned as an him as a great military commander.[238] Wellington, when
important formation in French military doctrine. These asked who was the greatest general of the day, answered:
methods are now referred to as essential features of “In this age, in past ages, in any age, Napoleon.”[239]
24 9 MEMORY AND EVALUATION

Under Napoleon, a new emphasis towards the destruc- tablishing a stable, well-educated and prosperous soci-
tion, not just outmanoeuvring, of enemy armies emerged. ety. He made French the only official language. He
Invasions of enemy territory occurred over broader fronts left some primary education in the hands of religious or-
which made wars costlier and more decisive. The po- ders, but he offered public support to secondary edu-
litical effect of war increased; defeat for a European cation. Napoleon founded a number of state secondary
power meant more than the loss of isolated enclaves. schools (lycées) designed to produce a standardized ed-
Near-Carthaginian peaces intertwined whole national ef- ucation that was uniform across France. All students
forts, intensifying the Revolutionary phenomenon of total were taught the sciences along with modern and clas-
war.[240] sical languages. Unlike the system during the Ancien
Régime, religious topics did not dominate the curricu-
lum, although they were present with the teachers from
8.3 Metric system the clergy. Napoleon hoped to use religion to produce
social stability.[246] He gave special attention to the ad-
vanced centers, such as the École Polytechnique, that
provided both military expertise and state-of-the-art re-
search in science.[247] Napoleon made some of the first
efforts at establishing a system of secular and public ed-
ucation. The system featured scholarships and strict dis-
cipline, with the result being a French educational sys-
tem that outperformed its European counterparts, many
of which borrowed from the French system.[248]

9 Memory and evaluation

9.1 Criticism
File:France 1803-04-A 20 Francs.jpg

Depicted as First Consul on the 1803 20 gold Napoléon

gold coin.
Main articles: History of the metric system, Mesures
usuelles, and Units of measurement in France

The official introduction of the metric system in Septem-

ber 1799 was unpopular in large sections of French so-
ciety. Napoleon’s rule greatly aided adoption of the
new standard not only across France but also across the
French sphere of influence. Napoleon took a retrograde
step in 1812 when he passed legislation to introduce the
mesures usuelles (traditional units of measurement) for re-
tail trade[241] —a system of measure that resembled the
The Third of May 1808 by Francisco Goya, showing Spanish
pre-revolutionary units but were based on the kilogram resisters being executed by Napoleon’s troops.
and the metre; for example the livre metrique (metric
pound) was 500 g[242] instead of 489.5 g—the value of the
In the political realm, historians debate whether
livre du roi (the king’s pound).[243] Other units of measure
Napoleon was “an enlightened despot who laid the foun-
were rounded in a similar manner prior to the definitive
dations of modern Europe or, instead, a megalomaniac
introduction of the metric system across Europe in the
who wrought greater misery than any man before the
middle of the 19th century.[244]
coming of Hitler.”[249] Many historians have concluded
that he had grandiose foreign policy ambitions. The
Continental powers as late as 1808 were willing to give
8.4 Education
him nearly all of his gains and titles, but some scholars
Napoleon’s educational reforms laid the foundation of maintain he was overly aggressive and pushed for too
[250][251]
a modern system of education in France and through- much, until his empire collapsed.
out much of Europe.[245] Napoleon synthesized the best Napoleon ended lawlessness and disorder in post-
academic elements from the Ancien Régime, The En- Revolutionary France.[252] He was considered a tyrant
lightenment, and the Revolution, with the aim of es- and usurper by his opponents.[253] His critics charge that
9.3 Long-term influence outside France 25

he was not troubled when faced with the prospect of ganda goals.[261]
war and death for thousands, turned his search for undis- Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleon’s image and
puted rule into a series of conflicts throughout Europe memory are best understood. They played a key role in
and ignored treaties and conventions alike. His role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration
the Haitian Revolution and decision to reinstate slavery monarchy in 1815–1830. People from different walks
in France’s oversea colonies are controversial and affect of life and areas of France, particularly Napoleonic vet-
his reputation.[254] erans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections
Napoleon institutionalised plunder of conquered territo- with the ideals of the 1789 revolution.[262]
ries: French museums contain art stolen by Napoleon’s Widespread rumors of Napoleon’s return from St. He-
forces from across Europe. Artefacts were brought to lena and Napoleon as an inspiration for patriotism, in-
the Musée du Louvre for a grand central museum; his dividual and collective liberties, and political mobiliza-
example would later serve as inspiration for more no- tion manifested themselves in seditious materials, dis-
torious imitators.[255] He was compared to Adolf Hitler playing the tricolor and rosettes. There were also subver-
most famously by the historian Pieter Geyl in 1947[256] sive activities celebrating anniversaries of Napoleon’s life
and Claude Ribbe in 2005.[257] David G. Chandler, a and reign and disrupting royal celebrations—they demon-
foremost historian of Napoleonic warfare, wrote in 1973 strated the prevailing and successful goal of the var-
that, “Nothing could be more degrading to the former ied supporters of Napoleon to constantly destabilize the
[Napoleon] and more flattering to the latter [Hitler]. Bourbon regime.[262]
The comparison is odious. On the whole Napoleon
was inspired by a noble dream, wholly dissimilar from Datta (2005) shows that, following the collapse of mili-
Hitler’s... Napoleon left great and lasting testimonies to taristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic leg-
his genius—in codes of law and national identities which end was divorced from party politics and revived in pop-
survive to the present day. Adolf Hitler left nothing but ular culture. Concentrating on two plays and two novels
destruction.”[258] from the period—Victorien Sardou's Madame Sans-Gêne
(1893), Maurice Barrès's Les Déracinés (1897), Edmond
Critics argue Napoleon’s true legacy must reflect the loss Rostand's L'Aiglon (1900), and André de Lorde and
of status for France and needless deaths brought by his
Gyp's Napoléonette (1913)—Datta examines how writers
rule: historian Victor Davis Hanson writes, “After all, and critics of the Belle Époque exploited the Napoleonic
the military record is unquestioned—17 years of wars,
legend for diverse political and cultural ends.[263]
perhaps six million Europeans dead, France bankrupt,
her overseas colonies lost.”[259] McLynn states that, “He Reduced to a minor character, the new fictional Napoleon
can be viewed as the man who set back European eco- became not a world historical figure but an intimate one,
nomic life for a generation by the dislocating impact of fashioned by individuals’ needs and consumed as popular
his wars.”[253] Vincent Cronin replies that such criticism entertainment. In their attempts to represent the emperor
relies on the flawed premise that Napoleon was responsi- as a figure of national unity, proponents and detractors
ble for the wars which bear his name, when in fact France of the Third Republic used the legend as a vehicle for
was the victim of a series of coalitions which aimed to de- exploring anxieties about gender and fears about the pro-
stroy the ideals of the Revolution.[260] cesses of democratization that accompanied this new era
of mass politics and culture.[263]
International Napoleonic Congresses take place regu-
9.2 Propaganda and memory larly, with participation by members of the French
and American military, French politicians and schol-
Main article: Napoleonic propaganda ars from different countries.[264] In January 2012, the
mayor of Montereau-Fault-Yonne, near Paris—the site
of a late victory of Napoleon—proposed development of
Napoleon’s use of propaganda contributed to his rise to
Napoleon’s Bivouac, a commemorative theme park at a
power, legitimated his régime, and established his im-
projected cost of 200 million euros.[265]
age for posterity. Strict censorship, controlling aspects of
the press, books, theater, and art, was part of his propa-
ganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing des-
perately wanted peace and stability to France. The pro-
9.3 Long-term influence outside France
pagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and to
the atmosphere of Napoleon’s reign, focusing first on his Main article: Influence of the French Revolution
role as a general in the army and identification as a sol- Napoleon was responsible for spreading the values of the
dier, and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader. French Revolution to other countries, especially in legal
[266]
Specifically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fos- reform and the abolition of serfdom.
tered a relationship with the contemporary art commu- After the fall of Napoleon, not only was Napoleonic Code
nity, taking an active role in commissioning and control- retained by conquered countries including the Nether-
ling different forms of art production to suit his propa- lands, Belgium, parts of Italy and Germany, but has been
26 10 MARRIAGES AND CHILDREN

had her daughter Hortense marry Napoleon’s brother

Louis.[271]
Joséphine had lovers, such as lieutenant Hippolyte
Charles, during Napoleon’s Italian campaign.[272]
Napoleon learnt of that affair and a letter he wrote about
it was intercepted by the British and published widely, to
embarrass Napoleon. Napoleon had his own affairs too:
during the Egyptian campaign he took Pauline Bellisle
Foures, the wife of a junior officer, as his mistress. She
became known as “Cleopatra.”[273][note 9]
While Napoleon’s mistresses had children by him,
Joséphine did not produce an heir, possibly because
of either the stresses of her imprisonment during the
Reign of Terror or an abortion she may have had in her
twenties.[275] Napoleon chose divorce so he could re-
marry in search of an heir. Despite his divorce from
Josephine, Napoleon showed his dedication to her for the
rest of his life. When he heard the news of her death while
on exile in Elba, he locked himself in his room and would
not come out for two full days.[173] Her name would also
be his final word on his deathbed in 1821.
In March 1810, he married the 19-year old Marie Louise,
Bas-relief of Napoleon I in the chamber of the United States Archduchess of Austria, and a great niece of Marie An-
House of Representatives
toinette by proxy; thus he had married into a German
royal and imperial family.[276] Louise was less than happy
used as the basis of certain parts of law outside Eu- with the arrangement, at least at first, stating “Just to see
rope including the Dominican Republic, the US state of the man would be the worst form of torture.” Her great-
Louisiana and the Canadian province of Quebec.[267] The aunt had been executed in France, while Napoleon had
memory of Napoleon in Poland is favorable, for his sup- fought numerous campaigns against Austria all through-
port for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal out his military career. However, she seemed to warm up
code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of to him over time. After her wedding, she wrote to her
modern middle class bureaucracies.[268] father “He loves me very much. I respond to his love sin-
cerely. There is something very fetching and very eager
Napoleon could be considered one of the founders of about him that is impossible to resist.”[173]
modern Germany. After dissolving the Holy Roman
Empire, he reduced the number of German states from Napoleon and Marie Louis remained married until his
300 to less than 50, prior to the German Unification. A death, though she did not join him in exile on Elba and
byproduct of the French occupation was a strong devel- thereafter never saw her husband again. The couple
opment in German nationalism. Napoleon also signifi- had one child, Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles (1811–
cantly aided the United States when he agreed to sell the 1832), known from birth as the King of Rome. He
territory of Louisiana for 15 million dollars during the became Napoleon II in 1814 and reigned for only two
presidency of Thomas Jefferson. That territory almost weeks. He was awarded the title of the Duke of Reich-
doubled the size of the United States, adding the equiva- stadt in 1818 and died of tuberculosis aged 21, with no
lent of 13 states to the Union.[269] children.[276]
Napoleon acknowledged one illegitimate son: Charles
Léon (1806–1881) by Eléonore Denuelle de La
10 Marriages and children Plaigne.[277] Alexandre Colonna-Walewski (1810–
1868), the son of his mistress Maria Walewska,
although acknowledged by Walewska’s husband, was
Napoleon married Joséphine de Beauharnais in 1796,
also widely known to be his child, and the DNA of his
when he was 26; she was a 32-year-old widow whose first
direct male descendant has been used to help confirm
husband had been executed during the Revolution. Un-
Napoleon’s Y-chromosome haplotype.[278] He may have
til she met Bonaparte, she had been known as “Rose”, a
had further unacknowledged illegitimate offspring as
name which he disliked. He called her “Joséphine” in-
well, such as Eugen Megerle von Mühlfeld by Emilie
stead, and she went by this name henceforth. Bonaparte
Victoria Kraus[279] and Hélène Napoleone Bonaparte
often sent her love letters while on his campaigns.[270] He
(1816–1907) by Albine de Montholon.
formally adopted her son Eugène and cousin Stéphanie
and arranged dynastic marriages for them. Joséphine
 27

11 Titles, styles, honours, and arms [4] Charles Messenger, ed. (2001). Reader’s Guide to Mili-
tary History. Routledge. pp. 391–427. ISBN 978-1-135-
95970-8.
Main article: Titles and styles of Napoleon
[5] John Sainsbury (1842). Sketch of the Napoleon Museum.
London. p. 15.

[6] Philip Ingram (1998). Napoleon and Europe. Nelson

12 Ancestry Thornes. pp. 47–49.

[7] Grab 2003, p. 56.

13 Notes
[8] Broers, M. and Hicks, P.The Napoleonic Empire and the
[7] New European Political Culture. Palgrave Macmillan,
[1] He established a system of public education, abol-
2012, p. 230
ished the vestiges of feudalism,[8] emancipated Jews and
other religious minorities,[9] abolished the Spanish Inqui- [9] Conner, S. P. The Age of Napoleon. Greenwood Publish-
sition,[10] enacted legal protections for an emerging mid- ing Group, 2004, pp. 38-40.
dle class,[11] and centralized state power at the expense of
religious authorities.[12] [10] Perez, Joseph. The Spanish Inquisition: A History. Yale
University Press, 2005, p. 98
[2] His name was also spelled as Nabulione, Nabulio, Napo-
lionne, and Napulione.[15] [11] Fremont-Barnes, G. and Fisher, T. The Napoleonic Wars:
The Rise and Fall of an Empire. Osprey Publishing, 2004,
[3] Aside from his name, there does not appear to be a con- p. 336
nection between him and Napoleon’s theorem.[25]
[12] Grab, A. Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.
[4] He was mainly referred to as Bonaparte until he became Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, Conclusion.
First Consul for life.[28]
[13] Andrew Roberts, Napoleon: A Life (2014), p. xxxiii.
[5] This is depicted in Bonaparte Crossing the Alps by
Hippolyte Delaroche and in Jacques-Louis David’s impe- [14] McLynn 1998, p. 6
rial Napoleon Crossing the Alps. He is less realistically
portrayed on a charger in the latter work.[81] [15] Dwyer 2008, p. xv

[6] It was customary to cast a death mask of a leader. At least [16] McLynn 1998, p. 2
four genuine death masks of Napoleon are known to exist:
[17] 2012 DNA tests found that some of the family’s an-
one in The Cabildo in New Orleans, one in a Liverpool
cestors were from the Caucasus region; “Le Figaro –
museum, another in Havana and one in the library of the
Mon Figaro : Selon son ADN,les ancêtres de Napoléon
University of North Carolina.[187]
seraient du Caucase!". Le Figaro. 15 January 2012. Re-
[7] The body can tolerate large doses of arsenic if ingested trieved 20 February 2012.; The study found haplogroup
regularly, and arsenic was a fashionable cure-all.[193] type E1b1c1*, which originated in Northern Africa circa
1200 BC; the people migrated into the Caucasus and
[8] Napoleon’s height was 5 ft 2 in in French measure ac- into Europe. “Haplogroup of the Y Chromosome of
cording to Antommarchi at Napoleon’s autopsy, whereas Napoléon the First; Gerard Lucotte, Thierry Thomas-
British sources put his height at 5 ft 6 in in imperial mea- set, Peter Hrechdakian; Journal of Molecular Biology Re-
sure: both equivalent to 1.68 m.[220] Napoleon surrounded search". December 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2012.
himself with tall bodyguards and was affectionately nick-
named le petit caporal, reflecting his reported camaraderie [18] Cronin 1994, pp. 20–21
with his soldiers rather than his height.
[19] Dwyer 2008, ch 1
[9] One night, during an illicit liaison with the actress Mar-
[20] Cronin 1994, p.27
guerite George, Napoleon had a major fit. This and other
more minor attacks have led historians to debate whether [21] Roberts 2001, p.xvi
he had epilepsy and, if so, to what extent.[274]
[22] McLynn 1998, p. 18

[23] Dwyer 2008, p. 29

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[24] McLynn 1998, p. 21
[1] E. Hales, “Napoleon and the Pope”, (London:1962) pg 114 [25] Wells 1992, p.74
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[27] McLynn 1998, p. 26
[3] Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon: A Life. Penguin Group,
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[29] McLynn 1998, p. 37 [65] McLynn 1998, p. 175

[30] David Nicholls (1999). Napoleon: A Biographical Com- [66] McLynn 1998, p. 179
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[67] Dwyer 2008, p. 372
[31] McLynn 1998, p. 55
[68] Roberts 2001, p.xx
[32] McLynn 1998, p. 61
[69] Dwyer 2008, p. 392
[33] Roberts 2001, p.xviii
[70] Dwyer 2008, pp. 411–24
[34] Dwyer 2008, p. 132
[71] McLynn 1998, p. 189
[35] McLynn 1998, p. 76
[72] Gueniffey, Bonaparte: 1769–1802 pp 500-2.
[36] Chandler 1973, p. 30
[73] Dwyer 2008, p. 442
[37] Patrice Gueniffey, Bonaparte: 1769–1802 (Harvard UP,
2015), pp 137-59. [74] Connelly 2006, p.57

[38] Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon, p.39. [75] Dwyer 2008, p. 444

[39] Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon, p.38. [76] Dwyer 2008, p. 455

[40] Dwyer 2008, p. 157 [77] François Furet, The French Revolution, 1770–1814
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[41] McLynn 1998, pp. 76, 84
[78] Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon from 18 Brumaire to Tilsit
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[43] Dwyer 2008, p. 26
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[46] McLynn 1998, p. 96 [81] Chandler 2002, p. 51

[47] Johnson 2002, p.27 [82] Chandler 1966, pp. 279–81

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[90] Lyons 1994, pp. 111–4
[55] Harvey 2006, p.179
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[92] Edwards 1999, p.55
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[103] Chandler 1966, p. 328. Meanwhile, French territorial re- [130] Roberts 2014, pp. 459-61.
arrangements in Germany occurred without Russian con-
sultation and Napoleon’s annexations in the Po valley in- [131] Todd Fisher & Gregory Fremont-Barnes, The Napoleonic
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[104] Chandler 1966, p. 331 [132] Fisher & Fremont-Barnes pp. 198–99.

[105] Chandler 1966, p. 323 [133] Fisher & Fremont-Barnes p. 199.

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34 16 EXTERNAL LINKS

15.3 Historiography and memory • John Gibson Lockhart. The History of Napoleon
Buonaparte at Project Gutenberg
• Dwyer, Philip (2008). “Remembering and Forget-
ting in Contemporary France: Napoleon, Slavery, •
and the French History Wars”. French Politics, Cul-
• William Milligan Sloane. The Life of Napoleon I. at
ture & Society. 26 (3): 110–122.
Project Gutenberg Vol. 1/4
• Englund, Steven. “Napoleon and Hitler” Journal of
• Napoleon Personal Manuscripts & Letters
the Historical Society (2006) 6#1 pp 151–169.
• Geyl, Pieter (1982) [1947]. Napoleon For and • William Milligan Sloane. The Life of Napoleon I. at
Against. Penguin Books. Project Gutenberg Vol. 3/4
• Hanson, Victor Davis (2003). “The Claremont In- • Letter written by Napoleon Buonaparte (Bonaparte)
stitute: The Little Tyrant, A review of Napoleon: A to Guillaume Thomas Francois Raynal RG 523
Penguin Life". The Claremont Institute. Brock University Library Digital Repository
• Hazareesingh, Sudhir (2005). The Legend of
Napoleon. excerpt and text search
• Hazareesingh, Sudhir. “Memory and Politi-
cal Imagination: The Legend of Napoleon Re-
visited,” French History (2004) 18#4 pp 463–
483.
• Hazareesingh, Sudhir (2005). “Napoleonic
Memory in Nineteenth-Century France: The
Making of a Liberal Legend”. MLN. 120 (4):
747–773.

16 External links
• The Napoleonic Guide
• Napoleon Series
• International Napoleonic Society
• Napoléon Bonaparte (Character) at the Internet
Movie Database
• Biography by the US Public Broadcasting Service
• Inside Longwood descriptions of Longwood House
& other places on St. Helena, articles on Napoleon’s
captivity
• Alan Schom Interview on his book Napoleon Bona-
parte on Booknotes, 26 October 1997
• Works by Napoleon at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Napoleon at Internet Archive
•
• Memoirs of Napoleon at Project Gutenberg
•
• John Holland Rose. The Life of Napoleon I at
Project Gutenberg
•
 35

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gent, Mcaruso, DHN-bot~enwiki, Roy Al Blue, Da Vynci, The Moose, Colonies Chris, Erfemf, Para, Philip Howard, A. B., Rlevse, Gra-
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17.2 Images 37

terbot, Octavian history, Divespluto, Paleofreak, Zhanliusc, Bonewah, Dekisugi, Audaciter, BOTarate, Thingg, Alexhkchau, Carlson288,
SSman07, Shirebooks1, Antediluvian67, Njmarino, Thompsontough, Indopug, Sunquanliangxiuhao, DumZiBoT, Benedict of Constantino-
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38 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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• File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Spain_(1785-1873_and_1875-1931).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Flag_of_Spain_
%281785-1873_and_1875-1931%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: self-made, based in Image:Bandera naval desde 1785.png
; [1] Original artist: previous version User:Ignaciogavira ; current version HansenBCN, designs from SanchoPanzaXXI
• File:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_the_German_Empire.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Recoloured Image:Flag of Germany (2-3).svg Original artist: User:B1mbo and User:Madden
• File:Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_
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sion by ThrashedParanoid and Peregrine981.ThrashedParanoid
• File:France_1803-04-A_20_Francs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/France_1803-04-A_20_
Francs.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Numismatic Collection, National Museum of American History Original artist:
National Museum of American History
• File:France_dioceses_1801.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/France_dioceses_1801.svg License: CC
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• File:France_moderne.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/France_moderne.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sodacan
• File:Francisco_de_Goya_y_Lucientes_-_Los_fusilamientos_del_tres_de_mayo_-_1814.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Francisco_de_Goya_y_Lucientes_-_Los_fusilamientos_del_tres_de_mayo_-_1814.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: [1] Original artist: Francisco Goya
• File:FrenchChurchOathConcordat.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/
FrenchChurchOathConcordat.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Henri Gourdon de Genouillac, Paris à travers les siècles,
v. 4, Paris, F. Roy, 1881. Original artist: Renaud
• File:Grandes_Armes_Impériales_(1804-1815)2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Grandes_Armes_
Imp%C3%A9riales_%281804-1815%292.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, some elements by Sodacan Original
artist: original file by Spedona. Current version by Katepanomegas. This file was derived from: Blason Roi de Rome.svg

• File:Iena.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Iena.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: L’Histoire

par l’image [2], digital version produced by Agence photographique de la Réunion des musées nationaux [3] Original artist: Horace Vernet
• File:Imperial_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_(1804-1815).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Imperial_
Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%281804-1815%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader, Based on: File:
Armoiries-Empire.png and File:FranceImp1.jpg Original artist: Sodacan
• File:Jacques-Louis_David,_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/
08/Jacques-Louis_David%2C_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_edit.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Edited version of: File:Jacques-Louis David, The Coronation of Napoleon.jpg

Original artist: Jacques-Louis David

17.2 Images 39

• File:Jacques_Louis_David_-_Bonaparte_franchissant_le_Grand_Saint-Bernard,_20_mai_1800_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Jacques_Louis_David_-_Bonaparte_franchissant_le_Grand_
Saint-Bernard%2C_20_mai_1800_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: QwEFHqZhgW6ulw at Google
Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Jacques-Louis David
• File:Jean-Baptiste_Isabey_003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Jean-Baptiste_Isabey_003.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Jean-Baptiste Isabey
• File:Jean-Léon_Gérôme_003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%
C3%B4me_003.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Art Renewal Center Original artist: Jean-Léon Gérôme
• File:Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres,_Portrait_de_Napoléon_Bonaparte_en_premier_consul.jpg Source: https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres%2C_Portrait_de_Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte_en_
premier_consul.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: njn.net Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
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• File:Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: bridgemanartondemand.com Original artist: François Gérard
• File:Josephine_de_Beauharnais.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Josephine_de_Beauharnais.jpg
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• File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:
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• File:Louis-François_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Louis-Fran%C3%
A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.histoire-image.org/pleincadre/index.php?m=Lejeune&
d=1&i=465&id_sel=752 Original artist: Louis-François, Baron Lejeune
• File:Montfort_-_Adieux_de_Napoleon_a_la_Garde_imperiale.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/
Montfort_-_Adieux_de_Napoleon_a_la_Garde_imperiale.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [2] Original artist: Antoine Alphonse
Montfort
• File:Napoleon’{}s_exile_to_Elba3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Napoleon%27s_exile_to_
Elba3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress CALL NUMBER: PC 2 - Journey of a modern hero ... (A size) [P&P]
Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
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• File:Napoleon_-_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Napoleon_-_2.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Transferred from de.wikipedia to Commons by Stefan Bernd.
Original artist: Henri Félix Emmanuel Philippoteaux
• File:Napoleon_Death_Mask.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Napoleon_Death_Mask.jpg License:
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• File:Napoleon_Moscow_Fire.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Napoleon_Moscow_Fire.JPG Li-
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• File:Napoleon_Wagram.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Napoleon_Wagram.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Horace Vernet
• File:Napoleon_a_Cherbourg_bordercropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Napoleon_a_
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• File:Napoleon_in_1806.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Napoleon_in_1806.PNG License: Public
domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Édouard Detaille
• File:Napoleon_on_the_Capitol.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Napoleon_on_the_Capitol.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Napoleon_returned.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Napoleon_returned.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: David Chandler, The Illustrated Napoleon, New York 1973, ISBN 0-8050-−442-4 Original artist: Charles Auguste
Guillaume Steuben
• File:Napoleon_sainthelene.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Napoleon_sainthelene.jpg Li-
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• File:Napoleon_sur_son_lit_de_mort_Horace_Vernet_1826.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/
Napoleon_sur_son_lit_de_mort_Horace_Vernet_1826.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, photographed at
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• File:Napoleon_visiting_the_Tribunat_(Palais_Royal)_in_1807.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/
Napoleon_visiting_the_Tribunat_%28Palais_Royal%29_in_1807.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Palais Royal, Paris, France.
Original artist: Blondel, Merry-Joseph
• File:Napoleon_à_Toulon_par_Edouard_Detaille.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Napoleon_
%C3%A0_Toulon_par_Edouard_Detaille.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.armchairgeneral.com/forums/
showthread.php?t=55906&page=166 Original artist: Édouard Detaille
40 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Napoleone_Bonaparte’{}s_Tomb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/be/Napoleone_Bonaparte%27s_

Tomb.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-4.0 Contributors:
Own work
Original artist:
Livioandronico2013
• File:Napoleoniceurope.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Napoleoniceurope.png License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: en:File:Napoleoniceurope.png
Napoleon Bonaparte by Alan Schom, map at start of book Original artist: Kieran4
• File:Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Napoleons_retreat_from_
moscow.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Adolph Northen (1828–1876)
• File:Paoli.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Paoli.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: cwF8_mSi8tlbXw at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Paul Delaroche
• File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open-
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• File:Statenvlag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
• Prinsenvlag.svg Original artist: Prinsenvlag.svg:
• File:The_Persian_Envoy_Mirza_Mohammed_Reza_Qazvini_Finkenstein_Castle_27_Avril_1807_by_Francois_Mulard.jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/The_Persian_Envoy_Mirza_Mohammed_Reza_Qazvini_Finkenstein_
Castle_27_Avril_1807_by_Francois_Mulard.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Francois Mulard
• File:The_liitle_grey_coated_figure_of_the_soldiers_Hero.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/
fd/The_liitle_grey_coated_figure_of_the_soldiers_Hero.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: https://archive.org/details/
historyoffrance00mars Original artist: Marshall, H. E. (Henrietta Elizabeth), b. 1876 illustrarted by A.C. Mihael
• File:Tilsitz_1807.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Tilsitz_1807.JPG License: Public domain Con-
tributors:
[1] ;
Original artist: Adolphe Roehn
• File:Ulm_capitulation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Ulm_capitulation.jpg License: Public do-
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