GEOGRAPHY

1. Tectonic Processes & Hazards

1.1 Risk of Tectonic Hazards
1.1.1 Global Distribution of Tectonic Hazards

Earthquake distribution

 The majority of earthquakes (about 95%) occur close to or at a plate boundary

 Many occur around the 'Ring of Fire' surrounding the Pacific Ocean
 The most powerful earthquakes are usually associated with convergent or conservative plate
boundaries
 Intra-plate earthquakes are those which do not happen at plate boundaries - these are often
linked to hot spots or old fault lines

Global earthquake distribution

Volcano distribution

 Like earthquakes, most active volcanoes occur at or near to plate boundaries

 Many (about 75%) occur around the 'Ring of Fire' surrounding the Pacific Ocean
 Volcanoes occur at convergent and divergent plate boundaries
 They can also be found at hot spots in the middle of plates like Hawaii in the central Pacific

Global distribution of active volcanoes

Tsunami distribution

 Over 70% of tsunamis occur around the Pacific Ocean

o 15% Mediterranean Sea, 9% Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, and 6% Indian Ocean
 They are caused by tectonic activity
 Most occur due to activity at convergent boundaries

Global tsunami distribution 1900-2020

Plate Boundaries
 Plate boundaries are the locations where the tectonic plates meet
 Due to the movement of the plates, these are areas where a range of processes take place
 There are three main types of plate boundary:
o Divergent - plates moving apart
o Convergent - plates moving together
o Transform - plates moving past each other or in the same direction at different speeds
 There are three categories of convergent boundaries:
o Oceanic - continental
o Oceanic - oceanic
o Continental - continental (also known as a collision boundary)

Types of plate boundary

 Intra-plate Earthquakes & Volcanoes
 Some earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur away from the plate boundaries
 These are intra-plate earthquakes and hot spots

Intra-plate earthquakes

 These can occur anywhere

 The cause is not fully understood but is thought to be:
o Tectonic stresses causing ancient fault lines to reactivate
o The plates are moving over a spherical surface and this causes zones of weakness
 The New Madrid earthquake in 1812 and the 2011 Virginia earthquake are examples of intra-
plate earthquakes

Hotspot volcanoes

 These occur over stationary magma plumes (columns of rising magma) in the asthenosphere
 The tectonic plate moves over the plume leading to the formation of a chain of volcanic islands
(Hawaii)
 The oldest island is the one furthest away from the plume

Hot spot

1.1.2 Theory of Plate Tectonics

Key Elements of Tectonic Theory
Earth’s structure

 The Earth has three main layers:

o The crust
o The mantle
o The core

Crust

 There are two types of crust:

o Continental - a thicker (45-50km), less dense layer (mostly granite)
o Oceanic - a thinner (6-10km), denser layer (mostly basalt)
 The crust consists of seven major and several minor tectonic plates
  The Mohorovičić discontinuity - is the boundary between the crust and the mantle is also known
as Moho

Mantle

 The mantle is between the crust and core and is the widest layer
o The upper mantle has two layers:
 The rigid layer above the asthenosphere, which together with the crust, makes up
the lithosphere
 The asthenosphere is a semi-molten, plastic type layer, which moves under high
pressure
o The lower mantle is hotter and denser than the upper mantle
o The intense pressure, at depth, keeps the lower mantle solid

Core

 The core is made up of two parts:

o Inner Core - solid centre, mostly composed of iron
o Outer core - semi-molten, mostly liquid iron and nickel

Earth's structure

 The tectonic plates move slowly over the asthenosphere

Development of plate tectonic theory

 The development of plate tectonic theory

 Scientists agree that the plates move, but there is still debate over the mechanisms that cause the
movement

Mantle convection

 In the past, the theory of convection currents was used on its own to explain tectonic plate movement
o The heat from radioactive decay in the core moves upwards into the mantle
o It creates convection currents, which push up into the spreading mid-ocean ridges, forcing them
further apart called the ridge push

Convection currents in the mantle

 Other processes are now recognised as being important in plate movement

Seafloor spreading

 Palaeomagnetism provides evidence that the sea floor has gradually moved apart at a mid-ocean
ridge
 Lava cools and solidifies with the minerals lining up with the magnetic field
 The direction of the minerals on either side is a mirror image

Seafloor spreading and palaeomagnetism

Subduction and slab pull

 Convection currents in the mantle drag the overlying lithosphere towards each other
 A subduction zone is formed when two plates meet
o The heavier, denser plate subducts under the lighter, less dense plate
 As oceanic crust cools, it becomes denser and thicker, and gravity forces the lithosphere down into the
subduction zone
 As it sinks, it drags or pulls the plate with it
 This is known as slab pull

Worked example
What is the process of slab pull?

[1 Mark]

A. At constructive plate boundaries, convection currents cause plates to pull apart. This generates
both seismic and volcanic activity
B. At conservative plate margins, plates are pulled alongside each other. This generates seismic
activity after a period of pressure build-up
C. At destructive margins gravity forces the lithosphere to descend into the mantle. The collision
with the other plate causes both shallow and deep seismic activity
D. At constructive plate margins, plates are pulled apart leading to the formation of rift valleys.
These valleys continue to widen and generate significant seismic activity
Answer:

 C - At destructive margins gravity forces the lithosphere to descend into the mantle. The collision with
the other plate causes both shallow and deep seismic activity (1)

Exam Tip
There are problems with these plate movement ideas.

There is no simple alternating pattern of new plate ridges and subduction zones, where plate is made
and then destroyed around the globe.
For instance:

 Iceland is a hotspot on a divergent plate boundary:

o One half of the island is on the North American plate and the other half is part of the Eurasian
plate.

Tectonic Theory Processes and Plate Margins

 Each plate boundary has different processes
 There are four plate boundary types
o Convergent (destructive)
o Divergent (constructive)
o Collision
o Transform (conservative)

Convergent (destructive) boundary

  At a convergent (destructive) plate boundary, the plates are moving towards each other
 Oceanic plate and continental plates meet:
o The denser, heavier oceanic plate subducts under the lighter, less dense continental plate
o This forms deep ocean trenches in the subduction zone
 Deep sea trenches are long, narrow depressions in the ocean floor with depths of over
6km and up to 11km
 Trenches are found adjacent to land areas and associated with island arcs
 The boundary between the Nazca plate and the South American plate is an example
o Both violent volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur at this type of plate boundary
 The narrow area where earthquakes tend to occur in the subduction is known as
the Benioff Zone
o Oceanic and continental convergent plate boundaries are also responsible for fold mountains
 Fold mountains form the highest of the world’s mountain ranges
 They are long, relatively narrow belts of mountains
 The main fold range is made up of a series of smaller ranges

Destructive plate boundary

 When two oceanic plates meet:

o The heavier of the two oceanic plates subduct, forming deep ocean trenches and island arcs
o Island arcs are a series of volcanic islands, formed in an arc shape, e.g. the Caribbean
o Submarine volcanic eruptions, lead to crust building up and rising above sea level

Constructive

 At the constructive boundary, the plates are moving apart

 The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of a constructive plate boundary
 Both volcanic eruptions and earthquakes can occur at this type of plate boundary

Constructive plate boundary

Collision
 When two continental plate boundaries meet, both may fold and deform; e.g. the Himalayas are
formed by the collision of the Eurasian and Indian plates
 At a collision boundary two plates of similar density move towards each other
 As neither plate can sink into the denser rocks below, they are crushed, crumpled and forced upwards,
usually folding in the process
  This creates collision fold mountains such as the Himalayas, which are still being formed upwards,
at a rate of 1cm/annum
 As there is no subduction, there is no volcanic activity
 Earthquakes are the main hazard at this type of plate boundary

Collision boundary

Transform or conservative

 Plates move slowly past each other – they do not have to be in different directions but at a different rate
of travel in the same direction
 Transform margins are offset at angles, creating zigzag patterns to accommodate movement
 They become stuck and pressure builds, the plates eventually 'snap' past each other
o These can be called ‘strike-slip’ faults as they strike/stick and then slip/release past each other
 The friction causes earthquakes but not volcanoes
 Land is neither made or destroyed
o Because no subduction occurs, there is no melting of the crust and so no volcanic activity

Process Impact on Magnitude

 The processes which occur at the plate boundaries impact on the magnitude of the eruption or
earthquake
 The properties of the magma have a crucial role on the magnitude and frequency of eruptions

AWAITING IMAGE

Properties of magma
  At divergent boundaries:
o Earthquakes tend to be mild and shallow
o Eruptions tend to be small and effusive
o The eruptions are usually of basalt lava:
 Low gas content
 Low viscosity
 Higher temperature
 At convergent boundaries:
o Friction and pressure build up in the Benioff zone (the area within the subduction zone where
most friction and pressure build up occurs) causes strong earthquakes
o Volcanic eruptions tend to be explosive as the magma is forcing its way to the surface
o These eruptions are often rhyolite lava:
 High gas content
 High viscosity
 Lower temperature
 At transform boundaries:
o Plates can stick causing a significant build up of pressure and powerful earthquakes

Comparison of Magma Types

Rock type BASALT ANDESITE RHYOLITE

Black to Medium to
Characteristics Light colour
dark grey dark grey

% on surface 80% 10% 10%

Silica content 45-55% 55-65% 65-75%

1000-
Temp 800-1000°C 600-900°C
1200°C

Viscosity Low Medium High

Gas escape Easy Medium Difficult

Eruptive
Gentle Medium Explosive
nature

1.1.3 Physical Processes &Tectonic Hazards

Earthquake Waves & Hazards
 The movement felt during an earthquake is the result of seismic waves
 These are the released energy radiating through the Earth
 There are three types of seismic waves:

Characteristics of Seismic Waves

Wave type Characteristics

  Body wave
 Fastest
 Reach the surface first
Primary - P
 Travel through liquids and solids
waves
 Cause backwards and forwards shaking
 Least damaging

 Body wave
 Slower than P waves
Secondary - S  Only travel through solids
waves  Cause a sideways motion
 More damaging

 Surface wave
 Slowest
 Cause a side to side motion
Love - L waves
 Larger and energy is focussed on the surface
 Most damaging

Seismic waves

Primary and secondary hazards

 Every earthquake is unique but they have common hazards which are either
o Primary (a direct result of the earthquake)
o Secondary (a result of the primary hazards)

Primary and Secondary Earthquake Hazards

Primary hazards Secondary hazards

Ground shaking Landslides and avalanches - the
movement of the Earth may trigger the
Crustal fracturing (when the movement collapse of material down steep slopes
causes the Earth's crust to crack)
Liquefaction - when the shaking causes
particles in the ground to move further
apart causing them to act like a liquid
rather than a solid

Flooding - caused by tsunami

Volcanic Hazards
Primary and secondary hazards
  Although they are all unique, volcanic eruptions have common hazards
o Primary (a direct result of the eruption)
o Secondary (a result of the primary hazards)

Primary and Secondary Volcano Hazards

Primary hazards Secondary hazards

Pyroclastic flow - a mix of dense, hot, rock, Lahars - a mixture of rocks, mud and water
ash and gases which flow down the volcano. They are fast-
flowing and destroy everything in their path
Lava flow - most move slowly enough that
they are not a risk to human life but can reach Jökulhlaups - floods caused by a sudden
over 1000oC release of water and rocks when glacial ice is
melted by the eruption
Ash falls - can travel many km, causing
injuries, damage, deaths and disruption to
transport

Gas eruptions - gases trapped in the magma

are released during an eruption, they may
form gas clouds which are hazardous to
health

Causes of Tsunami
 When an earthquake occurs beneath the sea bed this can lead to a tsunami
o As the sea bed jolts water is displaced and forced upwards creating a wave
o As the wave approaches the land they slow and the wavelength becomes compressed
 This leads to an increase in wave height: they frequently reach 5-10 meters, but
can reach 30 meters
o As the wave reaches the shore a vacuum is created and the water recedes rapidly out
to sea leaving the sea bed exposed

Tsunami formation as a result of an earthquake

 Other causes of tsunami include:

o Landslides which may be due to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions displacing the
water
o Underwater volcanic eruptions
o Rarely they can be caused by a meteor strike
o Tsunami usually occur close to plate boundaries and are most common in the area
surrounding the Pacific Ocean - 'Ring of Fire'
1.2 Tectonic Hazards & Impacts
1.2.1 Vulnerability & Resilience
Natural Hazard & Disasters
Natural hazards

 A hazard is an event which has the potential to cause harm to the environment, people or the
economy
 A natural hazard is an event caused by environmental processes and would occur without the presence
of humans
o The term hazard is used because of the potential impact when the natural event interacts with
humans

Interaction of people and natural events

 A disaster occurs when harm actually occurs to the environment, people or the economy
 The UN defines a disaster as:

‘A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human,

material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected
community or society to cope using its own resources’

Exam Tip
It is important to remember that a natural hazard is a natural events that has the potential to harm
people and their property. A disaster only occurs when that potential is realised so actual harm
occurs.
Vulnerability & Resilience
Vulnerability

 Vulnerability is how susceptible an area or population is to damage from a particular hazard event
 This can be affected by a number of factors including:
o Level of development
o Population density
o Size of hazard
o Preparation and planning

Hazard risk equation

 The greater the vulnerability and the lower the capacity to cope, the greater the risk to the population,
environment and economy
 The greater the hazard magnitude and the lower the capacity to cope, the greater the risk of disaster
  The hazard risk equation allows a judgement to be made regarding an area's resilience
 The equation can help explain why hazards such as the Nepal (2015) earthquake and the New Zealand
(2016) earthquake can be similar in magnitude but have such different impacts
o Almost 9,000 people died in Nepal whereas only 2 people died in New Zealand

Factors affecting resilience

 There are many factors affecting the resilience of a country or area including

Factors affecting resilience

Pressure & Release Model

 The pressure and release model takes into account the socio-economic context of a hazard

Pressure model

 The pressure model demonstrates how there are a range of factors which increase vulnerability and
why some areas lack resilience
 Within the pressure mode, there are:
o Root causes - related to resources, decision making and governance, these lead to dynamic
pressures
o Dynamic pressures - relate to education, urbanisation and population change which create
unsafe conditions
o Unsafe conditions - poor quality housing and infrastructure, poverty
 These are then combined with the hazard itself to increase the risk

The pressure model

Release model

 The release model demonstrates vulnerability can be reduced and resilience increased by addressing:
o Safety
o Reducing the pressures
o Addressing the root causes
o Hazard mitigation

The release model

Social & Economic Impacts

 The social and economic impacts of tectonic hazards vary
 In developed countries, the impacts are likely to be lower but this is not always the case and depends
on all the factors outlined in the PAR model

Volcanic eruptions

Developed Developing/Emerging

Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland (2010) Merapi, Indonesia (2010)

Event
VEI = 4 VEI = 4

 No injuries or deaths
 700 people evacuated  353 deaths
 Disruption to flights in and out of Europe  300,000 people evacuated
affecting 10 million passengers and  Crops destroyed - loss of £13 million
Impact costing airlines an estimated £130million a  Food prices increased
day  Sulphur dioxide gas caused skin irritation and
 Flooding caused by ice melt breathing problems
 Contamination of local water supply with  About 2500 flights cancelled
fluoride
  The differences in impact were not simply the result of Iceland being a developed country
o Population densities in Iceland are much lower
o There are a higher number of settlements around Mount Merapi
o There was a much larger pyroclastic flow from Mount Merapi

Earthquakes

Developed Developing/Emerging

Gorkha, Nepal (2015)

Event Amatrice, Italy (2016)
7.8 magnitude
6.2 magnitude

 296 deaths
 Severe damage to buildings
o 80% of buildings in Amatrice old
 Over 8,500 deaths
town were affected
 Over 20,000 people injured
o Over 50% of all buildings in
 Electricity and water supplies cut
Amatrice were damaged and
 7,000 schools and 1,000 health facilities
Impact destroyed
damaged or destroyed
o The school in Amatrice collapsed
 Almost 3.5 million people displaced
 296 people died
 Damages estimated at between US$7-
 Landslides blocked the roads
10billion and about 35% of the GDP
 Tourism was negatively affected
 Amatrice Hospital was badly damaged
 Cost of damage €23 billion

 The differences in impact were not simply the result of Italy being a developed country

o The earthquake in Nepal was of a higher magnitude

Tsunami

Developed Developing/Emerging

Event Japan (2011) Indian Ocean (2004)

  15, 853 deaths  230,000 deaths
 6,023 people injured  650,000 people injured
 330,000 people homeless  1.7 million people homeless
 Over 300,000 buildings destroyed  1500 villages in Sumatra destroyed
Impact  Economic cost estimated at US$235 billion  Tourism was negatively affected - in Thailand
 Damage to the Fukushima Nuclear power losses reached US$25 million a month
plant led to radiation leaks  Total cost of economic damage estimated at
 4.4 million households US$9.4 billion

Exam Tip
Comparing the impact of hazards on different countries is not as straightforward as comparing
developed and developing/emerging countries. If asked to compare the impacts in the exam you
should also consider the following:

 Economic costs are much greater in developed countries (and to a lesser extent emerging countries).
This is because the properties and infrastructure destroyed cost more
 The impacts of tsunami and earthquakes are usually greater than the impacts of eruptions wherever
they happen
 Areas of low population are likely to experience lower impacts

1.2.2 Tectonic Hazard Profiles

Tectonic Hazard Magnitude
Earthquake magnitude

 Magnitude is the most common way to measure an earthquake

 It measures the energy released at the source (focus)
o The magnitude can be measured on different scales but the one which is reported on the news
when a earthquake occurs is the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS)
o It is measured using seismographs
 The MMS goes from 1 which are not felt by humans to 10
 The MMS is a logarithmic scale which means that a 6 on the scale is a ten times increase in amplitude
from a 5
o The energy release is 32 times greater

o Magnitude of
earthquakes

Earthquake intensity

 The intensity of an earthquake is its impact on people, as well as the built and natural environments
  The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is used to measure the intensity
 The scale goes from I to XII

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

Exam Tip
Remember not to confuse magnitude and intensity.

Magnitude is the amount of energy released. Whereas intensity is severity of ground shaking at a
particular place based on the effects on humans, buildings and the environment.

Measuring volcanic eruptions

 Every eruption is unique some are gentle, others are hugely explosive
 The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is used to measure the size of an eruption
 This can not be measured on a scientific instrument so is calculated based on a series of
measurements and observations
 o These include:
 Height of material ejected into the atmosphere
 Volume of material
 Duration of the eruption
 This is a logarithmic scale from 0-8

Volcanic Explosivity Index

Exam Tip
Magnitude is one of the key factors in the impact a hazard event has. However, it is important to
remember that it is not the only factor - a magnitude 6.1 earthquake can have severe impacts in one
area but the same magnitude in another area may have few impacts
Tectonic Hazard Characteristics
 Hazard profiles can be used to compare tectonic hazard events
 Hazard profiles usually include information about:
o Magnitude
o Speed of onset
o Areal extent
o Duration
o Frequency
o Spatial predictability

Hazard profiles of tectonic hazards

Advantages
  Hazard profiles can be used to compare:
o Different hazards
o Same hazards with different processes - a volcano on a destructive boundary compared to one
on a constructive boundary
o Same hazards with different human vulnerabilities - an earthquake in a developed country
compared to one in a developing country
 They can also be used to plan for future events
 They are useful when looking at one hazard such as an earthquake

Disadvantages

 Hazard profiles do have disadvantages:

o Other factors may have a greater influence on the impact
o They focus on physical factors when human factors may be the most important
o Multi-hazard events are not easily represented on a hazard profile
o They are subjective

Exam Tip
It is important to understand the advantages and disadvantages of using hazard profiles to compare
hazards. You should be able to outline the advantages and disadvantages using real life examples.

For example, you can compare magnitude of earthquakes on a hazard profile but the correlation
between magnitude and impacts is not always straightforward due to other factors such as level of
development. This can be seen in the comparison of Nepal (2015) and New Zealand (2016). They
both experienced 7.8 magnitude earthquakes. However the number of deaths in Nepal was almost
9,000 whereas in New Zealand it was 2. Other factors such as population density had more impact on
the number of deaths.
Tectonic Hazard Profiles
Earthquakes

Example Profile Features Social impacts Economic impacts

 Rapid onset  220,000 deaths

 Damage focussed on  300,000 injured  Damages US$7.8 billion
Haiti (Developing) - 7.0 Port au Prince but  1.5 million homeless  Agriculture destroyed
magnitude extended over much of  70% of buildings  Unemployment increased
south Haiti collapsed  Exports decreased
 Lasted 30 seconds  Disease spread

 4,340 deaths  Damages US$1.3 billion

 Rapid onset
Sulawesi, Indonesia  10,670 injured  Tourism affected
 Strongest shaking in
(Emerging) - 7.5  206,500 homeless  Palu IV bridge collapsed
Palu City
magnitude  Health risks  Infrastructure damage

 Rapid onset
 Strongest shaking felt  Damages over US$4 billion
 299 deaths
Amatrice, Italy in Amatrice - shaking  Negative impact on tourism
 388 injured
(Developed) 6.2 felt by over 200,000  Many agricultural buildings
 4,500 homeless
magnitude people were damaged
 Lasted 20 seconds
1.2.3 Tectonic Hazards & Development
Inequality & Vulnerability
 Inequality is closely linked vulnerability, the greater the levels of inequality experienced the more
vulnerable the population
 People are more vulnerable and less resilient if they lack access to:
o Education
o Housing
o Healthcare
o Income
 The Human Development Index (HDI) is used to measure the level of development
 Low HDI is often reflected in:
o Lower education levels which means that people have a lower awareness of the risk and less
perception of the hazard
o Poor quality housing, unregulated building and the use of poor construction materials
o A lack of access to healthcare
o Poor access to clean water and a healthy diet during 'normal times'
 Other factors linked to inequality which further increase the risk include:
o High population density
o Young population
o Poor infrastructure
o Rapid urbanisation
 When a natural hazard event occurs, such as the 2015 Nepal earthquake, the high level of vulnerability
and lack of resilience meant there were devastating impacts:

o Buildings were poorly constructed and although there were building regulations these were
usually not enforced
o Search and rescue was difficult due to poor quality infrastructure
o Government corruption meant that infrastructure and planning lacked investment
o Many people, particularly in rural areas, were not educated about what to do in the event of an
earthquake
o Nepal is one of the poorest countries in the world so there was a lack of funds for preparation
and planning

Governance & Vulnerability

Governance

 The way in which a country or region is run is known as governance, this also impacts vulnerability
and resilience
o National governance refers to how the whole country is run
o Local governance is how local areas are run
 If a place has good governance that means it is well run and the local or national government is
effective
o These areas are more able to cope with hazard events and will have a faster recovery
 Alternatively, weak or poor governance leads to increased vulnerability and impacts the area's ability
to cope with a hazard event
 Poor governance impacts on the ability of governments to:
o Plan for hazard events using techniques such as hazard mapping and land use zoning
o Educate the population about the risks and how best to protect themselves
o Predict events as they do not have the technology and equipment available
o Prepare by ensuring that stocks of water, food, medical equipment and shelter are available
 Poor governance may also be linked to
o A lack of openness which means that governments are not held to account
 o Corruption can have a number of impacts:
 Money is not spent on preparation
 Construction companies can get around building regulations or land use zoning by
bribing officials
 In Turkey corruption related to construction led to increased deaths in the Izmit
earthquake (1999) and the more recent Kahramanmaras (2023) earthquake

Geographical factors

 There are a number of geographical factors which impact the vulnerability of an area:
o Population density - a higher population density:
 Makes it harder to evacuate
 Buildings are more tightly packed which increases the impact if some collapse
o Accessibility/isolation - the more inaccessible or isolated an area is:
 The more difficult it is to reach and supply aid - in Nepal 2015 some of the hardest hit
regions were remote rural areas and they were not reached for days
 The less likely people are to have methods of communication
 The poorer the infrastructure will be
 The fewer facilities there are such as medical assistance
o Urbanisation - the increasing numbers of people living in cities means:
 There is a higher concentration of people and buildings
 In developing and emerging countries large numbers of poorly constructed houses on
steep slopes are particularly vulnerable

Context of Hazards
 The overall context of a hazard can have a significant influence on its impacts

Influence of Context on Impacts

Level of
Event Impacts Context
development

220,000 dead Corruption within government

Haiti earthquake Over 300,000 injured Poor quality housing

Developing
7.0 magnitude 1.5 million homeless Poor infrastructure

US$7.8 billion High levels of poverty

Lack of education programmes to inform
people of what to do
4,340 dead
Sulawesi
43% of the population live in rural areas
earthquake, 10,670 injured
Emerging where housing is poorly constructed and
Indonesia
not earthquake-resistant
206,500 people displaced
7.5 magnitude
Lack of tsunami warning system
US$58.1 million
Poor infrastructure
 299 deaths Some buildings did not comply with the
anti-seismic law of 1974
Amatrice 388 injured
Developed earthquake, Italy Many people and buildings were insured
4,500 homeless enabling quicker rebuilding
6.2 magnitude
Over US$4 billion in Earthquake drills help to educate and
damages prepare people
Exam Tip
In the exam 'assess' questions want you to show what you know, but you also need to decide
(assess) how important it is

For example, if you are asked to assess the importance of governance in the management of tectonic
hazards you would need to outline how governance affects the management of a tectonic hazard but
also how it compares to other factors such as level of development.

1.3 Management of Tectonic Hazards

1.3.1 Differential Impacts & Tectonic Hazard Patterns
Tectonic Hazard Trends Since 1960
Global disaster trends

 The number of recorded disasters has increased significantly since 1960

 There are a number of reasons for this including:
o Increased population - the world population has grown from 3 billion to over 8 billion
since 1960
 This means more people are likely to be impacted by any hazard event
 Increased population density in urban and coastal areas increases the vulnerable
population
o Increased monitoring and reporting means more hazard events are recorded
 Most of the increase has been the result of floods and extreme weather

Recorded global disasters 1900-2022

Tectonic disaster trends

 The number of tectonic disasters has fluctuated since 1960 but has generally remained steady
 The slight increase in a number of earthquake disasters does not mean there have been more
earthquakes or higher magnitude earthquakes. It results from:
o Greater urbanisation leads to higher population densities and increased building density
 o Population growth means more people are living in earthquake-prone regions

Global tectonic disasters 1900-2022

Number of deaths

 The number of deaths resulting from all hazards has decreased since 1960
 This is the result of:
o Improved building construction, design and materials
o Increased monitoring
o Greater preparation and planning - hazard mapping, land use zoning, evacuation
planning
o Education - earthquake drills
o Improved warning systems
o Increased development

Number of deaths from disasters

 The number of deaths from tectonic hazards fluctuates depending on a range of factors
including:
o Magnitude
o Level of development
o Location

Deaths resulting from tectonic activity

  The impact of a mega-disaster such as the Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami may skew
the overall trend because it leads to so many deaths
 Volcanic eruptions are less frequent than earthquakes and deaths from eruptions are now rare
due to improved monitoring, exclusion zones and evacuation plans

Economic cost trends

 The economic cost of disasters has increased since 1960

o As countries develop the cost of repairing infrastructure and rebuilding increases
 Increased wealth means people have more possessions and property to be
damaged and destroyed
 Infrastructure is more sophisticated and expensive to replace, for example,
electric grids
o As more people are affected the cost increases

Changes in the global economic cost of disasters

 The economic impact of disasters is affected by whether the country is developing (LIC) or
developed (HIC)
o The economic cost in US$ tends to be higher in developed countries
o The impact on the GDP tends to be much greater in developing and emerging countries

Comparison of Costs LIC Vs HIC

Estimated cost
Event % GDP
(US$)
Gorkha
earthquake, Nepal 10 billion 33%
(2015)
Tohoku
earthquake and
360 billion 4%
tsunami, Japan
(2011)

Accuracy and reliability of data

 The trends associated with all disasters are complex

 They are affected by a wide range of factors
 When disasters occur the data collected may not be accurate due to:
 o The focus when a disaster strikes and in the weeks that follow is on search, rescue and
recovery
o In remote rural areas it may be difficult to collect data

Tectonic Mega-Disasters Case Studies

 Tectonic mega-disasters are high impact, high magnitude hazard events which affect several
countries either directly or indirectly
 Examples of mega-disasters include:
o Asian tsunami (2004)
o Eyjafjallajokull eruption, Iceland (2010)
o Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan (2011)

Table of Impacts

Event Impact

 Affected 18 countries in south-east Asia and Africa

 Lead to over 225,000 deaths in 12 countries
o Indonesia 170,000 deaths
o Sri Lanka over 35,000 deaths
 Economic damage of US$10 billion
Asian tsunami o Most of Sri Lanka's fishing boats were destroyed
o Tourism was impacted as people were reluctant to visit the areas
 17 million people were displaced
o 90,000 buildings were destroyed in Sri Lanka
 Severe damage to mangroves and coral reefs

 20 countries closed their airspace to commercial flights

 Kenya lost US$1.3 million a day due to cancelled flights for vegetables and
flowers
o 20% of the Kenyan economy relies on exports of vegetables and
flowers
Eyjafjallajokull  Airlines lost up to £130 million a day due to cancelled flights
o Over 100,000 flights were cancelled
o 10 million travellers were affected
 500 farmers evacuated from the area immediately around the volcano
 Contamination of water sources with fluoride

 US$360 billion in economic losses

 Decrease in industrial production which impacted not only Japan but the
many countries which it trades with
 Shutdown of nuclear reactors meant increasing oil imports and loss of
Tohuku earthquake and
electricity for 4.4 million homes and businesses
tsunami
 Radioactive emissions into atmosphere, land and sea
 Four ports were destroyed and 11 others affected
 Lead to a stock market crash and negative impact on companies like Sony
1.3.2 Multiple-Hazard Zone Case Study
 There are many areas in the world which are vulnerable to multiple hazards
 When two or more hazards occur at the same time or in rapid succession the area faces:
o Dealing with a new hazard event whilst still recovering from a previous hazard event
o Issues with development due to the costs of recovering from multiple hazard events

The Philippines

Map of the Philippines

 The Philippines is an island nation situated in Southeast Asia in the Western Pacific
Ocean
 It is an archipelago consisting of over 7,600 islands
 The capital is Manila
 The population is estimated at 115.6 million (2022) with a population density of 385.2 people
per km2
 Almost 50% of the population is urban
 An estimated 74% of the population and 60% of the land area is vulnerable to hazard events

 Risk of hazard events

  In 2019 and 2020 the Philippines experienced 4 typhoons, the eruption of the Taal volcano and
a number of earthquakes

Tectonic activity

 The Philippines are located at the boundaries of a number of major and minor plate
boundaries
 It is on the western edge of the Pacific Ring of Fire
 These are mainly convergent boundaries leading to both volcanoes and earthquakes

Volcanoes and earthquakes

 There are a number of subduction zones around the archipelago which has led to significant
volcanic activity
o There are 24 active volcanoes on the islands
o The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 was until recently the largest eruption in the
last 100 years
o Approximately 2.81 million people live within 30km of the Taal volcano
o Mount Mayon has erupted over 50 times in the last 500 years

Tsunami

 The location in the Western Pacific makes the Philippines vulnerable to tsunami
 Tsunami may result from both volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
 The worst tsunami in recorded history occurred in 1976 when tsunami waves of up to 5 meters
struck Lebak in the southwest of the Philippines

Typhoons

 The Philippines is located between 5o and 20o north of the equator and lies in the tropical
cyclone zone
 Typhoons can occur at any point in the year
o The most active months are June to September
 The islands are affected by between 15-20 typhoons a year
 The most powerful typhoon to strike the Philippines in recent years was Typhoon Yolanda
(also known as Haiyan) in 2013
o Wind speeds reached 315km/h and 6,500 people were killed

Landslides

 The mountainous landscape of the Philippines means that landslides are common
 Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and typhoons can all trigger landslides

Vulnerability

 Increased urbanisation has led to high population densities in cities such as Manila
 The population is mostly coastal as inland areas are mountainous, this increases the
vulnerability to storm surges, typhoons and tsunami
 Increasing population has led to deforestation in the upland areas as a result of clearance for
settlements and agriculture
 o Deforestation increases the risks of landslides as there is less interception and more
surface runoff
 More settlements have been built in areas of high risk, Angeles was built near Mount Pinatubo
before the eruption in 1991
 The Philippines is a developing country, it lacks money for planning and preparation
o The GDP per capita is US$3,460 compared to the USA which is US$70,248

1.3.3 Theoretical Frameworks

Prediction & Forecasting
 The accuracy of prediction and forecasting of tectonic hazards depends on the type and
location of the hazard
 Scientists use prediction and forecasting to help with planning and preparation for hazards
o Prediction is knowing when (temporal scale) and where (spatial scale) a hazard will
occur
o Forecasting gives a percentage chance of a hazard occurring over a set period of time

Earthquakes

 It is not possible to predict earthquakes

o An understanding of tectonic activity can help scientists identify areas most at risk
o Over 90% of earthquakes occur on or near plate boundaries
 Scientists are constantly researching to improve forecasting - research has focussed on:
o Seismic gap theory - to highlight areas at high risk as they have not experienced an
earthquake for some time
o Radon emissions
o Animal behaviour
 No method has yet proved to be reliable

The United States Geological Survey have made forecasts about the chances of an earthquake in the
Los Angeles area that 'within the next 30 years there is a 60% probability of a 6.7 magnitude earthquake'

Volcanic eruptions

 There are signs warning of an eruption before most volcanic eruptions

 Volcanologists (scientists who studied volcanoes) monitor changes using GPS, tilt meters,
satellites, seismometers and gas detection
 Signs of an eruption include:
o Magma rising which can be detected by heat sensors and satellites
o Changes in surface level as rising magma causes bulges
o Increased emissions of sulphur dioxide and other gases
o Increased seismic activity caused by magma movement detected by seismometers
 Methods of monitoring volcanoes

 Improved prediction of volcanic eruptions has led to a decrease in the death toll

Tsunami

 For earthquake-induced tsunami scientists are unable to predict the earthquake itself
 When the earthquake happens this will be detected by the global network of seismometers,
these will locate the epicentre of the earthquake
o Ocean monitoring technology can then be used to detect tsunami
o Warnings can then be issued to coastal areas which may be affected

Tsunami warning system

 Improvements and advances in technology are constantly changing prediction and forecasting
 Systems are regularly updated and reviewed particularly after a hazard event
 In the Asian 2004 tsunami errors in the system increased the number of deaths
o In Indonesia the sensor system had been struck by lightning so did not work
o In India the warning went to the wrong official
o The sensors in the region were limited
 In the 2011 Japanese tsunami the height of the tsunami was underestimated so the warnings
were not accurate

Hazard Management Cycle

 The hazard management cycle is how the events of one hazard event inform planning and
preparation for the next hazard event
 The time taken for each stage will vary due to:
o Level of development
 o Magnitude of the hazard
o Quality of governance
o Aid available
 These factors will have most impact on the response and recovery stages

The hazard management cycle

Park's Model
 Park's model is also known as the disaster response curve
 This shows the impact of a hazard event on people's quality of life over time

Disaster response curve - Park's model

 The curve demonstrates where different management strategies are implemented before,
during and after the event
 The curve will vary for each event and area depending on the level of:
o Preparation and planning
o Development
o Aid both national and International
 Disaster response curve comparison of developed
and developing countries

 Developing countries tend to be impacted more and recover more slowly

 This can be clearly seen on the disaster response curve

1.3.4 Mitigation & Adaptation

Disaster Modification
 Strategies to manage and reduce the impact of tectonic hazards can be divided into three
groups - modification of the:
o Event
o Vulnerability, increasing resilience
o Loss
 These strategies involve mitigation or adaptation

Modification of the event

 This happens before the event occurs

 Modifying earthquakes is challenging because they occur without warning

o Construction of earthquake-resistant buildings can help to reduce the impacts on

people
 Modifying volcanic hazards can be achieved by:
o Hazard risk mapping using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to identify areas
at highest risk followed by land use zoning to prevent development in these areas
o Draining crater lakes reduces the chance of lahars
o Barriers and channels can also be constructed to divert lava flows
 Modifying tsunamis can be achieved by:
o Using land use zoning to prevent construction at the coast
o Building offshore barriers
o Building sea walls - Japan has increased the height of sea walls in some areas to over
12 meters
o Replanting mangrove forests
 Land use zoning in Christchurch, New Zealand

Reduction of Vulnerability & Increasing Resilience

Modification of vulnerability

 This happens before the event occurs

 Vulnerability can be reduced and the resilience of populations increased in a number of ways:
o Land use zoning - ensuring that people are not living in high-risk areas
o Hazard resistant buildings
o Improved services and infrastructure
o Hazard risk mapping using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to identify areas
at highest risk
o Planning of evacuation routes
o Education of the population to ensure that they know the actions to take when a hazard
event occurs - earthquake drills
o Improved storage of food, water and medical supplies so sufficient are available
o Monitoring and warning systems to allow people time to evacuate

Earthquake resistant building design

Reduction of Loss
Modification of loss

 This happens after the event occurs

  Loss can be reduced by efficient and effective aid and recovery, which can be achieved in a
range of ways:
o Evacuation - moving people away from the area that has experienced
destruction/damage
 This is particularly important after earthquakes when there are likely to be
aftershocks which cause further damage
o Search and rescue teams, who are well-equipped and trained
o Emergency aid - food, water, medical aid to ensure survival
o Short-term aid - shelter, reconnecting of water and electricity supplies
o Development aid - long-term aid to help with reconstruction and recovery
o Insurance - to help people rebuild
o Local communities - supporting each other, providing shelter and helping with the
search and rescue effort
 Aid may be provided by:
o Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) such as the Red Cross, Medicin San
Frontiers and Disasters Emergency Committee
o Intergovernmental Organisations (IGOs) such as the UN and World Bank
o National and local government

2. Glaciated Landscape & Change

2.1 Climate Change & Glaciated Landscapes
2.1.1 Causes of Climate Change
Climate Change Over Time
 Geological time is measured in aeons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages
 We are now in the Quaternary period, which is divided into 2 epoch
o Pleistocene epoch which began 2.6 million BP (before the present)
o Holocene epoch, beginning at the end of the last ice age some 11,700 years BP
 Earth's climate has always swung between icehouse and greenhouse conditions, due to various
reasons and over different lengths of time
 During the Pleistocene epoch, there were 17 periods of glaciation (ice ages) and 17 interglacial
(warming) periods
o Glacial periods saw glacial advance/expansion and sea levels dropped
o Interglacial saw glacial retreat/contraction and sea level rise
o Each cycle of warm-cold lasts about 100,000 years

Mean Antarctic temperatures and atmospheric CO2 concentration over the past 200,000 years
  21,000 years ago, 32% of the Earth's surface was covered in ice
 Currently, the Earth is in an interglacial period with glaciers retreating,

Exam Tip
Remember that climate refers to a 30 year period of time, where temperature and precipitation has
remained fairly constant over that period. Weather is the day-to-day conditions, which is dynamic.

Weather is what you get and climate is what you expect.

You expect to need an umbrella in the UK; but not in the Mediterranean.
Longer Term Climate Change
Milankovitch cycles of climate change

 Milankovitch cycles describe the effects of changes in the Earth's movements on its climate over
thousands of years
 In the 1920s, Milankovitch suggested that variations in eccentricity, tilt, and wobble of the Earth's orbit
resulted in cyclic changes in the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth
 He noted that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth
 These changes occur over thousands of years

Time in Years
Cycle Effect
(approx.)

The Earth is currently closer to the Sun in January than in July,

meaning the seasons are more extreme in the Southern Hemisphere
than in the Northern Hemisphere. Resulting in the northern
Eccentricity (shape) 100,000 hemisphere receiving roughly 7% less radiation in the summer, and
7% more in the winter, than the southern hemisphere in its
equivalent seasons because the Earth is closer to the Sun in January
than in July

If the Earth’s axis were vertical, there would be no seasons – the

same part of the Earth’s surface would be facing the Sun throughout
the year. The more angled the axis, the more extreme the seasons.
Obliquity (tilt) 41,000
Currently, the Earth is tilted at 23.44° from its orbital plane, which is
halfway between its maximum (24.5°) and minimum (22.1°) tilt and
this angle is on the decreasing cycle

The axis also traces a circle in space and has a 26,000-year time
period. This is a gyroscopic motion due to the tidal forces exerted by
the Sun and the moon on the solid Earth, it doesn’t help that the
Precession (wobble) 26,000
Earth is not a perfect sphere but has an equatorial bulge(expanded
waistband). It changes which star we see as the North Star –
currently it is Polaris, but 13,000 years ago, it would have been Vega
 The shape, tilt and wobble of Earth's
movement over thousands of years, affects long-term climate

 Although the impacts of orbital change on insolation and its distribution across Earth's surface is small
(±0.5°C), its overall effect is considered enough to 'tip' the climate into a major change
 Yet evidence from ice cores, show that Earth's climate was 5-7°C colder, during the glacial icehouse
periods
 Positive feedback mechanisms fed and sustained the overall cooling
o Small increase in snow and ice, raises surface albedo rates and lowers temperatures, which
encourages further snowfall and further cooling cycles
o Eventually, surface temperatures could drop from ±0.5°C to -7°C

Sunspots and flares

 The energy emitted by the Sun varies because of sunspots, although the total variation in solar
radiation is only about 0.1%
 Sunspots are regions of intense and complicated magnetic fields that can produce solar flares – bursts
of high-energy radiation and have been recorded for around 2000 years and really well over the last
400 years
 Sunspots range from Earth-size “pimples” to swollen scars halfway across the surface
 A solar flare is a violent eruption of plasma from the Sun, that is whipped up by intense magnetic
activity
 During the eruption, flares rise thousands of kilometres above the Sun, and the plasma temperatures
quickly rise to 20 million °C
 Large flares release 10^25 Joules, or about the energy of a few million volcanic eruptions on the Earth
 Sunspots and solar flares are related:
o Flares disturb the Earth’s atmosphere electrically and interfere with radio transmissions
o The Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis are results of flare activity that injects energetic
particles into Earth’s magnetic field
o Sunspot activity runs on an 11yr cycle of highs and lows

Exam Tip
Don't underestimated the effect that sunspots and orbital changes have on the overall climate. They
may initially be small, but they are amplified through feedback mechanisms.

Volcanic eruptions

 Eruptions eject large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust, and ash into the
atmosphere
 These gases and dust particles, once in the stratosphere, reflect some of the insolation, leading to
cooling
 Large volumes of gases and ash, influence climatic patterns for years
 o For example, in 1991 Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, ejected 17 million tonnes of SO2 into the
atmosphere
o Sunlight reduced by 10% bringing average global temperatures down by 0.6°C for a year
o The effects of sulphate aerosols in the atmosphere are short-lived at around 2-3 years

Shorter Term Climate Change

Loch Lomond stadial

 The term stadial refers to a brief cold period during an interglacial warm period
 As ice sheets were melting, towards the end of the Pleistocene epoch's last glacial period (known as
the Devensian) some 12,700 years BP, a short but severe glaciation returned to the North Atlantic
region
 This event called the Loch Lomond stadial, caused glaciers to grow in the Scottish Highlands
 Temperatures across the British Isles ranged from -20°C in winter to 10°C during the summer
 These conditions lasted for approximately 1300 years when temperatures rose suddenly and have
continued to do so, ever since
 One possible cause of this stadial was the sudden influx of cold, freshwater into the North Atlantic, from
the melting polar ice sheets
 This freshwater would have disrupted the salt content driving the thermohaline circulation
o Ocean currents redistribute heat around the globe - cold currents move towards the equator and
warm currents to the poles
o The polar cold waters are denser, saltier sea water, which sinks to the ocean floor
o Water at the surface then flows in behind it forming a current
o The deep ocean current begins flowing to Antarctica, where it splits into the Indian and Pacific
Oceans, and the water begins to warm
o Warm water is less dense and it surfaces in the South and North Atlantic Oceans and continues
to flow around the globe and eventually returns to the North Atlantic, where the cycle begins
again
o Any disruption to this cycle changes the climate of the receiving continents
 E.g., instead of the UK receiving warm, equatorial waters via the North Atlantic Drift, the
circulation effectively stalled or reversed and the UK received the cold polar waters and
climate
o This stadial ended when the glacial meltwater supplies ran out, indicating how dynamic climate
changes are

Thermohaline circulation: note how the UK receives warm waters from the equator and then
returns cold water via the Canadian and USA eastern seaboards. This keep the UK within a
temperate climatic zone with no annual temperature extremes
Little Ice Age

 Solar activity goes through an 11-year cycle of peaks and troughs

 A solar maximum is the point in the cycle when the Sun is emitting the most energy
 This coincides with maximum sunspot activity, solar flares and associated solar storms
 Between 1645 and 1715 there was virtually no sunspot activity recorded and known as the Maunder
Minimum
 The Little Ice Age lasted from 1450 - 1850, with especially cold periods in 1660, 1770 and 1850
 Average temperatures were 0.5-1°C lower than now, which caused rivers and lakes to freeze regularly
and Arctic sea ice was more extensive
 During this time, the growing season became shorter and less reliable, and livestock survival rates
decreased
 These shortages increased the cost of food and people suffered illness and famine during that glacial
period

Antarctic ice core data: changes in temperature over

the last 11,000 years

Exam Tip
If you are asked to describe a pattern in the exam, make sure you start with a general overview of the
main pattern, rather than starting with the finer details.

Learn approximate dates of geological time periods of the Pleistocene, Holocene and Devensian and
relate them to events such as Maunder Minimum, Loch Lomond stadial and the Little Ice Age.

2.1.2 Past & Present Ice Cover

The Cryosphere
 The cryosphere is all the frozen regions on Earth and covers 13% of the planet's surface
 The term comes from the Greek word 'kryo', meaning cold
 Ice can be found in
o High latitudes - Arctic and Antarctic Circles of more than 65° north and south of the equator
o High altitudes - found in mountain ranges, which can be at any latitude (Drakensberg
Mountains, SA is over 3000m high at a latitude of 29° south of the equator)
 Features of the cryosphere include:
o Snow
o Ice (69% of the world's freshwater is stored as ice)
o Permafrost and frozen ground - not all frozen ground is permafrost
o Glaciers
o Ice caps, sheets and shelves
o Icebergs
o Sea, river and lake ice
 Parts of the cryosphere

 Most of the cryosphere is found in Antarctica (85%) and the Arctic polar region (12%), as ice sheets,
shelf ice, and permafrost
o The largest, single ice mass on Earth is the Antarctic ice sheet, covering 8.3% of the global
land surface
o It took millions of years to form; is up to 4.8 km (3 mi) deep in parts; and covers approx. 14
million km² (5.4 million mi²) and contains 30 million km³ of ice
o If it melted, it could raise sea levels by 58 meters (190 feet)
 Permafrost areas are significant global carbon stores and help regulate levels of carbon in the
atmosphere
 The cryosphere helps regulate Earth’s climate through its high surface albedo effect
 As the climate warms, the cryosphere also changes through feedback mechanisms, which further
influences the climate:
o Increased snow and ice melt, exposes more dark surfaces to insolation
o Which increases surface absorption of solar radiation, causing further melting and release of
stored carbon and methane into the atmosphere, which leads to further atmospheric warming
o This is a positive feedback loop, which exacerbates the impacts of climate change

Classification of Ice Masses

 There are two groups of ice masses:
o Constrained - these do not have a dome-like structure, so the flow and shape of the
ice is influenced by its surroundings - valley, piedmont and cirque glaciers
o Unconstrained - the flow and shape of this ice is not influenced by its surroundings - ice
sheets, shelves and caps
 These have the basic shape of a broad, slowly moving, central dome, with channels of
faster-moving ice that flows to, and at, its margins

Unconstrained
 Ice sheets
o Continuous masses of ice, that cover areas greater than 50,000 km³
o With no surrounding mountains or features to contain them, continental glaciers spread out and
cover the surface
o They spread out from the centre and can cover whole valleys, plains and mountain ranges with
ice
o Sometimes only the tips of mountain peaks show above the ice, called nunataks
o In 2009, Antarctic scientists found a mountain range, as large as the European Alps, hidden
under 2.5 miles (4km) of ice
 Ice caps
o Cover areas of less than 50,000km³
o Usually centred on a mountain's high point (called a massif), the ice flows flow in multiple
directions to form a cap
o This flow of ice feeds into a series of glaciers at its edges
o Polar ice caps are not strictly 'caps' as they are greater than 50,000km³
  Ice shelves
o These are thick, floating slabs of ice, permanently attached to a landmass
o Found where ice flows down to the coast and out onto the ocean's surface
o Only found in Greenland, Northern Canada, Antarctica and the Russian Arctic

Constrained

 Ice fields
o Ice that covers a mountain plateau, but does not extend the high-altitude area
o Not thick enough to bury the topography and covers 5 -1500km³
o Examples include the Himalayas, Rockies, Andes, and the Southern Alps of New Zealand
 Piedmont glaciers
o Found at the foot of mountains, where a mass of ice has flowed downslope and fans out,
forming lobes of continuous ice
 Valley glacier
o Ice is surrounded by high mountains and fills the valley
o They are usually ribbon-shaped and vary in length from a few kilometres to over 100km
o They can be a single feature or made up of multiple glacial tributaries from surrounding valleys
o Most begin as mountain glaciers and spread/flow to gorges, basins and across the valley floor
o Examples include the Andes, Himalayas and European Alps
 Cirque glaciers
o Most common type of glacier and found in nearly all areas where snow and ice accumulate -
e.g. alpine regions
o Confined to either the upper parts of a glacial trough or within the hollowed, cirque basin itself
o It is the basin that dictates the size, shape and flow of the glacier
o Niche glaciers are smaller versions of cirque glaciers

Thermal regime of ice masses

 This refers to an ice mass's basal temperature and indicates whether water or ice will be present

Pressure melting point (pmp)

 The temperature at which ice melts at a given pressure is the pressure melting point (pmp)
 The melting point of water depends on air pressure above the ice
 As air pressure increases, the temperature at which ice melts lowers
 At 1 atmosphere pressure, the melting point of ice is 0°C
 At 200 atmospheres, the melting point decreases to -1.85°C

Warm-based glaciers

 Occur in temperate regions such as southern Iceland and western Norway

 They are relatively small and range in width from hundreds of meters to a few kilometres
 Melting occurs during the summer months
 It is this meltwater that 'lubricates' the base and sides of the glacier, which assists movement
(called basal sliding) and increases rates of erosion, transportation and deposition
 As such, all ice in these glaciers is at, or close to, the melting point of ice
 Temperatures at the base are, therefore, at or just above the pressure melting point

Cold-based glaciers

 Occur in polar regions such as central Greenland and Antarctica

 They are large, vast sheets and caps of ice covering hundreds of km²
  Temperatures remain below melting point, with low rates of precipitation, resulting in low levels of
accumulation
 Basal temperatures remain below the pmp, therefore, basal sliding does not happen
 This results in little erosion, transportation and deposition
 Any movement is by internal deformation
o The ice stays frozen to the bedrock and moves slowly at 1-2cm a day
o Orientation of the ice crystals in the glacier, to the direction of movement, allows the crystals to
slide over each other

Polythermal glaciers

 These are glaciers with both warm and cold bases but at different altitudes
 They usually show a cold base in their upper reaches (high altitudes)
 At the lower altitudes, their bases are warm with meltwater

Present Day Distribution of Ice Sheets

Past glaciation

 The last glacial maximum was 21,000 years BP, where over 30% of the Earth's surface was
glaciated
 The polar ice sheets covered much of the UK and major parts of southern Europe were periglacial
 Sea levels dropped, and shorelines extended farther out, creating more land (water was trapped in
ice sheets)
 The climate was drier, because most of the water on Earth's surface was ice, resulting in less
precipitation
 Earth's average temperature was 6°C (average now is 14-15°C)

Extent of global ice during the Pleistocene epoch

 The present-day distribution of cold environments can be divided into polar, glacial, alpine and
periglacial areas
 Polar - considered areas of permanent ice within the northern and southern extremes of the Antarctic
and Arctic regions
 They are found in areas of high latitude, with long winters and short summers, with high levels of
storms and cold winds

o The Arctic polar environment can be defined either by the Arctic circle at 66° N or by the July
isotherm of 10° C
 Isotherms are areas of the same temperature
 July is the hottest month and areas north of this line have an average of 10°C or below
 Winter sea ice is shrinking
o The Antarctic is much colder than the Arctic, with strong westerly winds, cold oceans and a
large landmass
 o Winter sea ice is increasing
o Defined by the 10°C January isotherm (January is the hottest month in the southern
hemisphere)
 Other examples include Greenland and northern Canada

Distribution of present day cold environments

Upland Glaciated Landscapes Today

 Glaciated landscapes vary, dependent on location - polar, glacial, periglacial and alpine
 Glaciated landscapes can be divided into active (current) or relict (past) landscapes
 Geology influences the nature of a glaciated landscape
o Igneous rock is harder to erode and often makes up high mountains with steep sides and
hollows

 Large amounts of poorly sorted sand, gravel, and boulders are plucked and pried from
the surface and mountains
 As the glacier flows over bedrock, the sediments trapped in the ice, are ground into a
fine powder called rock flour
 Rock flour acts as sandpaper, that polishes the surface of exposed rock to a smooth
finish called glacial polish
 Larger rock pieces scrape over the surface creating grooves called glacial striations
 The Highlands of Scotland, the Lake District and Snowdonia (Eryri), North Wales show
many relict landscapes from the Pleistocene epoch, including arêtes, erratics,
cirques/corries, and corrie lakes
o Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are found mainly in low-lying areas (already eroded
from the uplands) and are easier to erode

 During the last Ice Age, the advancing ice sheet moved chalk, boulder clay etc. into the
south and east of England

The extent of the UK's glaciation during the last Ice Age
Exam Tip
If asked to discuss evidence of past glaciated landscapes, remember to include how relict landscapes
are a partly preserved snapshot of very different conditions (climate and processes) in the past and
that landforms could not have arisen without extensive glaciation in those areas.
2.1.3 Periglacial Processes
Past & Present Periglacial Landscapes
 A periglacial landscape is characterised by permanently frozen ground or permafrost and is defined
as:

‘An area where soil and rock has not risen above 0°C for at least 2 consecutive years'

 Approximately 25% of the Earth's surface is considered periglacial, but during the Pleistocene epoch it
covered as much as 45% of the surface, extending into the lower latitudes of southern England and
Europe
 Permafrost is not controlled by soil moisture and ice does not need to be present
 Permafrost is prevalent in Siberia (up to 1500m deep) and Northern Canada (depths of 700m)
 Most permafrost water stays frozen as ground ice

Comparison of Glacial and Periglacial Areas

Action
Periglacial Glacial

Altered by ice Within the ground Above ground

Landforms Freeze/thaw weathering and mass

Erosion and deposition
created through movement

Outer margins of cold environments,

especially in the northern hemisphere High altitudes and
Found
around the Arctic; high altitudes and latitudes
continental interiors


o Areas of unfrozen ground within the permafrost are known as talik
o Talik can be:
 Open - a small area of unfrozen ground exposed to the surface
 Through - a large mass of unfrozen ground beneath a small open area
 Closed - unfrozen ground surrounded by permafrost
o Permafrost can be subdivided into:
 Continuous - large, unbroken stretches of permafrost, that reach depths of up to 1,500
meters – largest areas are located in Canada, Alaska and Siberia
 Discontinuous - mostly permafrost, with some small, localised unfrozen ground (talik)
 Sporadic - where small patches of frozen ground occur in talik (unfrozen ground)
 Isolated - there are random pockets of permafrost within the talik
 Subsea - or offshore permafrost is frozen ground within seabed sediments. Originally
formed on land and was subsequently submerged as sea levels rose after the last Ice
Age
 Image showing types of permafrost found
in periglacial areas

 Seasonal melting at the surface produces the active layer of between 2cm to 5m in depth
 However, any meltwater cannot drain through the impermeable permafrost below and sits on the
surface as thaw lakes
 Thaw lakes are common in these poorly drained areas and as the water continues to absorb solar
radiation, the depth and size of these lakes increase in size
 In the past, the area of permafrost was more extensive and permafrost covered most of southern
England, giving it a tundra landscape
 The periglacial landscape is littered with angular rocks across its surface
 Quickly weathered through freeze-thaw processes, these areas are called felsenmeer, meaning 'field
of rocks' in German

Periglacial Processes
 Processes within periglacial environments are due to frost action and include:
o Ground ice
o Solifluction
o Nivation
o Frost contraction and ice wedges
o Frost heave
o Freeze-thaw
 Ground ice
o The most common form of ground ice is pore ice
o It develops in the pore spaces between soil and rock particles, where meltwater has
accumulated and frozen
o Needle ice are thin slivers of ice and can be several cm long
o Found mostly in moist soil where temperatures drop below freezing at night
o Needle ice helps with loosening material for erosion and moving soil particles in soil creep
 Frost contraction and ice wedging
o As temperatures drop, the active layer freezes and contracts
o Crack begin to form in the permafrost as a result
o When the active layer thaws, meltwater will fill the cracks
o The cold of the permafrost freezes the water in the crack, forming ice-wedges
o Continued melting and thawing can enlarge the crack to sizes of 3m wide and 10m deep

Ice wedge formation over time

 Nivation
o A blanket term for active processes that occur at the edges of snow patches
o The processes include physical and chemical weathering that occur underneath patches of
snow
o Fluctuating temperatures and meltwater promote chemical weathering and freeze-thaw action
o Weathered material is transported with the summer meltwater
o Repeated cycles of melting, freezing and transportation forms nivation hollows
o Saturated debris (due to summer meltwater), destabilises the slope and slumping may occur

Diagram showing the process of nivation and the formation of

hollows

 Frost heave
o Frost heave occurs when soil particles or small stones are forced to the surface by ground ice
o Freezing occurs from the surface downwards, which helps ice crystals to form either within the
soil pores or as ice needles
o As the ground ice expands, these crystals force soil and stones to the surface
 Freeze-thaw
o The action of freeze-thaw weathering (frost shattering) results in rough, angular broken rocks
o At the foot of a slope, these rocks are known as scree
o Periglacial regions are also characterised by blockfields or felsenmeer, caused through quick
freeze-thaw action of temperatures of between -5° to -14°C

 Solifluction is a form of mass movement

 There are two types of solifluction:
o Fast
o Slow
 Fast
o When an active layer on a slope becomes heavily waterlogged due to melting, gravity acts to
pull it downhill
o This flow of material is called solifluction and produces characteristic lobes on the sides of the
slopes
 o The steeper the slope, the faster and further the material will travel, and the larger the lobe will
be
o Movement can be up to 10 cm/yr
 Slow

o Also known as solifluction or soil/frost creep occurs when water in the soil expands as it
freezes
o This expansion forces soil particles to rise perpendicular to the ground (frost heave)
o As the ground thaws, the particles are dropped vertically downwards (due to gravity)
o With each repeated cycle, soil particles gradually 'creep' downslope at a rate of a few cm/yr
 Wind erosion
o Periglacial regions often have strong winds and these continue to erode rock debris
produced by glaciers and ice caps
 Meltwater erosion
o Meltwater is seasonal, plentiful and freely flows from a tunnel at the base of the
glacier's snout or across the surface of the glacier and into moulins or crevasses

Exam Tip
Always remember that these processes are not one off occurrences. They are cyclical and take
number of years to complete.
2.1.4 Periglacial Landforms
Periglacial Landforms
 The major process that contributes to the production of a periglacial landforms is frost-action
 This leads to vast plains of permafrost with low-growing, marsh vegetation and exposed rocks

Image showing main features of a typical periglacial landscape

 Typical landforms found within a periglacial landscape are:

o Permafrost
o Loess
o Solifluction lobes and terracettes
o Ice wedges and ice lenses
o Patterned ground
o Blockfields/felsenmeer
o Thermokarsts
o Pingos
Loess

 Derived from the German word for 'loose', loess is fine, mineral-rich, windblown material
 Mainly created by wind, but also through glacial action
 As glaciers grind bedrock to a fine powder, called rock flour, meltwater streams carry this to the end of
the glacier
 It is this sediment that becomes loess
 Loess can range in thickness from a few centimetres to over 90m
 Unlike most soils, loess is pale, loosely packed and crumbles easily

Blockfields or felsenmeer

 In mountainous/alpine regions, extensive freeze-thaw weathering of the bedrock leaves broken, angular
fragments of rock strewn across the landscape
 These areas are subject to intensive, repeated cycles of freezing and thawing

Solifluction lobes and terracettes

 Solifluction is the downward movement of rock and soil under gravity, resulting in lobed-shaped
features called solifluction lobes
 Occurs during the summer melt period, when the permafrost's active layer becomes saturated with
meltwater and 'slips' downslope
 Terracettes are formed when saturated soil freezes and expands, which forces the soil to shift (heave)
upwards towards the surface
 During the spring/summer melt, the soil dries and collapses back vertically
 Each cycle of frost heave and thaw moves the soil downslope, slowly forming a terraced environment

Ice wedges and ice lenses

 Ice wedges form when cracks in the surface fill with summer meltwater and freeze during the winter
 Temperatures have to remain low for cracks to form initially but also to prevent evaporation of water
during the melt phase
 Continued freezing and thawing cycles, increase the size of the ice wedges each year
 Ice lenses begin to form when moisture in the soil pools and freezes
 Ice lenses grow with subsequent thawing and refreezing forming a lens-shaped block of ice
 As ice lenses increase in size, they cause soil heave, patterned ground and pingos

Image showing formation of ice lens and wedge. Note that

lenses form when moisture within the soil pool and freeze. Ice wedges initially form when
temperatures are low enough for the surface to contract and crack. Meltwater fills these
cracks and subsequently freezes, expanding the crack. Further cycles of melting provides
water to the forming wedges and lenses, helping them to grow and expand to further 'heave'
the ground upwards.
Patterned ground

 The ordered pattern is created through the sorting of sediment, stones and ice wedges
 Shapes include polygons, circles, and stripes
 The repeated freezing, heaving and thawing of the active layer produces the pattern
 Initially freezing sorts material from the rock, and when thawing occurs, redistributes the rock particles
into a system of shapes
 Frost heave then pushes larger stones to the surface, which due to its uplift, moves the stones
sideways
 Smaller particles are removed via meltwater or wind, which leaves the larger material lying on top of ice
wedges, which in turn, marks the polygon pattern
 The sloping ground and gravity, force rocks to move downhill forming elongated stone
stripes instead of polygons or circles

Image showing formation of stone patterned ground. Ice wedges form the outer demarcation
line of polygon patterned ground, where lighter material is removed by meltwater, leaving the
heavier stones behind at the point of the ice wedge during summer melt.

Thermokarsts

 Thermokarsts result from melted ground ice settling unevenly to form marshy ground of hummocks and
hollows
 Found mostly in the flat, lowland plains of the Arctic

Pingos

 Found in the Arctic and sub-Arctic region

 These landforms can reach heights of up to 90m
 They have a core of ice and are surrounded on the outside by green vegetation
 There are two forms of pingos:
o Closed system
o Open system
 Closed-system
o Form in areas of continuous permafrost with a lake on the surface
o Lake sediments act as an insulator to the ground beneath, which remains unfrozen, and the
permafrost layer
o Liquid water is contained in this unfrozen ground/talik
o When the lake retreats, the ground is no longer insulated and the residual water freezes into a
core/lens
o As the permafrost advances, it squeezes the talik and pushes the ice lens and lake sediments
towards the surface
o During the summer the ice lens may melt and collapse, leaving a hollow, called an ognip, that
fills with water
  Open-system

o Form in areas of discontinuous permafrost

o Groundwater is forced through gaps in the permafrost
o Water rises, accumulates and freezes in the active layer of permafrost, to form an ice lens
o As the groundwater continues to feed the ice lens, the surface domes to form a pingo

Image showing formation of the open and

closed pingo system. Note the importance of ice lens/block formation.

Exam Tip
Make sure you can draw and annotate simple sketches of periglacial landforms to help you explain
their characteristics and formation in the exam.

Always give an indication of any timescale involved in their formation or changes.

Remember that processes in cold environments take a long time to happen due to the temperatures
involved.
Case Study - Tundra of Northern Canada
Characteristics of Periglacial/Tundra Environments

Biome Location Climatic Characteristics Other Characteristics

Tundra Found mostly in the The ground is permafrost, with the

Temperatures range
northern hemisphere seasonal active layer
from -40°C in winter to
Derived from the between the taiga and
18°C in summer
Finnish word coniferous forests at 60° No trees due to permafrost, but some
(average is between -
'tunturia' meaning N and the polar small, short trees grow in warmer,
6°C and -12°C)
treeless heights environment sheltered areas
 Formed about Northern Canada, Permanent darkness in Short growing season - approx. 3
10,000 years ago Siberia, Russia winter and permanent months a year, with low, slow
at the end of the sunlight in summer growth. Any flowering plants have a
last ice age, the South Georgia and the rapid life cycle and are very bright to
tundra is the Antarctic Peninsula have Precipitation is low 150 attract insects
world’s youngest some tundra to 250mm
biome environments Low biodiversity - small grasses,
Clearly defined lichens and mosses, arctic fox, polar
seasons bear, penguins, caribou

 3 types of tundra, sharing similar conditions, are found worldwide:

o Arctic tundra
o Antarctic tundra
o Alpine tundra
 In Canada, the Arctic tundra can be found in Yukon, the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, north-eastern
Manitoba, northern Ontario, northern Quebec and northern Labrador

Map showing position of Canadian tundra

 The landscape of the Canadian tundra varies due to its location and ranges from large flatlands to
rocky mountains
 Closer to the polar permanent ice, the tundra changes into a flat landscape of ice and snow
 During the warmer months, snow and soil above the permafrost melt, creating lakes, streams, rivers
and wetlands
 The landscape in the summer is barren, rocky, wet, and dotted with vegetation
 During the winter, the tundra is barren and rocky, with no trees, and snow covered
 As the tundra freezes, the wind blows snow against the mountains, hard-packing the snow into ice
sheets
 The permafrost prevents trees from deep rooting and therefore, unable to withstand harsh conditions
and winds
 This keeps the landscape looking barren

2.2 Glacial Processes

2.2.1 Glacial Dynamics & Systems
Mass Balance System
Formation of ice
  Glaciers are defined as:

Large rivers (mass) of ice, moving downhill, under the influence of gravity

 Glaciers are open systems with direct inputs of snow and ice from precipitation, blown in on
the wind or with avalanches
 Over 2 years, snow and ice settle and compact to form firn or névé
 Each subsequent snowfall adds to these layers and further compacts the firn into glacial ice
o Compaction squeezes air out of the firn, and the resulting glacial ice absorbs longwave
light but scatters short-waved blue light, making the ice appear blue
o The formation of glacial ice usually takes approximately 30 years, but in polar areas,
such as Greenland, it can take up to 150 years
o In temperate regions, transformation to ice takes as little as 100 years
o However, in places such as Antarctica, ice has taken up to 4000 years to form; due, in
part, to the lack of precipitation, which slows down the rate of compaction into ice

Glaciers as a system

 Glaciers are open systems with inputs and outputs to external systems, including fluvial and
atmospheric systems
 There are flows of energy, ice, water and sediments between stores

Diagram showing the features of an open

glacial system

Mass balance


o Mass balance is the gains and losses of ice within the glacier
o More accumulation over a year and the glacier has a positive regime or positive mass
balance
o The glacier will gain mass and advance in response to high accumulation in the upper
zone
o A negative mass balance or regime is when there is less accumulation than ablation
(usually during the summer months)
o The glacier will lose mass and retreat in response to low accumulation in the upper
zone
o Dynamic equilibrium is when the overall amount of ablation and accumulation balances
over a year
 o The glacier remains the same size and the position of the glacier front does not change

A glacial budget showing the zones of ablation and

accumulation. If the average annual mass balance remains the same, despite short-term
seasonal variations, then the system is in dynamic equilibrium, however, balance can move
over time
Case Study - Greenland Ice Sheet
Location

 Ice sheets record Earth's climate history through annual layers of trapped air bubbles
 Ice sheets contain huge quantities of frozen fresh water and have the potential to impact other
earth systems, particularly the atmosphere and oceans if they melt
o Ice sheet meltwater changes the ocean's density by decreasing salinity and
temperature, impacting ocean circulation
 One of two remaining continent-sized ice masses, the Greenland Ice Sheet is the largest ice
mass in the Northern Hemisphere
 Found between the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans, northeast of Canada and northwest of
Iceland, Greenland is part of the Realm of Denmark
 The ice sheet covers roughly 80% of Greenland’s landmass - an area of over 1.7 million km2,
containing more than 2.5 million km³ of stored ice
 At its thickest, it is over 3km and it weighs enough to depress the earth's crust by approx. 1km
 With a series of drainage networks, ice flows outwards from the centre, via outlet glaciers and
ice streams to Greenland's coastline

Map showing major towns and glaciers of Greenland

Historical data

 The Greenland Ice Sheet was part of a series of ice sheets covering large parts of the
Northern Hemisphere during the last ice age
 It included the Laurentide Ice Sheet over North America and the Eurasian Ice Sheet over
Europe
 During the glacial maximum, the Greenland Ice Sheet held an extra 4.1m of ice (sea level
equivalent) and is the only one remaining in the current interglacial period
 Past glacial data shows that Greenland's Ice Shelf was extensive, but, data shows that there
was significantly less ice during past interglacial periods than today

Current data

 Data shows the mass loss of ice over recent decades

 Mainly due to increased air and ocean temperatures
 Iceberg calving, meltwater runoff, and ocean-driven melting have all increased and contributed
to a negative surface mass balance
 Over recent years, Greenland’s melt season has dropped well below the 1981-2020 average
 As a result, global mean sea levels have risen by approx. 0.7mm - which is greater than the
Antarctic ice sheet contribution
 Continued melting and Greenland could contribute 5 to 33 cm to sea level by 2100
 If the Greenland Ice Sheet were to melt completely, scientists estimate that sea levels could
rise 7.4m globally

Future

 Continued global warming will increase the rate of ice sheet melting as a positive feedback
mechanism
 Exposed ground reduces the albedo effect on the surface, increasing ground warming and
therefore, snow melt
 Increased melting leads to the release of stored carbon and methane into the atmosphere,
adding to the greenhouse effect and increased warming
 The height of the land would be lower, however, with the release of weight, the isostatic
rebound would eventually counteract this, as Greenland rose
 Large amounts of freshwater could affect the thermohaline circulation and cut off equatorial
warm waters arriving with the Gulf Stream along the coast of the UK

Accumulation & Ablation

 Inputs are known as accumulations
o Accumulation is from direct and indirect snowfall
o Avalanches from one area onto the ice mass
o Windblown debris from another area onto an ice mass
o Any accumulation is transferred down hill by gravity
 Outputs (called ablation)
o Ablation is accumulation losing mass through:
o Melting at the margins of the ice mass
o Evaporation
o Sublimation
o Calving from the front margin where it meets the sea
o Avalanches
 The balance between the accumulation and ablation over a year is called the glacial budget
 It determines if the mass of the glacier has increased or decreased

 There are two zones:

o Accumulation zone
 Found in the upper part of the glacier
 Inputs are usually more than the outputs
 There is a net gain of ice during the year
 Glacier front advances
o Ablation zone
 Found in the lower part of a glacier
 Output exceeds inputs
 Net loss of ice during the year
 Glacier front retreats
 Where gains and losses balance on the glacier, the area is called the equilibrium line or
point
 Over time, variations in the glacial budget will move the line up or down the glacier
 Linked to the advance and retreat of the glacier front

Annual ice budget (Northern

Hemisphere) showing ablation and accumulation
Variations in Accumulation & Ablation
 A glacial system has positive and negative feedback loops to keep it in dynamic
equilibrium
o E.g. sediment on the glacier absorbs insolation and begins heating
o This leads to melting of the ice
o Exposing more sediment and increasing the rate of insolation absorption
o This is a positive feedback loop
 Output through ablation (melting) is balanced by glacial input of accumulation (usually
snow)
o Accumulation increases with:
 Increased rates of input - more snowfall = more ice mass in the longer term
 Lower temperatures - this lowers rates of melting
 Lower wind speeds - slows rates of transfer out of the system
 Lower rates of insolation - albedo effect is increased
o Ablation increases with:
 Lower rates of input - less snowfall reduces future ice formation
 Increase in global temperatures - reduces snow formation, and increases rate of
melting
 Higher wind speeds - transfer out of the system increases and prevents snow
from settling
  Increased insolation - lowered albedo effect
 Equilibrium of the glacier is maintained when input and output is balanced - neither a gain or
loss of ice and the glacier remains the same size
 Glacial health is assessed over a 10 year period and 75% of current glaciated areas are in
negative mass balance (retreating)
 Caused through increased global temperature of 0.6°C over the last decade

2.2.2 Glacial Processes

Polar & Temperate Glaciers
 All ice moves under the influence of gravity downslope from high mountains to low outwash plains
 Weight, mass, and slope angle increase the shear stress point
 The momentum of movement builds towards the zone of ablation, which maintains dynamic
equilibrium with the slope angle
 Movement towards the margins and snout of glacial ice continues, regardless of overall glacial retreat
or advance
 Temperature and pressure melting point differentiates polar and temperate glacial movement

Pressure melting point (PMP)

 The temperature at which ice melts at a given pressure is the pressure melting point (PMP)
 The melting point of water depends on air pressure above the ice
 As air pressure increases, the temperature at which ice melts lowers
 At 1 atmosphere pressure, the melting point of ice is 0°C
 At 200 atmospheres, the melting point decreases to -1.85°C

Warm-based glaciers

 Occur in temperate regions such as southern Iceland and western Norway

 They are relatively small and range in width from hundreds of meters to a few kilometres
 Melting occurs during the summer months
 It is this meltwater that 'lubricates' the base and sides of the glacier, which assists movement
(called basal sliding) and increases rates of erosion, transportation, and deposition
 As such, all ice in these glaciers is at, or close to, the melting point of ice
 Temperatures at the base are, therefore, at or just above the pressure melting point

Cold-based glaciers

 Occur in polar regions such as central Greenland and Antarctica

 They are large, vast sheets and caps of ice covering hundreds of km²
 Temperatures remain below melting point, with low rates of precipitation, resulting in low levels of
accumulation
 Basal temperatures remain below the PMP, therefore, basal sliding does not happen
 This results in little erosion, transportation, and deposition
 Any movement is by internal deformation
o The ice stays frozen to the bedrock and moves slowly at 1-2cm a day
o Orientation of the ice crystals in the glacier, to the direction of movement, allows the crystals to
slide over each other
 Warm and cold based glacial profile - meltwater is the important factor in movement

Exam Tip
Ensure that you can write clear definitions of pressure melting point, warm and cold-based glaciers
for the exam. Practice drawing diagrams to help support your answer. A well labelled or annotated
diagram will gain you credit in the exam.
Movement of Glaciers
 Glaciers move very slowly, under the force of gravity
 Movement in the upper zone of the glacier forms crevasses, as the ice is relatively brittle and cracks
 The lower zone has a steady pressure which along with meltwater and frictional heat, leads to
easier/faster movement

Ice Movement Explanation

Friction, pressure and heat from ice moving over bedrock, leads to melting.
The meltwater then acts as a lubricant, assisting further glacial flow

Enhanced basal creep - basal ice bends/deforms around bedrock outcrops,

PMP is not reached and ice crystals deform around the outcrop
Basal sliding
Regelation creep/slip - basal ice undergoes increased resistance and pressure
on the upslope of bedrock outcrop. Pressure melting occurs and this eases the
flow over the outcrop. Pressure is reduced on the downslope of the outcrop,
and the meltwater refreezes

Movement is between 2-3m a day

 Occurs in both cold and warm-based glaciers

Intergranular flow - where individual ice crystals orientated themselves in

Internal deformation the direction of glacial movement and slide past one another

Laminar flow - movement of individual layers within the glacier

Movement is between 1-2cm a day

Occurs in depressions/hollows where glacial ice forms - the ice rotates/pivots as it
Rotational flow
starts to move downslope

Ice mass thickens as slope gradient reduces and movement slows

Compressional flow
Erosional potential increases, which could lead to a steeper gradient and
extensional flow
Ice mass thins and movement increases when slope gradient steepens
Extensional flow
Erosional potential decreases

Diagram showing basal sliding and internal

deformation as ice flows

Diagram showing compressional, rotational and

extensional ice flow

Rate of Glacier Movement

 No two glaciers move at the same rate, due to differences in processes and environment in which they
exist
 Most glaciers move anywhere between 3m and 300m per year
  The highest rates of movement occurs during a glacier surge, where ice moves forward 10-100 times
normal speed
 There are a number of factors controlling the rate of glacial movement

Table of Factors Controlling Glacier Movement

Factor Effect

Permeable bedrock allows meltwater to percolate through, slowing glacier movement.

Lithology
Rock such as clay, allows deformation and therefore, increased movement

Rates of snowfall and accumulation increases with altitude, therefore, alpine glaciers have
Altitude higher rates of movement. Temperature increases with lower altitudes, increasing rates of
meltwater and therefore, basal slip increases

Slope Angle Steeper slopes lead to increased glacial movement

The greater the thickness, the greater the pressure within the ice, creating faster
Size/Thickness
movement

Higher rates of accumulation increases thickness and gradient of the ice, which increases
Mass Balance velocity. Similarly, higher rates of ablation increases basal meltwater which leads to
increased basal slippage

Cold based glaciers move slower than warm based glaciers, as the ice does not deform
Ice Temperature
readily and tends to freeze to the bedrock

Exam Tip
Refresh your geographical skills as you may need to compare rates of glacial movement in the exam.
Make sure you understand and can use 'standard deviation' and 'measures of central tendency'.
2.2.3 Glacier Landform System
Glacial Processes
 Glaciers alter the landscape through a number of processes such as:
o Erosion
o Entrainment
o Transportation
o Deposition
 Erosion is the combination of:
o Abrasion (sand paper action) where individual stones lead to stations and chatter marks and
are ground into rock flour
o Plucking or glacial quarrying is a two stage process of initial widening of rock fracture joints
and encapsulating and then the removal of loose material in the ice
o Fracture and traction results from the sheer weight of the moving ice as it passes over the
bedrock, which leads to basal pressure melting and freezing
o Dilation happens as overlying material is removed, which releases pressure and causes
fracturs in the rock
o Meltwater erosion is very similar to river erosion, except the meltwater is under hydrostatic
pressure. The erosion can be mechanical or chemical as glacial meltwater can dissolve
minerals, particularly limestone
 Entrainment is the capturing of material into the glacial ice and can be:
o Supraglacial - where material falls onto the surface of the glacier
o Subglacial - where material is transported from the base and sides of the glacier
 o Englacial - sediments transported within the glacier
 Transportation is mostly basal, but in valley glaciers, material is transported englacially and
supraglacially
o Glacial material is carried both horizontally and vertically by the movement of ice itself, but
meltwater will also carry material through the complex glacial drainage systems, and by glacial
deformation
 Deposition occurs at the margins and base of the glacier
o It can occur directly as till
o Or released with meltwater as fluvio-glacial debris

Glacial Landforms
 Glacial landforms develop at different levels:
o Micro
o Meso
o Macro
 Micro-scale features
o These are small-scale landforms up to 1m in length
o Examples include striations
o Grooves
o Chatter marks
 Meso-scale features
o Medium-scaled features such as:
 Drumlins
 Ribbon lakes
 Roche moutonnées
 Macro-scaled features
o Large landforms such as:
 Pyramidal peaks
 Glacial troughs
 Cirques/tarns/corries

Process morphology

 Different parts of the glacier are linked to different geomorphic processes

 This is where different processes create differently shaped landforms at different scales, times and
places
 General glacial process morphology includes:
 Sub-glacial
o Beneath the ice, the immense pressure and weight subject the bedrock to grinding, scratching,
and polishing
o Warm-based glaciers will undergo fluvial processes due to glacial meltwater
 Glacial margins
o Both glacial and fluvio-glacial processes occur at the sides and front of the glacier
 Proglacial
o Fluvio-glacial processes dominate landscape features at the front of glaciers, caps, and ice
sheets
 Paraglacial
o Surface adjusts to glacial retreat through mass movement, and rapid erosion until dynamic
equilibrium is achieved
 Periglacial
o Permafrost features respond to freeze-thaw rather than ice movement
o Rapid melting can lead to transitional paraglacial features, as a new equilibrium is reached
Exam Tip
It is important to tell the examiner that features can be formed in a number of ways (equifinality) and
that change will have occurred over a period of cycles and therefore, a number of modifications,
which could include some or all of the above geomorphic processes during glacial and interglacial
periods.

Glacial landscapes have also been modified through sub-aerial, mechanical, biological and chemical
weathering, along with mass movement and fluvial action since the last Ice Age, therefore, there is no
definitive 'one' way for the formation of the glacial landscape.
Upland & Lowland Landscapes
 Collectively, glacial landforms create a distinctive glacial landscape
 They can be separated into upland and lowland features
 Identifying how and where these features originate, can help in understanding the extent of past ice
cover
 Known as inversion modelling, it involves mapping areas of past glaciation combined with analysis of
current deposits to identify relict glacial landscapes and features and includes:
o Hutton's principle of uniformity, where looking at present day environments, is key to
understanding past processes and their role in forming the landscape, for example:
o Pingos in northern Canada helped identify collapsed craters on the North York Moors as relict
pingos from the last ice age
 Upland landscape
o High altitudes of hills and mountains
o Examples include:
 Arete
 Corrie
 Pyramidal peak
 Lowland landscape
o Low altitude such as valley floors and coastal plains
o Examples include:
 Drumlins
 Pingos
 Patterned ground
 Landscapes further identify into relict and active environments
o Relict landscapes are no longer influenced by ice masses but do feature localised features
from past glaciation
o Active landscapes are being acted upon by ice masses and experience the full glacial
development

2.3 Glacial Landforms & Landscapes

2.3.1 Glacial Erosion Landforms & Landscapes
Glacial Erosion
Sub-aerial weathering
 Freeze-thaw or frost shattering, happens when rocks contain cracks and where temperatures
regularly dip below the freezing point
 Any water in the cracks will freeze as the temperature drops, which expands as it freezes, exerting
pressure on the crack
  Repeated freezing and thawing of water will eventually break the rock apart and it will pile up
as scree at the foot of the slope
 When trapped under the ice, the sharp, angular rocks are an effects abrasive tool

Carbonation

 Is an important process in cold environments and occurs in rocks with calcium carbonate, such as
chalk and limestone
 Rainfall (pH of 5.6 ) combines with dissolved carbon dioxide or organic acid to form a weak carbonic
acid solution
 Calcium carbonate (calcite) in rocks, reacts with the acidic water and forms calcium bicarbonate, which
is soluble and removed in solution by meltwater
 The effectiveness of the solution is related to the pH of the water as carbon dioxide is more soluble at
lower temperatures

Nivation

 A blanket term for active processes that occur at the edges of snow patches
 The processes include the physical and chemical weathering that occur underneath patches of snow
 Fluctuating temperatures and meltwater promote chemical weathering and freeze-thaw action
 Weathered material is transported with the summer meltwater
 Repeated cycles of melting, freezing, and transportation form nivation hollows
 Saturated debris (due to summer meltwater), destabilises the slope and slumping may occur

Diagram showing the process of nivation and the

formation of hollows
Glacial erosion

 After glaciers break down the rock through freeze-thaw action, erosion continues the process by
plucking and abrasion
 Plucking:
o Movement of the ice mass generates friction and heat, causing the base of the glacier to slightly
melt
o This meltwater freezes around rocks and stones under the glacier
o As the glacier moves forward, it 'plucks' this ice, pulling the rock away
 Quarrying:
o Similar to plucking in that pieces of bedrock are transported and eroded within the glacier
o As a glacier moves through a valley, pressure is exerted on the sides and bottom of the valley
o Friction causes melting, allowing meltwater to surround the rocks in the valley
o As the meltwater refreezes, it pulls on the ice and quarry's the sides of the valley away
 Abrasion:
o Abrasion occurs as bits of rocks, stones, and boulders stuck in the ice, grind against the rock
below the glacier wearing it away and producing rock flour
o Striation (scratch) marks arise when rocks beneath the glacier are transported across the
bedrock
 It is the weight of the ice in a glacier that forces it to advance downhill, eroding the landscape as it
moves
 Ice advances in a circular motion called a rotational slip, which hollows and deepens the landscape

Main forms of glacial erosion

 Crushing
o This happens when pressure exerted by the ice mass and its debris, crushes the bedrock
surface leaving chattermarks fractures as it moves over the bedrock
 Basal melting
o As pressure increases, the melting point of water decreases
o The thicker the glacier, the greater the pressure; the lower the temperature at which water melts
o As temperate glaciers move down the valley, friction melts the glacier's base
o This layer of meltwater acts as a lubricant and allows the glacier to 'float' allowing basal sliding
and the glacier can move faster
 Mass movement
o Can occur quickly with the sudden movement of large ice masses, usually due to basal slipping
- ice sheet calving is a good example of mass movement
 Processes do not work in isolation or at the same rate, there are continuous adjustments, particularly
after glacial retreat; where landforms are not only shaped but reshaped by by the combined action of
mass movement, weathering, erosion, and fluvial action

Glacial Erosion Landforms

Glacial cycle of erosion

 There are 3 stages to glacial erosion

 o Youthful
o Mature
o Aged

 Youthful
o This marks the beginning of erosional landforms
o The shaping and hollowing of a corrie by ice
o The beginnings of aretes and horns

 Mature
o Corries are well-formed and begin to meet
o The glacial valley takes on its ribbon-shaped with a regular, stepped graded contour
o Hanging valleys are visible
o The valley floor begins to deepen and takes on the shape of a trough

 Aged
o 'U'-shaped valley is clearly defined
o Development of the outwash plain, including features of drumlins, eskers, kettle holes, etc.
o Corries converge, mountain summit heights decrease and their peaks become rounded

 Erosional landforms are created when moving masses of glacial ice slide and grind over bedrock
 Glacial ice contains large quantities of unsorted sand, gravel, and rock that was plucked out of the
bedrock
 Ice sliding across the bedrock, grind the debris into a fine, but gritty powder called rock flour
 Rock flour polishes the surface of the bedrock to a smooth finish called glacial polish
 The remaining trapped debris and larger rocks, create long grooves, called glacial striations, as they
flow over the bedrock
 These striations indicate the direction of ice flow

Landforms of glacial erosion

 Corrie/cwm/cirque
o Corrie, cwm and cirques are all the same feature and are deep, pre-glacial hollows of
accumulated snow and ice
o In Wales corries are called cwms and in France they are called cirques
o Found at the apex of a glacial valley, on the coldest aspect of the mountain, with the greatest
accumulation of snow and ice
o As the accumulated ice begins to flow; basal/rotational sliding along with plucking and
abrasion, hollows the mountain into a bowl-shape
 o Debris is pushed to the edges of the corrie, which acts as a dam (corrie lip) to the accumulating
snow
o As the ice thickens within the hollow, it flows over the corrie lip and downhill as a glacier
o Plucking, abrasion and freeze-thaw weathering, steepen the back wall of the corrie, into the
familiar armchair shaped landform
o Examples include Helvellyn Corrie in the Lake District and Cwm Idwal in Eryri National Park
(Snowdonia)
 Arête
o Arêtes are knife-edge, steep-sided ridges
o Formed when two corries cut back into the mountainside
o As each corrie glacier erode either side of the ridge, the edges become steeper and the ridge
narrower
o This gives the arête it's a jagged profile
o Examples include Crib Goch in Eryri National Park, and Striding Edge in Lake District England
 Pyramidal peak
o As the name suggests, this is a three-sided, pointed mountain peak
o Formed when three or more back-to-back corrie glaciers carve away at the top of a mountain
o This creates a sharply pointed mountain summit
o Examples include Yr Wyddfa (Snowdon) in Wales and Buachaille Etive Mòr, Glencoe, Scotland
 Corrie, tarn or cirque lakes

o Corrie, tarn or cirque lakes form when the ice within the corrie melts
o Because of the corrie lip at the bottom end, the meltwater is held in place and a circular body of
water is formed
o Examples include Red Tarn, Helvellyn in the Lake District and Cadair Idris in Eryri National Park
(Snowdonia)

 Truncated spur
o Truncated spurs are past interlocking spur edges of past river action that have been cut-off
forming cliff-like edges on the valley side
o Found between hanging valleys and are an inverted 'V' shape
o Formed when past ridges/spurs are cut off by the lower valley glacier as it moves past
o An example is Nant Ffrancon Valley in Eryri National Park

 Hanging valley
o These are small tributary glaciers found 'hanging' above the main valley floor
o When melting occurs, there are waterfalls onto the valley floor
o An example is Cwm Dyli in Eryri National Park

 Ribbon lake
o As a glacier flows it travels over hard and softer rock
o Softer rock is less resistant to erosion, so a glacier will carve a deeper trough over this type of
rock
o When the glacier has melted, water collects in these deeper areas
o This creates a long, thin lake called a ribbon lake
o Examples include Lake Windermere in the Lake District and Llyn Ogwen in Eryri National Park
o The areas of harder rock left behind are called rock steps

 Glacial trough/U-shaped valley

o Glacial troughs are steep-sided valleys with a flat floor
o They start as V-shaped river valleys but due to the size and weight of the glacial ice it changes
to a U shape as the glacier erodes the sides and bottom making the valley deeper and wider
o Examples are found all over the UK, but Nant Ffrancon and Nant Gwynant in Eryri National Park
are good examples
o At the end of the last Ice Age, many coastal troughs (glacial) flooded to form fjords (Norway) or
sea lochs (Scotland)
Exam Tip
When explaining the formation of landforms, always follow a clear sequence and refer to named
processes rather than generic terms i.e. by transportation or by erosion. State clear links between the
processes and its subsequent landform.
Scouring & Differential Geology
 Scouring is the ability of the ice mass to erode large areas of pre-existing landscape
 Occurs when the glacier overspills its containing valley
 Ice sheet scouring produces the following landscapes:
 Knock and lochan:
o These are macro-scale, scoured rugged, lowland features
o Consist of 'knocks', small rounded hills with no vegetation, and 'lochs' of small lakes
o Created by the intense erosion of the surface by an ice sheet
o The knocks are resistant bedrock hills with the lochs being formed by over deepening hollows
 Examples are found in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland

IMAGE AWAITING EDIT

Knock and lochan formation of the Outer Hebrides, Scotland

 Crag and tail:

o A macro-scale, tapered ridge of glacial deposits, extended to one side, found in both upland and
lowland areas
o Formed when a ‘crag’, a large section of hard, resistant bedrock e.g. volcanic rock, protects a
section of softer, unconsolidated material, the ‘tail’
o The advancing ice sheet is forced to go around the upstream or stoss section of resistant rock
(crag), leading to melting and refreezing around loose rocks and boulders, which are plucked
as the ice mass moves forward
o The leeward or downstream side of less resistant material is protected directly behind the
crag
o Velocity and pressure is reduced and deposition occurs
o As the ice mass continues, abrasion of the softer rock occurs and the tail is drawn and
smoothed by abrasion with the plucked crag debris
 Example is Castle Rock (crag) and Royal Mile in Edinburgh (tail)

Crag and tail formation of Edinburgh's

Castle Rock and Royal Mile

 Roche moutonnée (sheep's back)

o A meso-scale, resistant, bare mass of rock, on the valley floor, that has been sculpted by
flowing ice
o Reversed crag and tail, with plucking occurring on the leeward side and smoothing on the
upstream, stoss side
o The upstream or stoss side of the outcrop, is smoothed due to abrasion by the glacier
o The moving ice leads to localised pressure melting
 o This eases basal sliding and increases erosion over the rock, creating striations across the top
of the rock
o On the leeward or downstream side, the pressure reduction refreezes the meltwater
o This bonds the base of the glacier to the outcrop
o As the glacier continues to flow, loose rocks/boulders are plucked out and a jagged, steep
surface is left behind

Formation of a roche moutonnée (sheep's back)

Differential geology

 This is the differences in geology that contribute to the landforms that are generated by processes in
glaciated landscapes
 It is the orientation, structure, and pattern of the bedrock that has a major impact on the scale and type
of erosional landforms
 For example:
o It is the pattern and orientation (direction) of resistant to less resistant rock that creates 'knock
and lochans', rather than physical ice processes
o With a crag a tail formation, it is the sheer size of resistant rock that forms the steep, upstream
stoss which protects the soft, leeward rock by reducing velocity and pressure of the ice mass as
it passes over
o A sloping tail forms as the protection deteriorates with distance

2.3.2 Glacial Deposition Landforms & Landscapes

Glacial Deposition
 When debris is deposited by the ice mass and not meltwater, it is called ice contact
deposition
 During the warmer summer months, glaciers begin to melt, and glacial till is deposited on the
valley floor or sides of a moving glacier
 Till is unsorted, irregular debris ranging from clay to stones to boulders of any size and shape
 Features of ice contact deposition include erratics, moraines, and drumlins

Erratics

 Erratics are random boulders of different sizes and types from the area where they are found
 There is no pattern to their deposition, and they look completely out of place on the landscape
 Glaciers pick up large rocks and carry them hundreds, sometimes thousands of kilometres
from where they originate
o Erratics from Scandinavia have been found in boulder clay of the North East of England
coastline
 Erratics are carried deep in the ice and do not erode the same as till at the edges of the glacier
 An example is the Great Stone of Fourstones, (Big Stone) on the moors of Tatham Fells,
England
 The Great Stone of Fourstones - erratics are random rocks that
vary in size!

Moraines

 Unsorted glacial till that is deposited in mounds are called moraines

 Moraines are termed from their position on the glacier:
o Terminal: Material deposited at the snout of the glacier
o Lateral: Material is deposited along both sides of the glacier
o Medial: Ridge of deposited material in the middle where two glaciers meet and continue
to flow downhill together
o Ground: Material dragged under the base of the glacier and deposited over a wide area
on the valley floor
o Recessional: They show the point of glacial retreat
o Push: They form if the glacier advances after retreat

Main types of moraines

Drumlins

 Drumlins are elongated, egg-shaped hills and made of glacial till

 They form beneath the glacier when the glacier meets an obstruction and material is deposited
as a ground moraine
 The moraine is then shaped by the moving ice, which follows the direction of the flow of ice
 The largest ones can be over 1km in length, 0.5km wide, and 50m high
 Multiple drumlins are known as swarms or baskets of eggs
 As the material is deposited it builds up to have a round, blunt, and steep front (stoss) end
 The flow of ice over the top of the drumlin drags the material along and down creating
the lee slope
 The lee is gently sloped, elongated, and with a tapered tail
  The more elongated the drumlin the faster the ice was flowing
 Examples include The Drumlin Field below Cam Fell in the Yorkshire Dales and Conway
Valley, North Wales

Lowland Deposition Features

 Lowland ice contact depositional features include:
o Till plain
o Lodgement till
o Ablation till

Till plains or ground moraine

 When the ice mass retreats during the warmer months, till is deposited over a vast area
across the valley floor
 Meltwater will also flow out of the glacier's snout forming meltwater rivers
 These rivers carry large amounts of glacial till, which will undergo further erosion through
attrition to become outwash
 This finer till is sorted and when the energy of the river reduces, the outwash is deposited
in layers further down the valley on the outwash plain

Glacial till Glacial outwash plain

Lodgement till

 Found mainly with slow-moving glaciers which carry more debris sub-glacially
 Lodgement till is subglacial unconsolidated material that is forced, or 'lodged' into the bedrock
below

Ablation till
  Ablation till includes supra and englacial material deposited as the glacier melts

Transportation of glacial till

Former Ice Extent Reconstruction

 Landforms of glacial deposition are useful in understanding the direction and extent of ice
cover - striations are deepest at initial point of contact
 It also provides a record of past glacial changes over a longer timeframe than current
observational records
 Past temperatures and levels of precipitation can be measured with ice cores, indicating past
glacial climates
 Orientation of the landform can indication glacial direction and upland or lowland landforms
can be a good indicator of actual ice mass - crag and tail as a macro feature needing a large
ice mass to deform around resistant rock rather than flow over as in the meso landform of
roches moutonnées
 Debris analysis can indicate distance travelled, as in the case of the Scandinavian erratics; or
the rate of travel as in drumlin swarms, as slow moving glaciers carry more till
 Morainic ridges indicate edges of ice sheets or glacial snouts in instances of glacial retreat

2.3.3 Glacial Meltwater Landforms & Landscapes

Process of Water Movement
 Fluvioglacial landscapes are seen at the edges of warm-based and retreating glaciers,
'downstream' of the main glacier field
 The landscape is associated with flowing meltwater in temperate, peri/glacial regions
 Unlike polar regions, meltwater is seasonal, plentiful and freely flows from a tunnel at the base
of the glacier's snout or across the surface of the glacier and into moulins or crevasses
 As such, a fluvioglacial landscape is considered very dynamic; as meltwater channels
frequently change course

Fluvioglacial cross section

Note that surface meltwater descends through crack/crevasses and moulin shafts to the base
of the glacier and exits through meltwater tunnels at the snout.

Meltwater

 Glacial meltwater is cold and loaded with suspended sediment

 Depending on the type of sediment, it can be milky, grey, or brown in colour
 Subglacial meltwater exits the snout of the glacier under hydrostatic pressure through
meltwater tunnels
 These tunnels begin under the ice as meltwater caves and vary in size from 50-150m wide,
~20 m high and >14 km in length

Processes

 Fluvioglacial processes are through erosion and deposition by flowing meltwater

 Vast quantities of meltwater are produced, which transport large amounts of debris
 Processes include:
o Basal sliding where meltwater lubricates the warm-based glacier allowing it to flow
more easily
o Nivation is essential in freeze-thaw and meltwater removes the debris, at the edges,
during the summer melt
o Plucking - the meltwater refreezes and glues to rock fragments
o Abrasion - debris 'rubs' the bedrock and produces rock flour

Basal sliding through meltwater

Glacial & Fluvioglacial Deposits

 Depositional features through meltwater erosional channels is beneath and in front of the
glacier
 These form distinctive landforms with well-sorted, stratified, rounded and smoothed debris
 In spring and summer, when glaciers are ablating, levels of meltwater is higher, therefore,
larger debris can be carried and deposited
 In autumn and winter ablation is reduced, as is the capacity of fluvioglacial streams to carry
and deposit sediment
 This annual cycle produces variations in deposition, and is responsible for contrasting layers
within one year - known as glacial varves when found in meltwater lakes or beyond a glacier's
margin
  Fluvioglacial deposits are generally:
o Smaller than glacial till debris
o Carry finer material
o Smoother and rounder through fluvial processes of attrition, abrasion and corrosion
o Sorted horizontally with coarse material up-valley with progressively finer material being
deposited as meltwater moves down-valley
o Have stratified layers that reflect seasonal and annual deposition variations
 Glacial till deposits are typically:
o Unsorted, angular and non-stratified (non-layered)

Differences between till and fluvioglacial debris

Outwash deposits

 These are zoned into 3:

o Proximal zone in front of the glacier and emerges from the snout
 Meltwater has high velocity and particles are large and angular
 Can be intermixed with finer glacial till
 Outwash may form alluvial fans
o Medial zone is where meltwater streams begin to form braided channels
 Daily and seasonal changes in meltwater discharge
 Velocity is decreasing and particle size is rounder and smaller
 Deposition begins in meanders of streams and across the outwash plain
o Distal zone is the furthest from the glacial snout
 The drainage pattern is now similar to normal fluvial drainage systems
 Outwash is well-sorted, smaller, and rounded

Imbrication

 Sediments deposited in fast-flowing meltwater channels will show imbrication

 This is where rock fragments are pushed in one direction by the flow, which forces overlapping
of each other

Imbrication or layering of rock clasts due to the

velocity of meltwater flow
 Formation of Fluvio-Glacial Landforms
 A fluvioglacial landscape can be divided into 2 categories:
o Ice contact
o Proglacial meltwater

Category of Fluvioglacial Landforms

Ice Contact Proglacial

Sandurs/outwash plains and varves

Kames and kame terraces Pro-glacial lakes

Eskers Meltwater channels

Kettle holes

Meltwater channels

 Meltwater channels are formed from erosion due to the flow of meltwater beneath or close to
an ice-sheet margin
 Meltwater channels are typically steep sided, deep and straight
 They have a high discharge rate and a turbulent flow
 The larger the meltwater channels, the more significant the levels of meltwater erosion and
size of deposition
 There are different types of channels:
o Subglacial - found beneath the glacier, with an undulating long profile, and complex,
braided stream systems
o Englacial - where meltwater streams form within the body of the glacial ice - they do not
have to exit
o Lateral - meltwater streams that follow the glacial edge, either within the glacier or on
its surface
o Surface - meltwater flows over the surface of the glacier; the meltwater may flow into
crevasses, moulins or supraglacial lakes
o Proglacial - where meltwater drains from the front of the glacier, downslope and away
from the ice margin, eventually forming a network of shallow, sedimented braided
channels that are separated by gravel bars (eyots)
 These processes are the same as rivers
o Hydraulic action
o Abrasion
o Corrosion
o Attrition
 However, meltwater is more erosive, due to the downward pressure of the ice 'squeezing' the
meltwater, causing it to flow faster; plus the meltwater carries more debris, which aids in the
abrasion and attrition processes
 Meltwater channels are deep, wide troughs that carry vast amounts of fast-flowing water and
are, therefore, highly erosive
 As the glacier retreats, the deep channels are left with shallow, slow-flowing streams of water

Outwash plains and varves

  As meltwater begins to descend, the velocity of the water begins to slow
 This allows for the formation of a network of shallow, sedimented split channels, that are
separated by gravel bars that eventually make up the outwash plain or sandur
 Traction, saltation, suspension and solution processes transport the eroded material within
the channels
 The decreasing velocity reduces the ability of the meltwater to 'hold' the debris, sorted
sediment is deposited on the valley floor in layers also called varves
 Varves are frequently defined as a type of glacial lake sediment because they are common in
glacial lakes
 However, they occur in different environments where sediment layers are laid down
annually and not just in glacial lakes

Kettle holes

 Kettle holes are hollows formed when blocks of ice calved from the main glacier and left on the
outwash plain as the glacier retreated
 The ice block subsequently melts, leaving a depression in the sediment deposits (varves) of
the outwash plain
 Water-filled kettle holes are known as kettle lakes

Eskers

 These are long, winding ridges of sand and gravel, running parallel to the glacier
 They are deposited by subglacial meltwater streams and can stretch for several kilometres and
reach heights of 30m
 As the glacier retreats, the stream dries up, and the load remains as an esker
 Eskers show the position of past glacial tunnels

Kames

 These are mounds of sand and gravel found on the glacial valley floor
 Supraglacial meltwater streams collect in surface depressions and deposit layers of debris
 Glacial retreat dumps the sorted debris onto the glacial valley floor
 Kame terraces are piles of deposited debris, left by meltwater channels, running between the
glacier and the valley sides
 Similar in appearance to the lateral moraines, however, kames are sorted layers (stratified)
with the heaviest gravel at the base and finer sediments on top
 Proglacial lakes can form in front of glaciers, particularly when the terminal moraine acts as a
dam for the meltwater
 As the proglacial lake develops, velocity is lost and sediment is deposited - these deposits are
known as deltas
 Glacial retreat dumps these deltas on the glacial valley floor, forming delta kames
 Crevasse kames are small hummocks of left behind, glacial surface deposited sediments
 Image showing fluvioglacial
landscape of ice contact and proglacial features

2.4 Management of Glaciated Landscapes

2.4.1 Value of Glaciated Landscapes
Environmental & Cultural Value of Glaciated Landscapes
Wilderness's value

 Some glaciated landscapes have more wilderness qualities and therefore, more value than others
 Areas of active glacial and periglacial regions in high altitudes and latitudes have greater 'true
wilderness' qualities than relict upland glacial landscapes, such as the Lake District or Snowdonia
(Eryri)
 People attach spiritual meaning to pristine, natural, and untouched environments and many people
have been inspired to write, paint, and express through film, their feelings and experiences of such
places
 The value of wilderness can be seen as a sliding scale of quality wilderness
o Antarctica is the pinnacle of pristine wilderness and an aspirational place to visit
o The Arctic polar regions have areas of pristine wilderness but also areas inhabited by small
groups of indigenous people with strong historical and cultural connections, such as the Inuit
and the Nenets of Siberia
o Whereas, places such as the Cairngorms or Eryri are a lower quality of wilderness. They are
more accessible, with a higher population
o However, mountain peaks are considered spiritual and linked with reaching a higher plane
 Mount Kailash, Himalayas, is sacred to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism and is never
climbed
 Pilgrimages are undertaken every year to sacred mountains and lakes in Tibet
 Prayer flags are hung in the mountains of Nepal, to spread goodwill and compassion into
the surrounding countryside
o All are valued, but one is seen as having a higher value than the other, due to having more
elements of pristine qualities
 An important value of cold environments is to scientific research as living labs:
o Maintenance of genetic variety (Svalbard's Global Seed Vault)
o Migratory patterns for birds and animals
o Comparison of pristine or natural communities versus exploited, and mismanaged environments
o Front-line indicators of global warming and climate change

Exam Tip
Remember that conflict arises due to the attitudes of various stakeholders. Again, there is a sliding
scale between those that want to fully conserve the wilderness and to exclude those already living a
traditional life, against those who want to exploit its resources purely for economic gain.
Economic Value of Glaciated Landscapes
  Globally many people benefit from, both active and relict glaciated environments through the availability
of:
o Glacial mountain water
o Timber
o Hydropower
o Recreation and leisure
o Gold, diamonds, copper, oil, gas, etc.
 But they also provide some local economic value through:
o Farming
o Mineral and mining opportunities
o Hydroelectric power
o Tourism
o Forestry (silviculture)

Farming

 Opportunities and benefits depend on location:

o Upland hill farming is restrictive to sheep, which generates low incomes for farmers
o Developing nations may have limited transport links, access to supplies and markets
o Many isolated communities survive through subsistence farming
 In Bolivia, 70% of the population live in the High Andes, growing crops and rearing
llamas and alpacas, but earning just 30% of the country's GDP
 The advancement of the internet and mobile phones have provided opportunities for
cottage industries including ecotourism, weaving, and knitting of traditional clothing for
sale to tourists who visit
o Alpine areas within developed countries are pastoral or transhumance farming
o The environment is steep, and stony with shallow soils and higher precipitation rates, making it
difficult to cultivate, but can be grazed in summer, leaving the lower pastures free to recover and
provide hay for the winter months

Forestry (silviculture)

 Many upland farms are now used for forestry due to poor returns on the more traditional sheep farming
 The Forestry Commission in the UK has invested in planting fast-growing soft-wood such as spruce
conifers and other non-native trees
 Although these trees provide timber, wood pulp, and paper, conservationists blame these forests for
wiping out woodland species and disfiguring the landscape with their monotonous similarity
 However, conifers tolerate the harsh climate and acidic soil, that would otherwise be unsuitable for
other land uses

Hydroelectric power (HEP)

 The major use of water from both active and relict glaciated landscapes
 Economic uses include commercial and local HEP production
o In the Himalayas, mini HEPs are used to power villages due to their inaccessibility
o Villagers are involved in the set-up and maintenance of the generators and use diverted
meltwater to drive the turbines
o This provides light and power to the village, increased safety during the long nights, and has
encouraged cottage industries to be set up
 Countries such as Norway and New Zealand have utilised their glacial waters and these provide over
90% of their electricity
 Switzerland has over 500 HEPs, that provide 70% of the country's electricity
 On the downside, there are issues with reliable supplies and in light of global warming and retreating
glaciers, longevity is another factor to consider for longer-term use
 Conflict arises when the damming of rivers affects villages that rely on these waters downstream
Mining

 Natural erosion in glaciated environments exposes economically viable minerals, ores, and rocks
 Past geological processes have formed metamorphic rock such as slate for roofing and igneous rock
(granite) for kitchen tops etc.
 In lowland areas, outwash deposits of sand and gravel can be sold as aggregates for building with
concrete but also deposits of gold, diamonds, and other precious minerals

Tourism

 Globalisation has brought many distant places closer and with long-haul flights becoming cheaper and
the ability of people to 'surf' for the best prices, glacial tourism has become a place of mass tourism
 Tourism is one of the largest providers of economic value to glaciated regions, for instance:
o In the Chamonix Valley, France roughly 5 million tourists visit each year, and this generates
2500 jobs seasonally, with railway companies and ski-lift engineers in high-demand
 The benefits are seen in both relict and active glaciated environments and provide year-round outdoor
activities;
o Hillwalking and climbing
o Mountain biking
o Mountaineering - professional climbs such as Everest and K2
o Skiing and snowcat rides
o Glacial walking and climbing
o Heli-rides and skiing on glaciers
o Ice caves and ice hotels
o Cruises to Antarctica, South Georgia and around the Antarctic peninsula
o Zip-wire rides in Eryri National Park
o Snowwalking in the Cairngorms
 Tourism isn't contained to the traditional single areas but attracts mass tourism to places such as
Iceland, Greenland, Alaska, and Svalbard
 As such, glaciated regions are under pressure from continued exposure to increased tourism and some
are becoming very fragile landscapes

Biodiversity & Role in Natural Systems

 Both glacial and periglacial ecosystems are significant to global life support systems
o 75% of global freshwater is held as glacial ice
o Glacial valleys form natural water reservoirs
o Glacial lakes can be used for HEP
o Valuable source of irrigation water - Boulder, Colorado relies heavily on the Arapaho glacier for
its drinking and agricultural water
o Provides a source for commercial sales of bottled water
 Periglacial areas are sources of carbon sinks
o The UN Environment Programme estimates:

[that] the northern hemisphere’s frozen soils and peatlands hold about 1,700 billion tonnes of carbon, which is
four times more than humans have emitted since the industrial revolution, and twice as much as is currently in
the atmosphere. www.unep.org 2019

o Tundra peat ecosystems gain carbon, (therefore, act as a carbon sink), through
the anaerobic decay of plant/animal biomass and new organic matter gained during the short
summer growing season
o Resulting in a net gain as plant photosynthesis and growth is greater than the carbon respired
by plants and soil back into the atmosphere
 o As permafrost soils remain frozen for long periods of time, they can store large amounts of
carbon and other nutrients within their frozen framework for hundreds and even thousands of
years
o However, scientists are now concerned that the continued melting of the permafrost is resulting
in an overall net carbon loss
o As the tundra peat thaws, increased microbial breakdown occurs, releasing greenhouse gases
such as methane, into the atmosphere which feeds a positive feedback loop
 Periglacial and glacial flora and fauna are low by global standards and under continued threat from
global warming, risking the loss of important genetic or chemical material that could benefit
engineering, science or food sectors
 The high albedo effect of glaciated regions ensures that insolation is reflected which helps to maintain a
heat deficit within polar regions, thus protecting specialised and adapted flora and fauna, but more
importantly act as a global climate regulator
 A valuable ecosystem service is the ability to provide goods such as:
o Fish from the Southern and Arctic oceans for local and international use
o Wild food from the seasonal hunting of seal, caribou and reindeer
o Whaling in the past provided many goods and is now banned except for scientific purposes but
Japan still hunts in the Antarctic waters
 Glaciated ecosystems provide cultural, aesthetic and spiritual value as they are mostly unspoilt
wilderness with Creation Stories linked to their vast landscape and open, dark skies
 However, human activities have direct and indirect impacts through removing vegetation, building of
infrastructure and indirectly through pollution has brought into question if the value of polar ecosystems
are irreversibly damaged

2.4.2 Threats Facing Glaciated Landscapes

Threat of Natural Hazards
 Active and relict glacial landscapes are inherently dangerous:
o Avalanches
o Rock falls
o Debris slides
o Flooding
 Increased populations, developments, and tourism put people at risk within these areas

Avalanches

 Avalanches are rapid movements of snow down a slope, and are common in mountainous areas
 Avalanches occur when shear stress exceeds the shear strength of a mass of snow on a slope, which
is linked to the snow's density and temperature
 Two types of pack snow failure:
o Loose snow - small amounts of snow move and roll down the slope
o Slab avalanches - large 'slabs' of snow break away from underlying snow
 This type of avalanche is the most dangerous
 A large, fully-developed avalanche can weigh up to a million tonnes
 Created when higher temperatures are followed by a freeze, creating an 'ice crust' on
the surface, which is unstable
 Avalanches start with a glide and then accelerate to speeds of 320km per hour (200m per hour),
picking up even more snow as it rushes downhill
 Occur most frequently on slopes over 22°
 Also, occur on north-facing slopes where the lack of snow limits snow stability (doesn’t have time to
bind with partial melting)
 Three types of avalanches are:

o New snow can fall off older snow (dry avalanche)

o Or partially melted snow moves (wet avalanche)
 o Mostly from slab avalanches (powder avalanches)
 A powder cloud forms with a large quantity of snow being suspended in the air
 These are the most dangerous of avalanches
 All avalanches are a significant hazard and kill approximately 200 people a year

Lahars

 A lahar is a large mud and debris flow as a result of volcanic activity

o Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia is known locally as the ‘sleeping lion’ and has not erupted for nearly
150 years
o In the early hours of November 13th, 1985 it erupted
o A combination of seismic activity, glacial instability, and extreme temperatures all combined to
form one of the deadliest mudflows in history
o Occurred during the night when most of the 27000 residents of Armero in Tolima were asleep
o Armero was virtually destroyed by the 3-8m of mud and rubble that swept onto it and killed an
estimated 23,000 people

Glacial outburst floods (GOFs)

 Powerful floods caused by the sudden release of meltwater from a subglacial or ice moraine-dammed
lake
 Can be trigged in six ways:
o Overflow and melting of the ice dam
o Breakdown of ice dam due to tectonic activity
o Increased rise in water levels
o Mass movement creating an overtopping of the moraine dam through displacement
o Catastrophic failure of moraine dam by slow ice melt within the moraine
o Increased water pressure enlarging pre-existing tunnels beneath the ice dam
 GOFs can be seasonal and dams can reform each year
 These outbursts are sudden and pose a threat to property and people around the world
 Meltwater can travel hundreds of kilometres from its sources and areas such as the Alps, Iceland, the
Andes, and the Himalayas have a long history of GOFs
 Periglacial areas are also seeing increased ground subsidence due to ice melt and flooding, risking
new areas to sudden flooding

Threat of Human Activity

 Glaciated landscapes face varying degrees of threat from human activities:
o Urbanisation
o Reservoir construction
o Leisure and tourism

Urbanisation

 Vary from isolated farms to nucleated towns depending on the location

 Relict glaciated areas are traditionally agricultural with intermittent market towns
 The impact varies on accessibility, but with the growth of tourism and the general population, many of
these areas have seen a rise in development, pollution, and damage/loss of flora and fauna habitats
 Infrastructure developments can damage permafrost and increase rates of melting through the release
of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere
 The exploitation of resources and discovery of new areas have increased risks of pollution by toxic
waste from the mining of gold, copper, or uranium
 Oil and gas spills into the polar waters have damaged the fragile balance of oceanic ecosystems which
cascades onto land-based ecosystems
Reservoir construction

 The construction of reservoirs in valleys is leading to landscape and hydrological changes

 Upland glacial landscapes provide natural features for HEP and reservoir building
 Power from HEPs provides power to urban areas
 Reservoirs regulate water supplies
 However, they also dramatically alter the landscape and impact a river's regime
o The River Ganges rises in the Himalayas and discharges in Bangladesh
o The glacial waters provide for many people, animals, and plants along its course
o With the increased planned and constructed HEPs along its course, the impact is far-reaching
with decreased water supplies and sediment supplies to areas downstream that rely on the river
for their existence

Tourism

 Places such as Antarctica have seen an increase in the number of tourists

 Approximately 100,000 tourists visit Antarctica each year, and large cruise ships increase pollution in
the area - both from the ship and the tourists themselves
 Seeds from non-native species, caught on tourist clothing, are being seen growing in the ice-free
coastal areas, threatening the continent's biodiversity
 Adventure tourism to extreme cold environments is a growth industry for countries and local
communities
 Developments such as roads and hotels, disrupt wildlife and damage habitats and migratory patterns,
leading to reduced biodiversity
 In the European Alps, social mobility and wealth have increased the rate of deforestation for ski resorts
and supporting infrastructure, leading to habitat loss and fragmentation
 Tourism increases demand for energy and water resources
 In Zemett, Switzerland, snow cannons add artificial snow to the slopes, but they are energy-intensive
and add chemical and biological additives to the soil in the process
 Relict glaciated landscapes are also under threat from tourism
o Trekking causes damage to fragile mountain ecosystems
o Plant communities, such as tundra flower meadows, need just 25 people a week and damage
begins

Exam Tip
When discussing the impact of human activity across cold environments, do not just write about the
impact on the landscape (e.g. deforestation for a new ski slope, or damage of permafrost for a new
road etc.) You need to remember that the physical also includes a system approach of inputs,
outputs, stores and flows (e.g. damage to permafrost from new road, releases carbon and methane to
the atmosphere, increasing global warming and raising temperatures etc.) So human activity affects
cold environments locally and globally but also the landscape features and the systems operating
within on a short and long term basis.
Degradation of Landscape by Human Activity
 Human activity can degrade the landscape and fragile ecology of glaciated landscapes through:
o Soil erosion
o Trampling
o Landslides
o Deforestation

Cold environments are fragile

 Natural development and processes within cold environments occur slowly

 They are long-term carbon and methane stores with a high albedo of up to 90% reflection of insolation
  Any changes quickly cascade, and once damaged, it takes a long time for the ecosystem to recover, if
at all
 Adaptations of flora and fauna occurred over a long period of time, in order to survive their harsh
surroundings
 Plants and animals have to cope with a lack of daylight, climatic variations, and a very short growing
season
 Specialism, limited species numbers, sensitivity to changes, and slow development make this
environment very fragile

Impacts

 Ecosystems are resilient, however, they all have a threshold of tolerance and once crossed, can tip the
ecosystem into a spiral of decline
 Certain human activities have a bigger impact than others
 Mountain biking or horse trekking are more damaging than walking
 Deforestation and poor upland farming lead to soil erosion and landslides
o Soil erosion is a major issue in the Andes, through over-cultivation and overgrazing on the
slopes, in the need to provide subsistence for its growing populations
 Exposed soils allow for weeds, resistant to erosion, to take over
 Leisure activities damage ecosystems through trampling and compaction
o Small leaves and delicate stems are damaged
o This reduces photosynthesis, growth, and biomass
o This provides less water and nutrients to the ecosystem
o Continued trampling compacts the soil leading to poor soil condition, bare soil, and greater
erosion
o People will avoid rutted and exposed soil but fail to realise that walking on other areas leads to
further damage

2.4.3 Global Warming & Glacial Mass Balance

Role of Global Warming
 Although some of the world's glaciers are advancing and in positive mass balance, the rises in global
warming has led to unprecedented levels of melting, resulting in negative mass balance, in cold
environments
 Periglacial areas will see melting permafrost change the ecosystem and biodiversity of the tundra
 Melting of ice and permafrost will likely change the water cycle, which many people depend on for their
main water supplies (Peruvian Andes supplies 30% of all water to the communities in the mountains)
 As glaciers shrink, so will water supplies after a period of gain as the glacier melts
 Increased river discharge, increases flood risk during spring/summer melt, particularly with extreme
heating causing ice melt spikes
 HEP dam operations become redundant with lower meltwater levels
 Lower velocities of meltwater cannot remove pollutants and water quality lowers
 Sediment yields change, which will either increase due to excess sediment build up, leading to low flow
rates and sudden flood burst or decrease, leaving outwash plains exposed and easily eroded

Exam Tip
Being synoptic in your exam is an important skill the examiner is looking for. Therefore, remember to
draw on knowledge of climate change from other parts of the course such as cold environments as a
carbon sink and the impact it has on the carbon cycle etc.
2.4.4 Management of Glaciated Landscapes
Download PDF

Involvement of Stakeholders
 There are a number of different stakeholders and approaches involved in managing the challenges
posed by glaciated landscapes
 Approaches range from conservationists wanting to fully protect through to sustainable management
and multiple economic use by TNCs and governments

Management of Cold Environments

Management Explanation

Allows for multiple economic uses and exploitation of cold

environments for profit. Supported by governments at local or
Do nothing
national level. Local support from chambers of commerce and trade
unions for revenues and job opportunities

Leave the area as it currently stands including aspects of pre-existing

Business as usual sustainability or exploitation. Most stakeholders are content with this,
although conservationists would prefer more

Middle ground as it targets development for profit but without loss of

Sustainable
future profits, many stakeholders are involved and relies on continued
exploitation
co-operation to be successful

A way to develop an area that allows for resource use for the benefits
of local communities without damaging the environment now and for
Sustainable the future. Difficult to maintain in cold environments, particularly
management regarding mineral exploitation. Conflict arises between
environmentalists, local indigenous peoples, state and national
governments and oil companies all competing for a part of the area

Aims to protect and conserve cold environments as pristine

wildernesses. Careful regulation of ecotourism and farming to allow
Comprehensive
continued use of the landscape. Exploitive activities are banned, but
conservation
maybe overturned by governments looking for short-term gains over
long-term benefits

Also known as fortress conservation, this radical approach involves the

total ban of access to the environment, except for scientific
Total protection monitoring and research purposes. Can cause conflict between
conservationists and local indigenous peoples who are used to using
the area for a living

Stakeholder Involvement in Managing Glacial Landscapes

Stakeholder Involvement

Conservationists Lobby governments to take action, public awareness campaigns etc.

Work to protect the rights of indigenous peoples, cultures and

NGOs
environments

Global organisations Set up and monitor international agreements

 Direct management and policing, enforcement, protection, promotion
Local and regional government
and development of economic benefits

Laws passed to protect fragile environments and provide management

National government
funding

 Strategy used does depend on the area and immediate situation

 In some parts, there is a need to be pro-active to avert a crisis, in other parts, there is time to plan
 For most places, there are a combination of strategies that are appropriate which includes zoning and
buffering with areas of economic developments, i.e. national parks

Exam Tip
Examiners are looking for you to identify that different stakeholders have varying ideas on which
management approach needs to be used, based on their differing views of conservation or
exploitation. So make sure you know examples of the different types of protection in active and relict
glacial landscapes.
Legislation to Protect & Conserve Landscapes
 A legislative framework can be developed at a number of levels which aim to protect and conserve
cold environments
 Environmental sensitivity is a key reason for the level of approaches needed
 Areas that have a high environmental value such as SSSI and National Nature Reserves often require
different levels of legislation
 Significant differences occur because of differences in scale from local to global
 For instance:
o Successful legislation, because of global warming, requires not only coordinated approaches at
global, national, and local scales but also adaptation and mitigation approaches, therefore, there
is a need for a variety of management strategies
 These can be effective if they a closely monitored and policed
 Mandatory legislation tends to be far more effective in protection and conservation and NGOs work
towards initiating and maintaining them
 Issues arise when environments that need protecting extent beyond one border, and include:
o Contrasting attitudes toward exploitation, conservation, and management of resources
o Different legal systems between countries
o Differences in available human and financial resources
o International relationships may be strained, making access or agreements difficult to complete

Antarctica - an active glaciated landscape

 A key global management strategy that has successfully managed an active glaciated landscape is
the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)
 Antarctica is unique in that there are no indigenous populations living in the area and the territory has
multiple international territorial claims
 Through a global agreement, threats to this landscape have been effectively reduced through:
o Stopping any resource exploitation
o Freezing all sovereignty claims
o Management of tourism
 With over 100,000 visitors to Antarctica annually, the area is threatened by degradation
 Protocols adopted in 1966 and subsequently added to the ATS, the framework manages tourism in
Antarctica by reducing the potential to damage the landscape
 Strict protocols mean all waste is removed from the area, including wastewater, thereby reducing
potential future damage
 However, tourism is both spatially and temporally concentrated in Antarctica
 o Up until 2010, a private, seasonally occupied camp was built next to the Patriot Hills, in
Antarctica
o It acted as a base camp for expeditions and tours to the interior of Antarctica
o Each year a private runway and heated tents would be built, raising concerns as to the damage
being done to the Patriot Hills and the Blue Ice Glacier
o Eventually, the camp was re-sited 70km away from the hill

Alpine Convention (AC) - an active landscape

 The Alpine Convention (AC) is an international agreement for the sustainable development and
protection of the Alps, between the EU and the Alpine countries of:
o Germany
o France
o Italy
o Liechtenstein
o Monaco
o Austria
o Switzerland
o Slovenia) and the EU
 The convention sets out steps for the protection and sustainable development of the Alps in terms of:
o Planning
o Air pollution
o Water management
o Farming
o Forestry
o Tourism
o Energy production
o Soil protection
o Traffic management
 The success of this treaty is due, in part, to all signatories being used to international co-operation, as
they are either part of the EU or have treaties with the EU

Factors for Sustainable Legislation of Active and Relict Glacial Landscapes

Social Economic Environmental

Working conditions No pollution

Good jobs
Cultural and religious Renewable
Fair wage
awareness Conservation
Security
Community Restoration
Infrastructure
Health and well-being Consideration

 The Andes and Himalayas, at this time, do not have a legislative framework and as such, are at risk of
degradation and exploitation of their resources
 However, in other areas there are national scale frameworks ranging from:
o National Parks such as The Lake District in the UK and Yosemite in the USA
o Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) - Ardersier Glacial Deposits, Scotland
o Biodiversity Action Plans (BAPs) - The Snowdon Lily, an arctic-alpine flowering plant only
known to flower in Eryri (Snowdonia) Wales
 All have varying rules and regulations, not only for each country but right down to a local scale for
permitted activities and access
o The Arctic has over 15% of its area fully protected; due to less competition for land use than
other similar areas (e.g. the Alps)
 o Alaska has 56% of its land protected with some form of legislative protective status - from
individual animal species to whole forests
o However, the need for oil and gold has resulted in permission being granted to drill in parts of
the protected regions
o Finland, on the other hand, has a tiered system of protection
 National Parks for public access
 Nature Reserves with limited public access
 Nature Reserves with permit entry only

Global systems of conservation

 Individual species are protected globally by strategies such as the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species (CITES) 1973, with many Arctic species on their list, such as walruses and
polar bears
o Global organisations such as Greenpeace argue that they are ineffective as even though
whales are protected, limited numbers are still allowed to be caught for scientific purposes -
Japan continues to harvest excessive numbers of whales but claim they are for scientific
purposes
 The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) publish a Red List for endangered species
with polar bears being classified as 'vulnerable'
o The US has refused to accept this, as it would mean acknowledgment of global warming as a
cause of vulnerability
 World Heritage Sites are listed by UNESCO, for their ecological or cultural importance
o Wrangel Island, Russia was designated an ecological site in 2004 because of its very high level
of biodiversity:
 A large number of polar bear breeding dens
 Feeding grounds for grey whales
 The largest population of Pacific walrus
 Nesting ground for over 100 migratory birds
o Both Scott's Hut and Shackleton's Hut on Antarctica, have been included on the World
Monuments Watch
o Shackleton's was included in 2004 and 2006, and Scott's in 2008
o The hut has been designated an Antarctic Historic Site or Monument following a
proposal by New Zealand and the United Kingdom to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative
Meeting

Discussion

 Apart from Antarctica, many of the legislations are restricted to specifics and are spatially small
 Most are reliant on national government priorities, and these change with each elected government
 Furthermore, legislation does not specifically address the issue of tourism or tourist activities, including
the Arctic's SMART model (Sustainable Model for Arctic Regional Tourism), which is only a loose
agreement, as economic needs overshadow the needs of the environment
 No amount of legislation can protect against transboundary pollution and the refusal by some countries
to acknowledge or address global warming

Global Warming & Management

 Global or climate warming is a context risk:
o A level of risk that is affected by many different factors and will swap from one set of
circumstances (context) to another
 This makes successful management of glaciated landscape complex and challenging and needs a set
of co-ordinated approaches at all levels (global, national and local) if it is to succeed
  All fragile landscapes are under threat from a warming planet, especially glaciers and permafrost
regions
 This has current and predicted impacts on these environments, for example:
o Since 1960, average air temperatures at the Arctic, has increased by more than 2°C
o The extent and thickness of the sea ice has declined
o Coupled with changes in seasonal melt; ice-dependent animals are at risk
o The far northern Canadian polar bears are expected to face starvation and reproductive failure
by 2100
o 95% of all glaciers have a negative mass balance and are retreating
o There is uncertainty surrounding how Antarctica's ice sheet will react to global warming
o The Arctic is expected to be ice free in summer by 2050

Present and Future Impacts of Global Warming

Present Impacts Future Impacts

Positive feedback of methane release from the

Rate of global glacial retreat has increased permafrost into the atmosphere, raising greenhouses
gas levels

Flooding of cold, low-lying coastal areas due to further

Sea level rise due to melting glaciers and ice sheets
sea level rise as warming temperatures accelerate
of Greenland and Antarctica
glacial melting

Winter sports regions are seeing reduced snowfall

Permafrost melting is accelerating, causing which has economic impacts for the locals - by 2050
buildings and roads to collapse only resorts above 1500m would be able to offer snow
for 100 days or more

Ingress of warmer loving flora and fauna into cold

Ice roads, which are essential supply routes, are
regions as temperatures increase, outcompeting
open for less time each year
native species

Migratory patterns of birds and animals are Existing flora and fauna become extinct as unable to
changing inline with seasonal changes adapt to warmer climate quickly enough

Increasing UV radiation has caused alterations to

Meltwater discharge lessens, impacting amount and
phytoplankton communities, impacting the food
quality of water and sediment
chain

Flooding and landslides increase, as inland Available water for HEP is reduced
glaciers retreat

Co-operation

 International legislation and local protection cannot protect glacial environments totally from the context
risk of global warming
 Action needs to be a co-operation to reduce global greenhouse emissions in the long term
 These can be through mitigation and adaptation strategies:

Mitigation Adaptation
Paris Agreement 2015 was a global
commitment to limit global temperature rise to
below 1.5°C. In total, 184 countries, plus the
EU agreed to develop and stick to national These are ways to cope with the impacts of
plans to reduce emissions climate change

 Improving warning systems for natural

Restrictions on tourism or resource
hazards such as glacial lake outbursts
exploitation
 Growing new types of crops that are
drought-resistant
Legal prevention or protection of an area (e.g.
 Relocating settlements
Antarctica) through international agreements,
 Either increasing or decreasing protection
national governments, non-government of areas as necessary
organisations (NGOs), and technology  Using technology to help prevent further
melting of the permafrost by buildings
Switching economies at a national level to and roads
low-carbon energy production

Become more energy efficient through home

insulation, LED bulbs, solar panels, etc.

3. Coastal Landscapes & Change

3.1 Coastal Processes
3.1.1 Landscapes & Features of The Littoral Zone
Littoral Zone
The coast as a system
 As with any geographical system, the coast, as a system, has inputs, stores, transfers and outputs
 The system constantly strives to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium
 The coast can be viewed as both an open system and a closed system
o It is an open system because it receives inputs from the lithosphere, atmosphere,
hydrosphere, biosphere and cryosphere
o However, during research and coastline management the coast can be seen as a closed
system where a specific sediment cell is examined

The coast as a system

  There are examples of positive feedback at the coast
o As waves erode the cliff, material is released
o This material abrades the cliff which results in even more cliff erosion
 There are also examples of negative feedback at the coast
o As the shore is eroded, the material makes the wave-cut platform wider
o This can absorb wave energy and reduce the impact at the base of the cliff

The littoral zone

 The littoral zone is the area of the coast that can be affected by wave action
 It is a dynamic zone which means that it is constantly changing due to the interaction between
processes on land and in the sea
 These changes can be:
o Long-term due to climate or sea level change
o Short term due to the tides, waves, and storms
 It is divided into four zones:
o Backshore is usually beyond the influence of wave action but can be affected during storm
events
o Foreshore is the intertidal area between high and low tide
o Nearshore is the breaker zone where friction between the seabed and the waves causes them
to break
o Offshore is the area outside the influence of waves

The littoral zone

Long Term Processes

 Coastal systems are affected by long term factors which include geology and changes in sea level

Geology

 The geology is the characteristics of the land which includes both:

o Rock type
o Rock structure
 Coasts can be classified as:
o Rocky
o Sandy
o Estuarine
 They can also be classified as:
o Concordant - where different rock types run parallel to the coast
o Discordant - where different rock types run at right angles to the coast

Sea level change

 Sea level change can occur as a result of:

 o Global warming - natural and enhanced
o Tectonic activity - which can lead sections of land to rise or subside
 Longer-term sea level change can be:
o Eustatic - when the sea level itself changes
o Isostatic - when the land rises or falls relative to the sea
 This leads to coasts that are either emergent or submergent

Short Term Processes

 Coasts can also be categorised by short-term factors:
o Waves - can be constructive or destructive
o Tides - tidal range is the difference between high and low tide
o Rivers
o Storm events
 These create coastlines that can be:
o Retreating or advancing which depends on whether erosion or deposition dominates
o Dominated by land-based processes (primary coasts) or marine processes (secondary
coasts)
o Large or small tidal range
o High or low-energy

Characteristics of High and Low Energy Coasts

High Energy Coasts Low Energy Coasts

Constructive waves
Destructive waves
Sheltered locations with short fetch
Exposed to strong winds and long fetches
Higher rates of deposition than erosion
Higher rates of erosion than deposition
Sandy beaches, salt marshes, estuarine and tidal mud
Tend to be rocky coasts
flats
Steep cliffs - marine cliff profile
Gentle relief
Less steep cliffs - subaerial cliff profile
Sediment from land and sea
Headlands, wave-cut platforms
Beaches, spits, coastal plains
Rocky Coasts
 Rocky coasts form where there is more resistant geology - in the UK this is mainly in the north and west
of the country
 Cliffs of varying heights and steepness can be found along rocky coastlines:
o Steep cliffs tend to be found in high energy environments
o Cliffs with a gentler slope tend to be found in low energy environments
 Erosion is more dominant than deposition
 Two types of erosion may dominate along rocky coastlines:
o Marine erosion - the action of waves
o Sub-aerial erosion - weathering and mass movement

Coastal Plain Landscapes

  Coastal plains usually occur where the land gradually slopes down towards the sea
 Tend to be low relief
 Coastal plains include both:
o Sandy coastlines
o Estuarine coastlines

 These are usually low energy coastal environments

 They form due to coastal accretion - when deposition is greater than erosion
 Sediment for deposition comes from:

o Offshore sources
o Terrestrial sources
 Dunes form, helping to stabilise the coast and reduce erosion
 Wetlands and marshes form due to poor drainage
 Estuarine coastlines form at the mouths of rivers and are formed from clay and silt

Exam Tip
It is important to remember that there are many different ways of classifying coasts and that some of
these categories may overlap. For example, rocky coasts are often high energy coastlines. Whereas
sandy coasts tend to be low energy.
3.1.2 Influence of Geological Structure
Discordant & Concordant Coast Formation
Discordant coastlines

 A discordant coastline is one where the rock structures meet the coast at an angle - run perpendicular
to oncoming waves
 Alternating rock types lead to the formation of headlands and bays
 Discordant coasts are also known as Atlantic coasts

Concordant coastlines

 Concordant coastlines are where the rock structures run parallel to the coast
 Dalmatian and Haff coastlines are examples of concordant coastlines

 Discordant and concordant

coastline

Influence of Geology on Coastal Morphology

 The shape and form of the coastline is known as coastal morphology
o This is influenced by the rock type (geology) and structure

Concordant coastlines - examples

Dorset, UK
  An example of a concordant coastline can be found in the area around Lulworth Cove in Dorset
 More resistant Portland Limestone runs parallel to the sea with less resistant Purbeck
Limestone and Wealden Clay behind it
o The formation of coves has occurred where the water has broken through at weaker points in
the Portland Limestone

Concordant coastline in South Dorset

Dalmatian coastline

 The Dalmatian coast in Croatia is another example of a concordant coastline

 Formed as a result of tectonic forces and sea level rise
 Tectonic activity forms anticlines and syncline which run parallel to the sea
 Sea level rise after the Devensian Glacial then flooded the synclines leaving the anticlines standing
above the water
 The result is a series of islands which run parallel to the coast

Example of a Dalmatian coastline

Haff coastline

 Located along the southern Baltic coastline

 During the Devensian Glacial large amounts of sand and gravel were deposited offshore
 After the glacial period had ended the material was then deposited nearer to the land by constructive
waves
 This formed bars across bays and river mouths trapping the water behind to form a lagoon (Haff)
 These are a feature of low-energy coastlines
 Haff coastline on the Baltic coast

Discordant coastlines - examples

Dorset, UK

 To the east of Lulworth Cove in Dorset, the coastline runs north to south and so the rocks meet the
coast at an angle creating a discordant coastline
 This leads to the formation of headlands and bays

Headland and bay formation

 The area is also affected by wave refraction

o Wave refraction changes the amount of energy reaching the shore on a small local scale
o Wave energy concentrates at the headland and increases the rate of erosion

Wave refraction around headlands

Influence of Geological Structure

 The geological structure is the way that rocks are folded or tilted - this is known as its lithology
 Lithology can refer to any of the following characteristics:
o Strata - layers of rock
o Bedding planes - horizontal cracks created by pauses in rock formation
o Joints - vertical cracks caused by tectonic movement or contraction
o Folds - the result of pressure during tectonic movement causing the rock strata to fold
o Faults - the result of stress or pressure causing it to fracture
o Dip - the angle of the rock strata
Cliff profiles

 Cliff profiles are the angle and height of the cliff face
 A profile also includes any features such as wave cut notches
 Different lithology creates different cliff profiles

Impacts of lithology of cliff profiles

Exam Tip
You may be asked in the exam to explain the formation of a particular cliff profile. It is essential that
you consider the lithology of the cliff face but also the other processes which act upon a cliff including:

 Hydraulic action and abrasion

 Subaerial processes
 Wave type

3.1.3 Factors Affecting Coastal Recession & Stability

Coastal Recession
 Coastal recession is the retreat of the coastline inland, this may be due to:
o Erosion
o Sea level rise
o Submergence
 Where coastal recession is the result of erosion, this is dependent on the lithology of the coast
o Mineral composition
o Rock classification
o Structure

Mineral composition

 Some minerals are more reactive than others

o This affects the rate of chemical weathering for example:
 Calcite is reactive and so easily chemically weathered
 Quartz is not reactive (inert) so chemical weathering is much slower

Rock classification

 Sedimentary rocks form as a result of compaction and cementation of sediment called lithification
 o Examples of sedimentary rocks include shales, sandstone, and limestone
o Sedimentary rocks:
 Erode and weather more rapidly than other types of rock
 Form in layers
 Have weak bedding planes
 They are clastic which means they are made of clasts (sediment particles)
 Are heavily jointed
 Often have many bedding planes and fractures
 Metamorphic rocks form when sedimentary and igneous rocks are altered through heat and pressure,
but do not melt in the process
o Examples of metamorphic rocks include slate and marble
o Metamorphic rocks:
 Have a crystalline structure
 Are often folded and faulted
 Are more resistant than sedimentary rock and less resistant than igneous rocks
 The crystals have a parallel arrangement (foliation) which means they are weaker than
igneous rocks
 Igneous rocks form when molten rock from the Earth's mantle cools and hardens
o Examples of igneous rocks include granite and basalt
o Igneous rocks:
 Erode and weather very slowly
 Can be categorised into two types:

 Intrusive igneous rock - forms within the ground, cools slowly, and has
large course crystals
 Extrusive igneous rock - forms on the Earth's surface, and cools quickly,
forming smaller crystals
 Has interlocking crystals
 Fewer joints and weaknesses than in other rocks

Differential Erosion
 The changing rates of erosion of different rock types is known as differential erosion
 More resistant rocks erode more slowly than less resistant rocks
 Differential erosion:
o Leads to complex cliff profiles
o Influences rates of recession
 The differences in geology contribute to landforms generated by processes on the coast
 On a discordant coastline differential erosion leads to headlands and bays
 Where there are layers of alternating rock types (strata) this creates a cliff profile where the more
resistant rock layers jut out due to the faster erosion of less resistant rock
 Permeability can also impact on the rate of erosion:
o Where permeable rock overlies impermeable rock, the permeable rock is vulnerable to mass
movement because the additional weight and lubrication the water creates leads to instability

Role of Vegetation
 Vegetation helps to stabilise coastlines because:
o The plant roots help to bind the soil/sand together reducing the impact of erosion
o Wind speeds are reduced by vegetation which decreases erosion and increases deposition
o Dead plant material adds organic matter to the sand and eventually leads to the formation of soil
 Vegetation is often sparse in coastal environments because:
o Exposure to salty/saline water
o Evaporation of water leads to increased salinity
o High wind speeds
 o Lack of shade
o Lack of nutrients
o Free-draining sediment means water is not retained
 Pioneer species in the coastal environment are the first plants to grow in the harsh coastal
environment, paving the way for other plants that are less able to survive the conditions
 Pioneer species:
o Help to stabilise the sediment
o Add organic matter
o Increase shade
o Trap more sediment

Sand dune succession

 Sand dune succession is an example of this process

 The succession in a sand environment is called a psammosere
o Sand dunes are a dynamic environment
 Sandy beaches usually have sand dunes at their rear, because of strong onshore winds transporting
dried, exposed sand
 Sand grains are trapped and deposited against any obstacle (rubbish, rocks, driftwood etc) and begin
to form embryo dunes
 Dune ridges move inland due to onshore winds pushing the seaward side to the leeward side
 It is the interaction of winds and vegetation that helps form sand dunes

Formation of a sand dune

 Windblown sand is deposited against an obstruction: Pebbles or driftwood

 As more sand particles are caught, the dunes grow in size, forming rows at right angles to the
prevailing wind
 Over time, the ridges of the dunes will be colonized and fixed by vegetation in a process
called succession
 The first plants (pioneer species) have to deal with:
o Salinity
o Lack of moisture as sand drains quickly (highly permeable)
o Wind
o Temporary submergence by wind-blown sand
o Rising sea levels

Coastal Dune Succession

 Embryo dunes
o Wind-blown dried sand is trapped by debris and deposition begins
o Pioneer species such as lyme grass and sea couch grass begin to colonise, these
are xerophytic plants which can tolerate high salt levels
o There is little soil content and high pH levels (alkaline)
o Embryo dunes are very fragile and reach a maximum height of 1 metre
 Fore dunes
o The embryo dunes bring some protection against the prevailing wind
o This allows other species of plant to grow such as marram grass
 o Marram grass begins to stabilise the dune with its root system which can grow to 3m to reach
the water table
o These plants add organic matter to the dunes making the dunes more hospitable for plants that
later grow
o A microclimate forms in the dune slack
o Maximum height is 5 metres
 Yellow dunes
o These are initially yellow but darken as organic material adds humus to the soil
o Marram grass still dominates the vegetation, but more delicate flowering plants and insects are
found in the dune slacks
o 20% of the dune is exposed, down from 80%
o Height does not exceed 8 metres
 Grey dunes
o Grey dunes are more stable, with less than 10% of exposed sand and have a good range of
biodiversity
o Soil acidity and water content increase as more humus is added
o Shrubs and bushes such as gorse begin to appear
o Height is between 8 - 10 metres
 Mature dunes
o As the name suggests, these are the oldest and most stable of the dunes
o They are found several hundred metres or more from the shoreline
o The soil can support a variety of flora and fauna such as oak trees and alders (climax
vegetation)
o This is the final stage in succession which is known as the climax community stage

Salt marsh succession

 A succession in salty water is called a halosere

 The plants which are adapted to these conditions are called halophytic plants
 Salt marshes often develop in estuarine areas because of:
o A steady supply of sediment from the river
o Shelter from strong waves
 In the estuarine environment fresh water and seawater mix

o This causes flocculation where clay particles stick together

o The clay particles sink causing sediment to build up
 The deposited sediment is colonised by algae which:
o Binds the sediment together
o Increases organic matter
o Traps more sediment
 The sediment builds up and is covered by the tide for less and less time
 This allows other plants such as cord grass to colonise
 The height of the sediment increases and is only covered by the highest tides
 More plants colonise such as sea lavender and sea thrift
 Saline levels decrease and other plants colonise
 This continues until a climax community is achieved

Exam Tip
It is not sufficient to know that vegetation stabilises coastal environments through the action of the
roots binding the soil and trapping more sediment. You need to understand the step by step process
of succession in a halosere and a psammosere. This will allow you to outline the different species
which colonise the areas at particular stages and explain how the stabilisation of the coastal
environment is a gradual process.

3.2 Coastal Landforms & Landscapes

3.2.1 Marine Erosion
Wave Types
 The main source of energy at the coast is the waves

o Waves are mainly generated by wind
o The friction between wind and the water surface which transfers energy from the wind to the
water
 Wind occurs because of the rotation of the earth and differences in atmospheric pressure when
different parcels of air are heated differently by the sun
 Various features of the wind will affect how much energy a wave has: fetch, duration and strength of
the wind.

Wave characteristics

 Wave height is the distance from the peak to the trough

 Wave length is the distance from crest to crest
 Wave frequency is the number of waves which pass a specific point over a given time

Types of wave

 There are two main types of wave, constructive and destructive

 Constructive and
destructive waves

Impact on beach morphology

 Beaches are formed from loose material

 Waves alter the morphology (form/shape) of the beach
 The morphology is also affected by the size and shape of the beach material
 The type of wave in an area can vary depending on the time of year or coastal management
o Beach profiles are steeper in summer when there are fewer destructive waves and gentler in
winter
o Storm berms may develop in winter when large destructive waves carry larger sediment further
up the beach than normal
o In winter beaches may also have a greater variation in pebble size as larger pebbles are
deposited by the destructive waves and smaller pebbles are removed
 o Offshore ridges/bars are formed due to material being eroded from the beach by destructive
waves and deposited offshore

Types of Wave and Their Characteristics

Wave Type Formation Wave Form Break Characteristics Beach

Long wavelength
Distant weather (up to 100m), low,
Strong swash, weak Build up the beach with a
Constructive systems, calm local spilling waves, low
backwash gentle beach profile
weather, short fetch energy, low wave
frequency
Short wavelength
(Approx. 20m), Beach is limited. Steeper
Local storms, strong Weak swash,
Destructive high, plunging beach profile is likely in
winds, high fetch strong backwash
waves, high energy, the short term
large wave height
Exam Tip
Ensure that you are familiar with the way in which waves are formed and their different
characteristics. It is also important that you are able to explain the differences in beach profile
throughout the year.
Erosion Processes
 Erosion leads to the formation of a range of landforms at the coast
 There are four types of erosion
o Abrasion (corrasion) - sediment and stones are picked up by the waves and wear away at the
cliff/headland
o Hydraulic action - this is the shear force of the waves forcing air at high pressure into cracks in
the cliff over time this weakens the rock and causes the joint to widen
o Corrosion - weak acids in seawater dissolve the rock particles
o Attrition - as rocks are moved around by the water they knock into each other gradually
becoming smaller and rounder

Factors affecting erosion

 The amount of erosion is influenced by a range of factors

o Wave type
o Wave size
o Lithology
 Wave type and size affects the seasonal changes in the amount of erosion
o Erosion tends to happen more during the winter due to a greater number of destructive waves
o The size and type of waves affects the amount of hydraulic action and abrasion
 Lithology influences the rate of erosion
o Weaknesses in rocks erode more quickly
o More resistant rocks erode more slowly

Coastal Landforms
Wave cut platforms
  At high-energy coastlines, hydraulic action and abrasion can cause the formation of wave-cut
platforms
o Powerful destructive waves attack the base of the cliff at high tide
o The hydraulic action and abrasion create a wave-cut notch which over time increases in size
o This is called undercutting
o Eventually, the overhang created by the undercutting collapses due to weathering and gravity
o The cliff retreats, leaving a wave cut platform that is exposed at low tide

A wave cut platform in Portugal Diagram to show the formation of a wave cut platform

 At a headland, where the rock is hard, erosion is slow and can lead to a variety of landforms
 Wave refraction concentrates wave energy onto the headland and can contribute to the formation of
caves, arches, stack and stumps
o Joints in the headland are susceptible to erosion by hydraulic action
o Over time the joints widen forming a cave that is enlarged by hydraulic action and abrasion
o Eventually, erosion cuts through the headland forming an arch
o The roof of the cave will eventually collapse due to gravity and the lack of support
o This leaves a stack that will over time be eroded by weathering, abrasion, and hydraulic action
to form a stump

Erosional features at Durdle Door on the Dorset Coast

Erosional landforms, cave, arch and stack

Exam Tip

When describing landform formation it is helpful to write down the formation as a sequence of steps.
This will make the process easier to remember when writing about it in the exam.
3.2.2 Sediment Transport & Deposition
Influences on Sediment Transport
 Material in the sea arrives from many sources:
o Eroded from cliffs
o Transported by longshore drift along the coastline
o Brought inland from offshore by constructive waves
o Carried to the coastline by a river

Once in the water, the material is moved in different ways:

o Traction
o Saltation
o Suspension
o Solution

Direction of wave attack

 The direction that the waves are coming from is the main factor affecting the direction of sediment
transport

Longshore (littoral) drift

 Longshore (littoral) drift is the main process of deposition and transportation along the coast
 Influenced by the prevailing wind, waves approach the beach at an angle
 As the waves break, the swash carries material up the beach at the same angle
 As the swash dies away, the backwash carries the material down the beach at right angles (90°)
 The process repeats, transporting material along the beach in a zig-zag movement
 Offshore currents can contribute to the movement of sediment along or up the beach

The process of longshore (littoral) drift

Current

 Current is the flow of water in a specific direction which transports sediment


o Surface currents are formed mainly by wind
o Deepwater currents are also called thermohaline circulation and are caused by density
differences
 Thermohaline circulation

 Tidal currents are associated with rising and falling tides, the greater the tidal range the greater the
strength of the currents
 Rip currents are underwater currents that occur near the coastline and transport sediment a few metres
out to sea

Tides

 The gravitational pull of the sun or moon causes tides

 The difference between high and low tide is known as the tidal range
 Larger tidal ranges produce stronger tidal currents and this can transport more sediment, particularly in
the areas around estuaries

 Deposition occurs when waves lose energy

 Waves lose energy when:
o The wind slows or changes direction
o The wave experiences friction, usually with the sea floor as the depth decreases
o When the coastline changes direction such as at an estuary or headland
 It is a gradual rather than immediate process
 High energy coastlines deposit large rocks and shingle but generally maintain enough energy to carry
smaller sediment particles
o This is why these types of coastlines tend to have rocky beaches, such as Brighton on the south
coast of England
 Low energy coastlines deposit smaller sediment due to low wave velocity, creating sandy beaches

Transportation & Deposition Landforms

 Depositional landforms occur at low energy coastlines when the waves do not have enough energy to
carry a large sediment load
 The most common depositional landform is a beach
o Beaches build up due to constructive waves
o They form in sheltered areas such as bays
o Beach formation is more common in summer when there are fewer destructive waves
 Beaches can be drift-aligned or swash-aligned
o Drift-aligned beaches form where longshore drift moves the sediment along the beach as
waves approach at an oblique angle
o This will often culminate in a spit where the coastline changes direction
o Swash-aligned beaches form where the energy is low
o The waves are more parallel to the shore in swash aligned environments so there is little
horizontal or lateral movement of sediment
 Spits are created due to longshore drift
 o A spit is an extended stretch of sand or shingle that extends out to sea from the shore
o Sediment is transported by waves along a coastline
o When the coastline changes direction the waves no longer have the energy to carry the
sediment and it is deposited
o The build-up of deposited sediment out to sea, often into an estuary, is called a spit
o The spit often has a curved end or hooks due to a secondary prevailing wind

Formation of spit

 As spits form across an estuary or around a headland there can also be the formation of tombolos and
bars where the sediment meets either an island or the opposite side of a headland respectively
o These are formed in the same way, through longshore drift and deposition
o Bars can also form offshore
o These are raised ridges of sediment away from the shore
o They form where sediment level is high, and the sea is shallow
 Bars that form as spits extend to join two headlands are also known as barrier beaches
o Water trapped behind the barrier beach is called a lagoon
 Sandbars can also form offshore due to the action of breaking waves

Depositional landforms

Lagoon

 A lagoon is where a small body of water is cut off from the sea
 A lagoon may form behind a bar or tombolo
 Lagoons do not last forever and may fill with sediment and form new land

Tombolo

 A tombolo is formed when a spit joins the mainland to an island

 Chesil Beach in Dorset is a tombolo, as the mainland is joined to the Isle of Portland

Barrier island

 Barrier islands form parallel to the coast

  The main difference between a bar and a barrier island is that a bar joins two headlands, whereas a
barrier island is open at one or both ends

Salt marshes and sand dunes

 Behind spits and barrier beaches the area is very sheltered, tidal currents and river currents meet
leading to lots of deposition


o This can lead to the formation of salt marshes
o Salt-tolerant species colonise these sheltered, flat muddy areas
o They are covered at high tide and exposed at low tide
 Deposition can also lead to the formation of sand dunes
o Sand dunes are formed in areas where there is a large quantity of sand, a large tidal range, and
onshore prevailing winds
o When sand is trapped towards the back of the beach due to an obstacle then dunes will develop
forming rows at right angles to the prevailing wind
o Pioneer plant species hold the sand together and stabilise the dune
o Other plants are then able to thrive in the environment which leads to the development of the
dune ecosystem, this is called plant succession

Exam Tip
The development of sand dunes and salt marshes is covered in detail earlier in the revision notes
during the section on the role of vegetation.
Sediment Cell Concept
 There are a range of sources of sediments in the coastal zone
 Most coastal sediment is brought to the shore by rivers
 Cliff erosion is also an important source of sediment at most coastlines
o Where coastlines are retreating by a few metres a year there is a large input of sediment to the
coastal zone
 Wind can also transport sediment to the shore and this can lead to the build-up of sand dunes
 In high latitude coastal areas glaciers break off into the sea and sediment that was trapped within the
ice is deposited at the coastal zone
 Sediment Cells are an important way of understanding the coastal system
o They can be considered a closed system as most sediment movement is contained within the
cell
o There are 11 sediment cells around the UK coastline
o Sediment cells can be divided into sub-cells where the inputs (sources), stores (sinks),
transfers, and outputs within the system can all be identified
The sediment cells of England and Wales

 The sediment budget is the balance between the inputs and outputs of sediment in the system
 Coastal systems should be in a state where the sediment budget is in a state of dynamic equilibrium
 However, human activity and natural changes like climate change can disturb the state of dynamic
equilibrium.

Exam Tip
In the exam you may be asked about the role of sediment transport in a coastal landscape. To
achieve full marks you need to ensure that you explain the formation of more than one landform
because the question is asking about the entire landscape rather than a specific landform.
3.2.3 Subaerial Processes
Weathering
 Weathering is the breakdown of rock in its place of origin (in situ)
 There are several types of weathering

Types of Weathering

Name Process

Mechanical When rocks break down, with

(Physical) no chemical changes
 Rock breaks down due to
Biological
organic activity
Rock breaks down due to a
Chemical chemical reaction - rock
changes

Mechanical (physical) weathering

Freeze-thaw/frost shattering/ice-wedging

 This happens in places where night temperatures often reach below freezing

Freeze-thaw/ frost shattering

Wetting and drying

 In warmer climates where the water does not freeze, a similar process called wetting and
drying occurs which works in the same way, just without the ice
o This often occurs in the inter-tidal zone; the area becomes exposed at low tide but covered at
high tide
o Rocks expand when they are wet and then contract when dry

Salt crystallisation

 Salt crystallisation occurs because salt crystals are bigger than water molecules
o This exerts pressure on the rock, causing the rock to break down

Salt crystallisation

Exfoliation/onion skin weathering

 This happens in hot climates

 When rocks warm up during the day the rock expands
 At night the rock cools and contracts
 Over time this causes very thin layers of rock to flake off
Biological weathering

Biological weathering

 Nesting birds and small burrowing animals like rabbits can also cause rock to breakdown through
biological weathering

Chemical weathering

 There are three types of chemical weathering:

o Carbonation - as rain is slightly acidic, it reacts with carbonate rocks such as limestone,
causing them to dissolve
o Oxidation - when iron minerals in the rock react with oxygen in the air to cause rust and
breakdown the rock
o Solution - when other salt minerals in the rock are dissolved

Mass Movement
 Mass movement is:

The downhill movement of material under the influence of gravity

 Throughflow and runoff caused by heavy rain can also make cliffs more unstable and increase the
likelihood of mass movement
 It includes landslides, slumping and rockfalls

 The type of movement is determined by:

o Angle of slope (the steeper the slope the faster the movement)
o Nature of regolith
o Amount and type of vegetation
o Water
o Type and structure of rock
o Human activity
o Climate

 Soil Creep:
o Common in humid climes with the movement of less than 1cm per year
o Soil expands when it freezes, gets wet or is heated up in the sun
o As the soil expands, it lifts at right angles to the slope
o When the soil shrinks, it falls straight back down
 o Soil creep takes a long time because the soil moves only a millimetre to a few centimetres at a
time

 Flow:
o Occurs on slopes between 5° and 15° with speeds between 1 to 15km per year
o Usually happens after the soil has become saturated with a flow of water across the surface
o Vegetation is flattened and carried away with the soil

 Slide:
o A movement of material 'en-masse' which remains together until hitting the bottom of a slope

 Fall:
o Slopes are steep and movement is rapid
o Caused by a number of reasons:
 Extreme weathering: Freeze-thaw action can loosen rocks that become unstable and
collapse
 Rainfall: Too much rain will soften the surface leading to the collapse of the slope
 Earthquakes can dislodge unstable rocks
 Hot weather can dry out soil causing it to shrink and allowing rocks to fall

 Slump:
o Usually found on weaker rock types (i.e. clay), that become saturated and heavy
o This is common at the coast and is also known as rotational slip
o It involves a large area of land moving down the slope in one piece
o Because of the way it slumps, it leaves behind a curved indented surface

Mass Movement Landforms

 Mass movement creates distinctive landforms including:
o Rotational scars
o Talus scree slopes
o Terraced cliff profiles

Rotational scar

 A rotational scar is:

o Curved
o Un-weathered
o Un-vegetated
o Forms as a result of rotational slumping
 The section that has detached is at the base of the cliff often with vegetation attached

Talus scree slope

  A talus scree slope is a fan-shaped mound of material
 Made of block-fall debris which has accumulated at the foot of a cliff
 Often, they have a concave profile

Terraced cliff profile

 The profile of the cliff is stepped

 This is the result of the lithology or fractures in the rock

Exam Tip
It is important to remember that subaerial processes and the processes which occur at the foot of the
cliff (erosion, transportation and deposition) work together to influence the recession rates.

3.3 Coastal Erosion & Sea Level Change

3.3.1 Sea Level Change
Eustatic & Isostatic Change
 Sea level can change as a result of isostatic and eustatic changes
o Eustatic change occurs when there is a greater volume of water in the ocean basins
o Isostatic change occurs when the height of the land changes relative to the water level
 Isostatic change happens more slowly than eustatic change

Eustatic change

 Eustatic change happens due to changes in the amount of ice, as a result of thermal expansion and
tectonics
o This change will be global
 Changing amounts of ice
o At the end of the last ice age 10,000 years ago global sea level rose rapidly due to melting
ice creating well-known waterways like the English Channel
o Sea levels may also decrease when ice forms, locking water away in the ice sheets and
glaciers
 Thermal expansion
o Thermal expansion occurs as water warms, warmer fluids expand to take up a greater volume
 Tectonics
o Magma rising to the surface lifts the crust and reduces the capacity of the oceans causing sea
levels to rise

Isostatic change

 Isostatic change is a localised change and may be due to:

o Post-glacial adjustment
 During a period of glaciation, extremely heavy icy sheets weigh land down
 When the glacial period ends and the ice melts the land will rebound to a higher level,
lowering the sea level in a process known as isostatic recovery or readjustment
o Accretion
 Within the sediment cell, there are areas of net deposition causing land to build up
o Subsidence
 Caused by the lowering of the water table or increased deposition weighing down the
sediment
o Tectonics
 The folding of the sedimentary rock
  Lava and ash from volcanoes increase the height of the land relative to the sea level
 The UK is still experiencing isostatic recovery from the end of the last ice age
o Land in the north in Scotland is still rebounding and rising by approximately 1.5mm a year
o Landsend in Cornwall is sinking by 1.1mm each year

Isostatic changes in the UK

Emergent and Submergent Coastlines

Emergent coastline features

 Landforms that exist because of a reduction in sea level are called emergent landforms
o This happens during isostatic recovery
 When land rebounds through isostatic recovery landforms which are the result of previous sea levels
are revealed including:

Raised beaches

 These are:
o Beaches which are above high tide level
o They are flat and covered by sand/pebbles
o Experience succession
 Raised beaches can be seen on the Scottish islands of Islay, Jura, Colonsay and Mull

Fossil cliff

 This is a:
o Steep slope at the back of a raised beach
o Wave-cut notches, caves, and arches may be evident

Submergent coastline features

 Landforms that exist because of a rise in sea level are called submergent landforms
o This happens when coastlines are flooded
 When coastal areas are flooded the lower course of river valleys can be flooded, creating the
submergent landform called a ria or drowned river valley which:
o Have a V-shaped cross-section
o Are an estuarine coastline
o Are the most common coastal landform
 Glacial valleys are also flooded as a result of eustatic change creating a fjord
 o Fjords are deeper than rias, particularly inland, as they were originally the flat-bottomed U-
shaped valley carved out by a powerful glacier
o They have a relatively straight profile
o May be deeper than the adjacent sea

Milford Sound - a fjord on South Island, New

Zealand

 A Dalmatian coast is a submergent landform

 The formation of a Dalmatian coast is explained in more detail in the revision note on the influence of
geology

Contemporary Sea Level

 The current levels of sea level stabilised around 3000 years ago
 Since the start of the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century global sea level has risen by about
235mm
o This is enough to overcome some coastal defences and create coastal flooding through storm
surges in some areas
o As the world warms there will be increase eustatic sea level change and thermal expansion in
ocean basins
 The IPCC predicts that sea levels by 2100 will be between 0.26 - 0.77m higher than they are now
o This could inundate many coastal cities and settlements
o It could also salinise aquifers in low lying regions and increase coastal erosion
 In many parts of the world, particularly low-lying cities and coastal settlements that are particularly
vulnerable climate change sea level planning has already started to take place
o These places are likely to see land values drop as formerly valuable land is increasingly eroded,
salinised or flooded by sea level rise
o More than 1 billion people live on high-risk coasts
o 75% of the world’s cities are coastal

Exam Tip
It is important to understand the role that eustatic and isostatic sea not only change coastal
morphology but also impact on coastal recession rates.

3.3.2 Threat of Coastal Retreat

Human Actions & Coastal Recession
 Rapid coastal recession is caused by physical factors (geological and marine) but can also be
influenced by human actions such as dredging, dams or coastal management
 These actions affect the processes within the coastal system including those in the sediment cell

Dredging
  The removal of sediment from rivers or the sea
 This impacts on the amount of sediment being deposited at the coast

Dams

 The construction of dams, traps river sediment behind the dam wall
o It is estimated 100 billion tonnes of sediment is stored behind the world's dams and this
increases by a billion tonnes each year
 Like dredging, this starves the coast of sediment
 It is estimated that dams on the river Ebro in Spain have led to a 93% reduction in sediment
downstream
 The reduction of sediment supplied to the coast due to dams and dredging leads to greater coastal
erosion because:
o Beaches decrease in size as they are not being supplied with sediment
o Destructive waves have more impact by increasing the rate of coastal erosion

Coastal management

 Coastal management can impact on the rate of recession because it affects the rate of erosion
 In some areas coastal defences such as in places like Hornsea sea walls and rip rap reduce the
amount of erosion
o This slows recession of the coast
 In other areas coastal management affects the movement of sediment
o Groynes at Hornsea on the Holderness coast reduce longshore drift
o This starves areas down the coast such as Mappleton of sediment also known as terminal
groyne syndrome
o As with dams and dredging the reduced supply of sediment decreases beach size and
increases the impact of destructive waves

Exam Tip
The advantages and disadvantages, as well as real life examples of coastal management are
covered in detail in section 3.4. You should ensure that you know how coastal management impacts
on coastal recession.
Sub-aerial Processes
 Weathering and mass movement are sub-aerial processes:
 The sub-aerial processes depend on the geology and work together to impact on the rate of erosion

Holderness coast

 The Holderness coast is predominately boulder clay

 This leads to particular sub-aerial processes:
o Wetting and drying
 At high tide the particles expand when covered with water, at low tide they dry out and
contract
 Repeated wetting and drying causes the clay to crumble
o Freeze-thaw
 During the winter months, water enters the fractures in the boulder clay
 At night this water freezes and expands - due to Arctic maritime air masses
 Repeated expansion and contraction, causes the cliff to be weakened
o Slumping
 The Holderness coast regularly experiences wet weather
 Weathering leaves cracks in the boulder clay
 Water enters these cracks, causing the clay to become heavier, and lubricated (slippery)
  This leads to a large area of land moving downslope in one piece - known as rotational
slip
 Along the Holderness coast, weathering and mass movement work together, causing the fastest rate of
coastal erosion in Europe
o The rate of erosion is approximately 1.8 metres a year

Changing Rates of Recession

 Rates of recession are not constant
 They are influenced by different factors both short and longer term which include:
o Wind direction/fetch
o Tides
o Seasons
o Weather systems
o Occurrence of storms

Wind direction and fetch

 Wind direction at the coast varies and may change every day
 The wind can be onshore or offshore
o Rates of erosion (and so recession) are greater when winds are blowing onshore
 In most areas, wind generally comes from one main direction - this is known as the prevailing wind
direction
 When prevailing wind direction is also the direction of the largest fetch this can lead to the build-up of
large destructive waves causing rapid erosion

Tides

 Tides are the result of the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun
 The difference between high tide and low tide is the tidal range
 High tide occurs twice a day

o Twice a month the Sun, Moon and Earth are in alignment increasing the gravitational pull; this
causes the highest tide known as a spring tide
 Rates of recession are greatest during high tide because this is the time when the water and waves
reach the backshore
 The waves also have more energy when they reach the backshore leading to more erosion

Seasons

 Rates of recession are likely to be greater in winter than in summer because, storm events that cause
destructive waves are more common in winter months

Weather systems

 The UK is located between warm tropical air and cold polar air
 It experiences periods of both high pressure (anticyclones) and low pressure (depressions)
o During anticyclones there are gentle winds and low waves, so rates of recession are low
o During depressions the winds are much stronger, leading to high waves and greater rates of
recession

Storms
  Storms lead to high energy, destructive waves
 These waves increase the rate of erosion and therefore, coastal recession
o In Cornwall, over a two-week period, 1,350 cubic metres of cliff face was eroded along a 300-
metre stretch of coastline, as a result of the 2013/14 storms

3.3.3 Coastal Flooding

Factors Increasing Flood Risk
 Local factors increase flood risk on some low-lying and estuarine coasts due to:
o Height of land
o Degree of subsidence
o Vegetation removal
 Global sea level rise further increases risk
 Densely populated coastal areas also increase the number of people at risk
 Low-lying coastal areas are often densely populated due to:
o Attractive scenery and beaches
o Deltas are fertile and ideal for agriculture
o Suitable for ports and trade
 Globally, almost 300 million people live in coastal areas below 2m
 Of the 10 world's largest cities, 8 are in coastal areas
 Countries and regions which are particularly low-lying include:
o Bangladesh - over 10% of the land is 1m or less above sea level
o Maldives - has an average height of 2m above sea level with highest point being 2.4m
o Netherlands - 27% of the country is below sea level and protected by sea defences

Height of land

 Low lying areas are more vulnerable to rising sea levels and storm surges
 Storm surges and spring tides leads to water flooding areas of the back-shore and beyond

Degree of subsidence

 Coastal areas are vulnerable to subsidence particularly deltas and land reclaimed from the sea
o Clearing land for agriculture and ground water abstraction, increases the risk of subsidence
o Building of settlements, along with the weight of the buildings, increases the risk of subsidence
 When subsidence occurs, the land is then lower and more vulnerable to coastal flooding

Vegetation removal

 The removal of vegetation, including salt marshes and mangroves, increases coastal flood risk
 It is estimated that 50% of salt marshes and 35% of mangroves have been lost since the 1950s due to:
o Reclamation for development - housing and transport
o Coastal management such as sea walls
o Tourism, to create beaches with open views to the sea
o Shrimp farming
 Where vegetation exists, it significantly impacts wave height, which reduces the risk of flooding:
o In the UK, salt marshes are estimated to reduce wave height by up to 80%
o 100m of mangroves is estimated to reduce wave height by between 13-66%
 The vegetation:
o Traps sediment, which helps to increase the land height
o Reduces the impact of waves and erosion because, it absorbs the wave energy
 Storm Surges
 Storm surge events can lead to severe coastal flooding with dramatic short-term impacts
 Storm surges are caused by:
o Depressions (low pressure) leading to storm events
o Tropical cyclones
 Warmer ocean temperatures combined with higher sea levels are predicted to make storms and
tropical cyclones more frequent and more severe

Depressions

 A depression is an area of low pressure

o The low-pressure area forms due to air rising from the surface
o As it rises, it cools, condenses and forms clouds, bringing rain
o In the northern hemisphere, depressions move:
 West to east
 In an anticlockwise direction
o Due to the low-pressure, sea levels are higher - for every 10mb decrease in pressure, the sea
level is 10cm higher
o This is called the inverse barometer effect
o Storms are deep, active low-pressure areas, which bring strong winds and heavy rain
 In the UK, when the storm is likely to have a significant impact on people and the
environment, it becomes a named storm

Tropical cyclones

 A tropical cyclone is an area of very low air pressure

 As in a depression, it is formed by warm rising from the ocean surface, forming towering cumulonimbus
clouds, which rotate around a central eye
 Tropical cyclones form in the zone between 5-30° north and south of the equator, in areas where sea
temperatures are 27°C or above
 A tropical cyclone brings heavy rain and strong winds
 When wind speeds reach 39mph it is categorised as a tropical storm, when they reach 74mph it is a
tropical cyclone

Storm surges

 A storm surge is a rise in the sea level as a result of a storm or tropical cyclone and affect
approximately 1.5 million people a year with a range of short-term impacts including:
o Deaths and injuries
o Homes destroyed leading to homelessness
o Increase in water borne diseases
o Destruction of infrastructure
o Businesses destroyed leading to loss of employment and decrease in GDP
o Loss of power
o Loss of agricultural land
o Destruction of crops and livestock

Climate Change & Flood Risk

Climate change & flood risk

 Climate change may increase coastal flood risk

  The two main factors which increase the flood risk are:
o Global sea level rise due to warming oceans and melting ice sheets and glaciers
o Increased frequency and magnitude of storms
 The pace and magnitude of this increased risk are uncertain

Global sea level rise

 According to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) global sea levels have
risen about 21-24cm since 1880
 The rate of sea level rise is accelerating:
o Throughout the 1900s, the rate averaged 1.4mm a year
o Since 2006, the rate has averaged 3.6mm a year

Global sea level rise 1993-2022

 In some areas, when combined with subsidence, this has led to a rise as high as 15-20cm since the
start of satellite records
 The IPCC predicts a rise of between 26-77cm by 2100
o A 50cm sea level rise would:
 Impact 800 million people around the world
 In the UK, 200km of coastal flood defences would be vulnerable; leaving £120 billion
worth of infrastructure and resources at risk of flooding
 Coastal flooding events would become more frequent

Increased storm magnitude and frequency

 The IPCC report (2013) states that:

o The frequency and intensity of the strongest tropical cyclones have increased since the 1970s
o It is likely that the frequency of tropical cyclones will decrease or remain unchanged
o It is likely that the intensity of tropical cyclones will increase with higher maximum wind speeds
and precipitation
 At the current time, there are no studies which have linked an increase in storm frequency and intensity
in the UK, to climate change
 The UK is affected by extra-tropical storms - a type of storm system forming in the mid-latitudes, and
some studies suggest that climate change may affect the paths of these storms, making parts of the UK
more vulnerable to high winds and rain

Impact on flood risk

 The increase in sea levels, intensity of tropical storms and changing weather patterns caused by
climate change, all have the potential to increase the risk of coastal flooding
 The magnitude and timing of these changes is uncertain, as the extent of climate change and the
impacts it will have, are, at present, uncertain
Exam Tip
Questions in the exam which relate to flood risk usually require an evaluation. This evaluation should
outline the importance of a variety of risk factors. For example, if the question asks you to evaluate
whether rising sea levels are mainly responsible for increased flood risk the highest marks will be
awarded to students who also consider the role of other factors such as the removal of vegetation. It
is also important to have a clear conclusion regarding how important the different factors are in
particular locations.
3.4 coastal management
3.4.1 Consequences of Coastal Recession & Flooding
Economic & Social Losses
 Coastal flooding leads to both economic and social losses

Economic Cost Social Cost

Increasing numbers of properties

Cost of land and
Housing Relocation will be at risk forcing people to
repairing/rebuilding homes
relocate their homes
Income for farmers lost due to
Destruction and damage to loss of livestock and flooding of
Businesses businesses leads to the loss of Loss of crops
$billions in profits but also in the livelihood
cost of rebuilding Loss of jobs when businesses are
affected

Loss of productive land can lead to Large areas of land with amenity
Agricultural land food shortages and loss of income Amenity value value are coastal and at risk from
from crop and livestock sales coastal flooding

Infrastructure - Roads, power stations, power

roads, power, lines, water and energy are all
water, costly to rebuild and repair after
communication flooding

 These losses can be significant particularly in densely populated coastal areas

 This often leads to much higher spending on coastal defences in the densely populated areas due to
the cost-benefit analysis calculation
 This can lead to conflict between different stakeholders

Economic & Social Losses in Developed & Developing Countries

 The economic and social losses countries experience, varies
 The extent of losses often depends on whether a country is developed or developing
 Developed countries tend to face higher economic losses because the homes, businesses and
infrastructure are of higher value, due to the quality of materials and technology used
  Developing countries losses, tend to be of a greater magnitude in terms of deaths, injuries and loss of
buildings, due to lower wealth
 This leads to:
o Less preparation and planning
o Emergency services are not as well trained
o A lack of public education regarding what to do to protect themselves and their homes
o Poor building quality

Economic and social losses in developed countries - UK

Economic Social

An acre of residential land in the UK has a value Up to 200,000 properties will be at risk by 2050
between £300,000 (north) to £1 million (south) in the UK

Income for farmers lost due to loss of livestock

Average damages in the UK from coastal and flooding of crops
flooding is £120 million a year
Loss of jobs when businesses are affected

In 2007 in the UK, it was estimated that £48

An acre of farmland costs between £12,000 -
billion worth of land with amenity value was at
£50,000
risk from coastal flooding before 2050

35 power stations, 22 clean water facilities and

91 sewage treatment works in the UK have been
identified as at risk from coastal flooding

 On the 6th December 2013 Storm 'Xavier' developed off the south-east coast of Greenland
 As the storm moved south-east, it generated a 2m storm surge in the North Sea
 It combined with the spring tide and northerly wind, leading to the worst coastal flooding in the UK since
1953
 There were at least 50 breaches of natural and human built defences around the UK coastline, with the
flooding affecting:
o 1,400 homes and 1,000 businesses
o 3,200 hectares of farmland
o 10,000 people were evacuated
o Insured losses totalled between
 It is estimated that 800,000 homes and businesses were protected by flood defences during the event

Economic and social losses in developing countries - Bangladesh

 Bangladesh is particularly vulnerable to coastal flooding because:

o More than 50% of the land is less than 8 meters above sea level
o The coastline is over 600km long
o Tropical cyclones and storms are common
 In 2007 Bangladesh was hit by Cyclone Sidr
 The accompanying storm surge reached 6m high in some areas
 The social and economic losses were significant and included:
o Over 3,400 deaths
o Over 55,000 injuries
o Total economic losses were estimated to be US$2.31 billion
o Roads, bridges and other infrastructure suffered significant damage
Philippines

 The Philippines is classified as having a high coastal flood hazard

 Reasons include:
o The Philippines see an average of 9 tropical cyclones making landfall each year
o Because of increased development in coastal areas, high levels of water abstraction has led to
subsidence, meaning coastal areas are sinking and are therefore, more vulnerable to sea level
rise and storm surges
o Sea level rise ranges from 5.7-7.0 mm a year
 This is three times the global average in some areas
 In November 2013, Super Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda), made landfall
 The accompanying storm surge reached 5-6m
 The economic and social impacts were devastating and included;
o US$13 billion economic losses
o 1.1 million homes destroyed
o 4 million people displaced
o 6201 deaths
o 28,626 injuries
o 175,000 acres of farmland worth US$85 million was damaged
o 130,00 tonnes of rice and between 50,000 - 120,000 tonnes of sugar were lost

Climate Change & Environmental Refugees

 Due to the increased risk of coastal flooding around the world climate change may
create environmental refugees in coastal areas
o An environmental refugee is a person forced to move by environmental changes - in this case
coastal flooding
 A study in 2011 suggested that 187 million people could be displaced by sea level rise by 2100
 More recent studies suggest that has increased to 630 million people
 The true numbers are difficult to quantify because of the unknown magnitude and timing of any sea
level rise
 It is the small island nations, that are most at risk from sea level rise
 Low-lying island nations such as Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands and the Maldives are particularly
vulnerable:
o In Papua New Guinea and the Maldives between 50-80% of the land is less than 1m above sea
level
o In some areas such as the Seychelles, most of the infrastructure and population (80%) are
located on the coast
 The issues they face include:
o Loss of land and a lack of money for coastal defences
o Coral reef bleaching which reduces the natural defences against storm surges
o Salt water incursion which reduces the freshwater supply
o Loss of tourism
o Limited space for relocation - in the Maldives they are building an artificial island (Hulhumale) for
relocating some of the population
 Environmental refugees will be a global problem in all countries regardless of levels of development
 In the UK in 2014, residents of the village of Fairbourne in Wales were informed by the local council
that flood defences would not be maintained indefinitely
o From 2054 the village will no longer be habitable and the council plans to 'decommission' the
village leaving the 700 residents being described in the media as environmental refugees
 In Bangladesh alone it is estimated that loss of land due to sea level rise and increased coastal erosion
could lead to 20 million environmental refugees
3.4.2 Coastal Management Strategies
Hard Engineering
 Coastal management is essential to build resilience in coastal communities around the world
o Climate change, increase tropical storm intensity, more frequent storm surges and sea level
change are increasing the rates of coastal erosion and flooding
o These hazards need to be adapted to, as they are already happening in many places
 Preventing coastal erosion through hard engineering is generally effective but it is very expensive
o Hard engineering can also often be unsightly
 There are lots of different hard engineering strategies, to decide which is most appropriate in a
particular area a cost benefit analysis must be carried out
o Some areas are left with no protection because the costs are deemed to outweigh the benefits

Structure How it works Advantages Disadvantages

 Causes sediment
 Not as expensive
starvation further along
as other hard
the coast
Structures built perpendicular (at right engineering
 Can be unattractive
angles) to the shore. Sediment is structures
 Need lots of
Groynes trapped as it is transported by longshore  Builds up the
maintenance to ensure
drift. The beach builds up which beach which
sediment isn’t getting
absorbs wave energy improves tourist
through any holes or
potential
cracks

 Highly effective  Very expensive to build

 Can have tourism and maintain - £6000
Walls with a curved or stepped surface benefits as per metre
Sea Walls walkways are  Are ugly and intrusive to
that absorb and reflect wave energy
created the landscape

 Cheaper than sea  Dangerous when people

Large concrete or granite boulders at
walls are on them
the foot of a cliff. The spaces in
Rip Rap/  Used for  Rocks from elsewhere
between the boulders cause waves to
Rock armour recreation such as are intrusive to local
bounce between many surfaces, fishing geology
reducing the energy of the wave
 Cost effective  Need lots of
compared to other maintenance
A sloped or ramp like structure that
Revetments hard engineering  Unnatural looking
breaks up wave energy strategies  Slopes are dangerous

 Effective
Rock barrier a little out to sea from the  Away from the
 Can create a navigation
Offshore shoreline. This breaks the waves and beach so does not
barrier in harbour areas
Breakwater dissipates their energy before they disrupt tourist
reach the coast. potential

Soft Engineering
 Soft engineering works with natural processes and material
  Soft engineering methods can be an integral part of the management strategy, in order to adapt to sea
level change as well as coastal erosion, through developments such as salt marshes

Method How it works Advantages Disadvantages

 Material is constantly
 Looks very
subject to erosion and
natural
longshore drift so lots of
 Bigger beaches
Beach Adding sand or shingle to a beach to maintenance and
are good for
nourishment/ widen it - this creates more surface monitoring is needed
tourism
replenishment area to absorb wave energy  Dredging the seabed can
 Relatively
have impacts of local
inexpensive
ecosystems

 Can look unnatural as

the cliff is unnaturally
Reducing the angle of the cliff to flatter
Cliff Regrading stabilise the slope. Drainage of water  Cost effective  This effectively creating
and Drainage also stabilises the cliff against mass cliff retreat
movement  Dried out cliffs can
collapse

 Cheap and  People walk on the

sustainable dunes and damage
Planting species like Marram grass so  Creates habitats them
Dune that the roots bind the dunes. The for wildlife  Planting is time
stabilisation dunes absorb wave energy and protect  Maintains a consuming and it takes
the land behind. natural time for plant species to
environment become established

This is a form of do-nothing or

 A cheap option
managed retreat. Land is allowed to
 Creates  Agricultural land is lost
be flooded by the sea and then left to
important and which creates a need for
Marsh Creation become a salt marsh. This absorbs unique wildlife compensation
wave energy and also creates a buffer habitats
to rising sea level and projects higher
value land.
Sustainable Management
 Sustainable management of the coastal zone is wider than preventing erosion
 It involves a range of strategies including:
o Mitigation of flood and erosion risk using a range of techniques
o Adaptation to erosion and flood risk
o Education of local communities
o Supporting livelihoods dependent on the coastal zone such as fishing
o Monitoring of coastal changes
 Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is based on the idea of sustainable coastal management
 As well as targeting all the areas listed it also seeks to resolve conflicts which may occur
 Conflicts occur as a result of sustainable management because:
o Farmers may lose productive land due to managed retreat or do-nothing policies because their
land has less value than that in towns
o People may lose their homes and have to relocate in areas where the cost-benefit
analysis decides the areas cannot be protected
Exam Tip
In the exam you will be expected to know a range of advantages and disadvantages for the different
types of coastal management. You will also be expected to be able to give examples of these
advantages and disadvantages in real life locations. This demonstrates to the examiner that you are
able to apply your knowledge and understanding.
3.4.3 Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Littoral Cells & Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)

 The shoreline management plans in the UK are a form of ICZM

o Whole sections of the coast are managed together
o They recognise that the sediment (littoral) cells interact with each other and that changes in
one part of the coast impact on other areas - such as the placement of groynes
causing terminal groyne syndrome

 ICZM involves a range of stakeholders involved in the use and management of the coast and aims to:
o Create sustainable economic and social activities
o Protect the coastal environment
o Manage flood and coastal erosion risk
o Resolve any conflicts that may occur

ICZM in Semarang, Indonesia

 In Semarang, Indonesia ICZM has been implemented to reduce the risk of:
o Coastal flooding
o Subsidence
o Increased salinity
 It is expected that these will worsen as a result of sea level rise and development in the area
 Local population are dependent on fishing and are reluctant to move
 Expansion of residential and industrial developments in the area has increased subsidence as a result
of increased water abstraction

ICZM Strategies in Semarang

Type of measure Examples

 Embankments
 Pumping stations
Structural  Drainage systems
 Land reclamation

 Education
Non-structural  Coastal planning

 Conservation of mangrove
ecosystems
Ecosystem
 Replanting mangrove ecosystems
  The stakeholders include:
o National and local government
o Local community
o NGOs

Shoreline Management Decisions

 The apparent negative impacts of many coastal management plans have created a need for a more
sustainable and integrated approach
o This means that different sections of the coastline are seen to function together rather than
separated such as with more traditional methods like sea walls or groynes

Shoreline management plans - UK

 Sustainable approaches require:

o Management of natural resources at the coast like water and farmland;
o Monitoring of any changes to inform new strategies and;
o Education and inclusion of the local communities to support the strategies
 In a Shoreline Management Plan (SMP), each of the 11 sediment cells in the UK have had a detailed
document written to identify the natural processes, activities and risks in the area
 DEFRA (the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) makes recommendations for all
sections of the coastline
 They make recommendations from the four options:
o Hold the line: maintaining the position of the coastline using mostly hard engineering methods
o Advance the line: extending the coastline out to sea by building up the beach and land
reclamation
o Managed retreat: deliberate flooding of particular areas to manage coastal retreat
o Do nothing: letting nature take its course
 When making these recommendations DEFRA has to consider the value of the land and assets as well
as technical viability of management strategies
 This can lead to local conflict because the SMP protects some areas and not others
o In Skipsea on the Holderness coastal erosion rates since 1989 have been 1.4m per year on
average
o People in Skipsea feel that nothing has been done to protect their village with a population of
700 whilst money has been spent on coastal defences in neighbouring towns and villages
o The decisions were made as a result of cost-benefit analysis

Cost-benefit analysis

 This is used to decide the recommendations for each section of coastline

o Costs are forecast based on known tangible costs of coastal defences such as how much
100m of sea wall will cost to build and maintain, and intangible costs such as visual impact of
the sea wall
o The costs are then weighed up against the benefits for the environment and population
 Where benefits outweigh costs, such as the sea wall at Bridlington protecting population of over 36,000
and buildings from coastal flooding, then the project is likely to go ahead
 Where the costs outweigh the benefits, such as protecting the 24 houses at Skipsea from coastal
erosion and flooding, a scheme is unlikely to be put in place

Exam Tip
In the exam you may be required to explain the role of economic factors in determining coastal
management. You should ensure that as well as cost-benefit analysis you include information about
the roie of social and environmental factors.
3.4.4 Coastal Management Conflicts
Conflicts in Coastal Management
 Coastal management affects the lives of the 630 million people who live in coastal areas at risk of
coastal flooding
 The impact of coastal management creates winners and losers

Outcomes of Coastal Management

Winners Losers

 Property and businesses are  People have to relocate

protected  Homes and businesses are lost
 The environment is conserved  Farmland is lost
 Farmland is protected  Habitats are destroyed

 The impacts are created by policy decisions made by local and national governments
 There are many stakeholders involved in these conflicts including:
o Homeowners
o Local authorities
o Environmental pressure groups
 The impact on people can also vary depending on the level of development of a country

Developed countries - UK
 Happisburgh, in North Norfolk, is a village with a population of 1400
 The cliffs are made of easily eroded glacial till
 Records show that over 250m of land were eroded between 1600-1850
 Over the last 20 years 36 homes, 3 businesses, the beach car park and toilets have been lost to
coastal erosion
 Coastal defences were built at Happisburgh after the floods of 1953, but these are now in need of
repair/rebuilding
o In 1996 the last revetments were damaged by storms or lost to the sea
o In 2002 and 2007 rock armour was added to the beach and again in 2015 as temporary coastal
defence measures
 Cost-benefit analysis was carried out and in 2004, and the revised Shoreline Management
Plan changed the policy of coastal defence, to 'no active intervention'
 The losers in this example are the residents and business owners in Happisburgh
 The Coastal Concern Action Group (CCAG) continues to campaign and raise funds for residents
 In 2009 the North Norfolk District Council (NNDC) were awarded £3 million to spend on helping
communities adjust to the changing coastline, including the purchase of properties on Beach Road so
that the people could move and the houses demolished

Developing countries - Chittagong, Bangladesh

 Chittagong in Bangladesh is the second largest city in Bangladesh

 It has a population of almost 8.5 million people
 The flood hazard is classified as high
 In July 2012, high tidal water affected over 10% of the sub districts and 15 districts
o The flood affected 1.3 million people
 People, in some areas, are now used to their homes and businesses being flooded twice a day by
high tides
 Some estimates suggest the area may experience a sea level rise of 30cm over the next 20 years
 In 2019, the government approved a flood control project including:
 o A 2.7km retaining wall
o An 19km flood wall
o 69 pumps
o Improved drainage
 This may cause conflict because, there will be winners and losers:
o People may be required to leave their homes
o Businesses will be more protected

Exam Tip
The sustainable management of coastlines often leads to conflicts regarding management. You need
to consider why the different stakeholders may not agree with sustainable management even though
it is better for the long term environment.
4. Globalisation
4.1 Causes of Globalisation
4.1.1 Globalisation
 Globalisation is the increasing connectedness of countries around the world through movement of
goods, services, capital and ideas across borders
 People and countries have become more connected in four main ways

 Transnational Corporations (TNCs) – Companies who operate in many countries producing and
selling goods and services
 Glocalisation – Changing the design of products to meet local tastes or laws
 Trading blocs – A group of countries and/or organisations that work together for trading purposes

Global Connections

 The process of how global connections are made have changed over time
 Past global connections were made through trade, Colonialism and co-operation between countries
through international organisations
 Modern globalisation
o Lengthening of connections between people and places, with products obtained from further
away than ever before
o Deepening of connections with the feeling of being deeply connected to other people and
places in every aspect of life
o Faster speed of connections, with the ability to communicate with others in real time using new
technologies or travelling quickly between continents

Global Flows & Interdependence

 The world consists of networks connecting countries together

 These connections between countries represent different types of network flow
 Flows of movement
 o Capital – money flows through the world’s stock markets
o Commodities – valuable raw materials (e.g., fossil fuels, food and minerals) are traded
o Information – the internet allows real-time communication between countries globally
o Migrants – the permanent movement of people still face challenges due to border controls and
immigration laws
o Tourists – Budget airlines have made it possible for people to travel further more easily
 These global flows have increased the interconnectedness of places which has increased
the interdependence of places

Exam Tip
Remember to use relevant geographical terminology in your answers because it will help to show the
examiner that you have a clear understanding of the topic for example interdependence and
Transnational Corporations.
Developments in Transport & Trade
Transport & Trade Developments

 During the 19th and 20th century developments in trade and transport were interdependent
o Improvements in transport has led to an increase in the amount and value of trade
o As countries make a profit through trade, they will invest in developing transport technologies in
the hope of increasing their profits
 There have been many important developments in transport in the 19th and 20th century
o Steam power – steam ships and trains moved goods and armies along trade routes quickly in
the 1800s
o Railways – railway networks expanded globally in the 1800s and remains important for
governments globally e.g., the High Speed 2 Railway linking London to northern England which
will reduce some journey times by a half
o Jet aircraft – intercontinental jet aircraft made international travel easier with the arrival of the
intercontinental Boeing 747 in the 1960s
o Container shipping – vital to the global economy since the 1950s (today, the largest container
ships carry 24,000 containers)

A Shrinking World

 The Shrinking World effect is when places around the world take less time to reach, due to
developments in technology, and therefore start to feel closer
 This change in perceptions can also be referred to as time-space compression

Time space compression

 Developments in ICT & Global Communication
Development in ICT & Global Communication

 Technology is used in a range of different ways, all contributing to globalisation

o Telephone and the telegraph – vital for communicating long distances in real time no longer
needing to wait days, weeks, months for responses
o Broadband and fibre optics – large amounts of data (e.g., in emails, tweets) are carried
across the ocean floor by fibre optic cables in real time reducing the cost of communication
o GIS and GPS – satellites broadcast position and time data continuously all over the world so
deliveries can be tracked in real time
o The internet, social networks and Skype – connects people and places across the world in
real time which speeds up business between countries
o Mobile phones – countries that had limited communication infrastructure have skipped the
telephone and moved straight to the mobile phone enabling them to connect with other places
more effectively

4.1.2 Political & Economic Decision Making

International Political & Economic Organisations
Politics & Economics of Globalisation

 Globalisation can be viewed as a threat so governments sometimes try to protect themselves from
global flows such as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) from TNCs
 International Organisations work with countries to encourage them to consider the idea of a global
economy differently

The Role of International Organisations in Globalisation

World Trade Organisation International Monetary Fund

World Bank
(WTO) (IMF)
1995 - Took over from the Transfer loans from HICs to Lends money on a
General Agreement on Tariffs countries that have applied for global scale
and Trade help
Gives direct grants to
Role in Promotes trade liberalisation Recipients of the loan must agree developing countries
Globalisation e.g., for manufactured goods to run free market economies so
TNCs can locate there easily
Failed to stop the USA and Strict conditions on governments Distributed US$65
EU from subsidising their borrowing which may result in the billion in loans and
own food producers which governments reducing spending on grants
hinders farmers in LDCs healthcare, education etc.…
Imposes strict
conditions on loans and
Evaluation of grants
their Role
Controversially, all
World Bank presidents
have been US citizens
Worked example
Explain one reason why free trade policies are promoted by international economic organisations.
[4 marks]

 1 mark is awarded for one reason why free trade policies are promoted
 The remaining 3 marks will be awarded for your explanation

Answer:

 One mark can be awarded for any of the following reasons:

o The World Trade Organisation (WTO) promote free trade policies so global trade can operate
as easily as possible [1]
o The WTO aims to reduce trade barriers [1]
o Trade blocs such as the EU or ASEAN promote free trade so that no taxes or tariffs are used
when trading goods and services [1]
 To achieve the full 4 marks you will need to explain one of these points in more detail
 Here is an example of how to explain one of these points:
o The World Trade Organisation (WTO) promote free trade policies so global trade can operate
as easily as possible [1] by reducing taxes or tariffs [1] which helps remove costs from
businesses [1] which enables global production and the trading of goods or services [1]

Exam Tip
Your paper 3 is synoptic which means it will be based on a geographical issue with strong
connections to topics you have studied and will link to three themes:

 Players
 Attitudes and actions
 Futures and uncertainties

It is important you are aware of the different players and their role in globalisation, for example,
organisations such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund (IMF)
National Governments
National Governments Role

 National governments play a vital role in globalisation when they implement strategies to encourage the
growth of TNCs, for example:
o Free trade blocs
o Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
o Tax Incentives
o Free-market liberalisation
o Privatisation
o Business start-ups

Free Trade Blocs

 Free Trade Blocs allow governments to trade freely with neighbouring countries and allies which
brings many benefits:
o Companies grow as they gain access to more customers
o A bigger market increases demand of products and services
o Smaller companies can merge to form TNCs reducing production costs
 Free Trade Blocs

Government Policies

 The growth of TNCs can be encouraged through a range of government policies:

o Free-market liberalisation – lifting restrictions for companies and banks reducing the costs for
TNCs to locate and operate in these countries
o Privatisation – allowing companies to take over important national services e.g., railway and
energy supply to reduce government spending. This is attractive to TNCs as they would gain a
stake in vital services
o Encouraging business start-ups – aims to increase profits for businesses by using strategies
such as low business taxes and changes in the law, for example the UK became more attractive
to TNCs when Sunday trading was introduced in 1994

Worked example
Identify the policy used by national governments which contributes to globalisation
[1 mark]
A. Internet censorship

B. Increasing tariffs

C. Restricting migration

D. Privatisation of industries

Answer:
D Privatisation of industries – this is correct because this was used by the UK government under
Margaret Thatcher

Incorrect Answers:

Internet censorship, increasing tariffs and restricting migration are all incorrect because they limit
globalisation
Exam Tip
Remember that national governments play an important role in globalisation not just Transnational
Corporations (TNCs). You should have some specific examples of strategies that governments have
put in place to encourage globalisation ready to use in your exam
Special Economic Zones & Subsidies
The Spread of Globalisation
  Changing attitudes in regions outside of Europe has contributed to the increase of globalisation in
recent decades
 There are three approaches that have played a vital role:
o Special Economic Zones (SEZs) – the industrial areas, near the coast, where favourable
conditions have been created to attract TNCs
o Government subsidies - an incentive for TNCs to locate in these countries as costs will be
reduced
o Changing attitudes to FDI – countries working to attract FDI to increase their global presence,
for example Saudi Arabia changed its official weekend to Friday-Saturday to be more in line with
other countries to be able to participate in the global market
 China’s ‘Open Door Policy’
o Introduced in 1978 to begin opening up to FDI whilst remaining under a one-party rule
o Rapid urbanisation occurred with over 300 million people leaving rural areas which lead to an
increase in low-wage factories in urban areas
o SEZs were created which attracted TNCs, leading to rapid economic growth
o China is the world’s largest economy but is still not entirely open to global flows

China’s Special Economic Zones

4.1.3 Scale of Globalisation

Variation in Globalisation
Uneven globalisation

 Globalisation has affected places differently, which is due to a variety of reasons, such as:
o Variations in poverty
o Physical factors such as resource availability and accessibility
o Government policies and attitudes for and against globalisation

Measuring globalisation

 Uneven levels of globalisation can be measured using a range of indicators and indices, which include:
o KOF Index (The Swiss Institute for Business Cycle Research) produces an annual Index of
Globalisation
 Measures the social, economic and political aspects of globalisation
 Uses a wide range of data, such as participation in UN Peace-keeping missions to TV
ownership
 Countries are scored out of 100 and the higher the number, the more globalised the
country is
o AT Kearney World Cities Index
  It aims to look at how countries cope with population growth and a shrinking world
 Ranks cities according to their ‘business activity’, ‘cultural experience’ and ‘political
engagement’
 Data for this includes the number of TNC headquarters, museums and foreign
embassies
o Indicators include trade bloc membership, levels of migration or FDI

Exam Tip
Be careful not to confuse globalisation with development. They are not the same, so make sure you
understand the difference.

Globalisation is the increasing connectedness of countries around the world through movement of
goods, services, capital and ideas across borders

Development is progress a country makes to improving the standard of living for its population
Transnational Corporations (TNCs)
Uneven growth of Transnational Corporations (TNCs)

 TNCs are vital to globalisation and help connect countries across the world
 However, some countries have benefitted far more than others from FDI from TNCs due to:
o Unsuitability of some sites for production of goods e.g., accessibility, natural resources
o Not enough market potential to attract large retailers due to low incomes or culture

TNCs and glocalisation

 TNCs try to build their global businesses through:

o Offshoring: moving parts of their production process, such as factories or offices, to other
countries to reduce costs (e.g. labour)
o Outsourcing: contracting with a different company to produce goods and services they need
o Global production networks: setting up chains of connected suppliers of parts and materials
that contribute to the manufacturing or assembly of consumer goods
 In an attempt to increase profits, many TNCs have adapted their products to suit local tastes,
religion and culture, local interests, laws and lack of natural resources— this process
called glocalisation

Worked example

Study Figure 1a. Identify which one of the following describes this investment by a TNC
[1 mark]
A. Fair Trade

B. Development of a new market

C. Deindustrialisation

D. Outsourcing for cheaper labour

Answer:
B Development of a new market

Incorrect answers:
A. Fair Trade: – a food outlet is not a Fair Trade investment

C. Deindustrialisation – involves closure of heavy industry

D. Outsourcing for cheaper labour is not involved in this investment

Lack of Globalisation
Switched-off places

 There are some places in the world, often LDCs that remain relatively switched off from the global
networks
 Strong flows of trade and investment with other countries are absent in these countries
 Examples include North Korea and the Sahel region
o North Korea has chosen to remain isolated from the rest of the world
o The Sahel region experience many challenges such as the arid climate, desertification and
poverty that has hindered their development and consequently their ability to connect to the
global networks

Worked example
Explain why one political factor and one social factor might cause some countries to be ‘switched off’ from
globalisation
[4 marks]

 You will need to provide one political reason and one social reason for a country being ‘switched off’
and will achieve 1 mark for each of these
 You will need to explain each reason for the remaining 2 marks (you can only achieve 2 marks for one
reason)
 Your answer has to be a political and social reason, if any other factors are mentioned it will not be
accepted

Answer:

 Political factors:
o Political instability due to war [1] so TNCs choose not to locate there as trade would be
disrupted negatively affecting profits [1]
o Choice of government (e.g., North Korea) [1] controls the media and restricts trade so there is
limited knowledge of the area [1]
o Corrupt government e.g., misuse of aid/tax [1] would discourage TNCs from investing as
business would be difficult [1]
 Social factors:
o Lack of technology and infrastructure [1] which would make trading/transporting goods difficult
which is not attractive for TNCs [1]
o Poverty/unemployment [1] reduces the ability of a country to trade with other countries [1]
o Low literacy rate (education) [1] possibly low-skilled population would mean that TNC
investment is unlikely [1]

Exam Tip
Be careful when using ‘corrupt government’ as a reason in your answer. You will need to provide
examples of the corruption, for example, misusing aid or tax revenue or bribery.
 4.2 Impacts of Globalisation
4.2.1 Shift of Global Economic Centre

Benefits & Costs of Global Shift

The Global Shift

 The term ‘global shift’ refers to the relocation of different types of industry, especially manufacturing
o Since the 1960s, many industries have relocated from Europe and North America to Asia, South America
and more recently, Africa
 This global shift is a result of a combination of off-shoring, outsourcing and new business start-ups in emerging
economies such as China and India
 This global shift has also led to unethical practices being ‘exported’ e.g., poor working conditions, child labour
and low wages

The Costs & Benefits of the Global Shift for Asia

Benefits Costs

Poverty reduction Unplanned settlements

Globally over 1 billion people have escaped poverty, The growing trend of high-rise developments in cities leads to
with over 500 million in China alone loss of recreational space

A ‘new global middle class’ has emerged to describe the Rapid urbanisation often leads to an increase in unplanned
increasing number of working people in urban areas settlements e.g., Dharavi in Mumbai is home to around 1
million people

Waged work Loss of productive land

Many people are now earning between US$10 and Land has been exploited and overused which leads to soil
US$100 per day working in the manufacturing or erosion and soil infertility
services sectors

Infrastructure investment Environmental and resource pressure

Economic growth leads to investment in infrastructure Loss of forested land due to urbanisation, logging and farming

Development of motorways, high-speed railways and Reduced demand of natural resources such as soybeans and
airports iron ore can negatively impact economic growth

Education & training

Education has improved across Asia

Millions of graduate degrees are presented by over 2500
universities in China, India and South Korea alone

Asian countries play a vital role in the quaternary sector

Worked example
Explain one reason why many people in the developed world support the global shift of industry
[4 marks]

 You will need to provide one reason why people support the global shift for 1 mark and your explanation can
gain up to 3 marks

Answer:

 The price of goods to customers in the developed world is becoming cheaper [1] due to lower costs
overseas [1] as the cost of living in the developing world tends to be lower [1] for example, the average price of
a smartphone is cheaper now than in previous years [1]
 Factories move abroad so there is less air/water pollution [1] therefore reducing the impacts on
health [1] which means there will be reduced costs for health treatments [1] as a result governments have more
money to spend on other priorities [1]
 Businesses outsource to Asia to save money [1] as wage costs are lower [1] so profits will increase [1] and the
business can then invest in infrastructure or new designs [1]

Environmental Impacts
Environmental Impacts

 This global shift has caused environmental problems for many communities in developing countries

Environmental Problems for Developing Countries

 TNCs look for low-cost locations for their factories and a lack of environmental and health and safety regulations
is an attractive feature
 An example of the environmental impacts of this global shift is in Indonesia:
o 100,000 hectares of rainforest is lost each year to make way for palm oil plantations and mining
o The large scale burning of forest has led to smoke pollution and more mammal species are more at risk
here than in any other country
 These environmental problems also impact on people’s health and wellbeing, for example:
o In China, workers were poisoned by chemicals that are used to treat the glass for iPhones
 o In the Ivory Coast, tens of thousands of people were taken ill after toxic waste was dumped by a ship
which was alleged to produce hydrogen sulphide

Worked example
Explain two ways the global shift of industry has affected the health of people living in developing countries.
[4 marks]

 You can gain up to 2 marks for explaining two impacts of an environmental problem linked to the global shift of
industry
 You will need to explain how these impacts affect the health of people for the remaining 2 marks
 Your answer must link to the health of people

Answer:

 Waste from factories can cause contamination of rivers (potentially drinking water) [1] which can affect the
immune system and as a result make people more susceptible to illness [1]
 The use of coal to generate electricity causes air pollution in cities [1] which can lead to breathing problems [1]
 TNCs pay tax to the host country [1] so governments can invest more money in hospitals/medical care [1]
 Factory workers earn more money/ have a more reliable income through regular employment [1] so they can
afford medicine/medical care for themselves and their families [1]

Exam Tip
Remember that when an exam question asks for impacts, they can be positive as well as negative. A good
answer would use an example from both
Deindustrialisation
Problems of Deindustrialisation

 Global shift creates problems for developed countries too

 Deindustrialisation in inner city areas has led to social and environmental problems
o Dereliction resulting from the closure and abandonment of factories, shutting down of services and
neglected housing
o Depopulation as large numbers of people migrate from the deteriorating urban areas
o Rising crime in deprived urban areas
o High unemployment as a result of factories closing, losing manufacturing jobs

Inner city decline

Exam Tip
The best answers to these types of questions will include impacts on both developed and developing countries
demonstrating your knowledge and understanding of how both will be affected by the global shift.
It is also a good idea to have clear examples of this and to know the factual details well as this will be the
difference between a level 2 answer and a level 3 answer.

4.2.2 Economic Migration

Rural-Urban Migration & Natural Increase
The Growth of Megacities

 A megacity is a city with a population of 10 million people or more

 There were just 3 megacities in 1970; today, there are 34 megacities and this number is set to grow to
at least 40 by 2030
 Megacities grow as a result of rural-urban migration and natural increase
 The world has reached a point of hyper-urbanisation because since 2007 more than half of the
world’s population live in urban areas

Megacities (2021)

 The main causes of rural-urban migration are categorised into urban pull factors and rural push
factors
o The main urban pull factor is employment as TNCs usually locate in urban areas offering
employment opportunities that do not exist in rural areas
o Other urban pull factors include better schools and healthcare
o The main rural push factor is poverty which is exacerbated by population growth and a lack of
jobs

Social and Environmental Challenges of Rapid Urban Growth

 The continued growth of urban areas is inevitable which poses social and environmental challenges to
these megacities

Social and Environmental Challenges

Social Challenges Environmental Challenges

Insufficient affordable housing Water pollution from untreated
sewage
Limited accessibility to education and
healthcare Air pollution from industry and
vehicles

Loss of farmland

Exam Tip
Make sure you have examples of megacities and some specific details about at least one megacity to
use in your exam.
International Migration
International Migration into Global Hubs

 A global hub is a highly globally connected city and are sometimes known as ‘World Cities’
 Global hubs can be found in countries at different stages of their development, for example, New York,
Mumbai, London, Tokyo, Sao Paulo and Beijing
 International migration has led to the growth of these global hubs

Types of International Migration

Type of Migration Description Examples

Elite international Migrants are highly skilled and/or socially Many affluent Americans and Russian
migration influential people e.g., Actors, Bankers, oligarchs live or work in the UK
Academics and Computer programmers

Wealth comes from their profession or

inheritance

Many live as ‘global citizens’ with numerous

homes in different countries
Low-waged Global hubs are very attractive to these London, Los Angeles and Dubai have
international migrants many immigrants e.g., over 2 million
migration Indians live and work in the UAE
Migrants work in low pay jobs such as in
kitchens, on constructions sites or as cleaners
(legally and illegally)
Internal (rural- Main reason for urban growth in global hubs in Around 3 million people are moving from
urban migration) developing and emerging economies rural areas to urban areas in India per year

However, it doesn’t play a huge role in Europe

or North America
Costs & Benefits of Migration
Costs & Benefits of Migration
  Migration increases countries’ interdependence with each other
 There are many impacts of migration on both the source and the host country
 The number and complexity of the impacts usually results in disagreements over whether migration is
overall positive or negative

Costs and Benefits of Migration

Host Country Source Country

Migrants can fill skills shortages Migrant remittances contribute to national earnings

Economic migrants tend to be willing to do Reduced spending on healthcare and housing

labouring work e.g., working on farms
Migrants, or their children, may return, bringing new
Benefits
Migrants pay taxes and spend their wages on knowledge and skills
rent and in shops

Some migrants may start a new business

employing others
Social tension is possible if people in the host Reduction in the independent, working population
country believe migration has led to less jobs or that would have contributed to the economy
housing
Reduced economic growth as consumption falls
Policy changes to address public concerns e.g.,
Costs
to reduce migration Increase in the number of dependents – children and
elderly
Shortages of school places in some areas as a
result of natural increase within youthful
migrant communities
4.2.3 Emergence of a Global Culture
Cultural Diffusion
Cultural Diffusion

 Cultural changes happen naturally over time:

o Globalisation has sped up the rate at which these changes take place
 Throughout history, influential civilisations have brought cultural change to other places and this spread
is called cultural diffusion
 However, sometimes cultural change is achieved through coercion often referred to as cultural
imperialism

Impacts of Cultural Diffusion

 The role of Europe and North America in global cultural change is referred to as ‘Westernisation’
 One indicator of this is the use of 'Globish' as the English language is adopted by many countries for
two main reasons:
o It is the dominant language used on the internet
o It has become the global language of business, technology and education
 Global culture change impacts people and the environment in many ways for example:
o Asian diets have changed from a low meat, high vegetable diet to eating more meat and fast
food
 o Cultural attitudes towards disability have changed as the media has contributed to making the
Paralympic Games into one of the world’s biggest sporting events
 There are several factors that have led to an increasingly ‘westernised’ global culture

Factors Leading to a ‘Westernised’ Global Culture

TNCs Global Media Migration & Tourism

Global distribution of products Western celebrations of Throughout history, Europeans have travelled
such as food and clothes has Halloween and Christmas around the world sharing their language and
contributed to creating a common appear in films and TV customs
culture
BBC contributes to the Migration can have an impact on the culture of
Some TNCs have introduced UK’s cultural influence the host country
uniform products globally e.g., abroad
Nike, Apple and Lego Sometimes, this change may only be partial
Other countries experience e.g., British migrants exporting their English
Some TNCs have adapted their American and UK culture language and love of cricket to other countries
products to suit each country, through TV shows such as but having a minimal impact on other things
reflecting local cultures e.g., Downton Abbey such as religion
McDonalds (glocalisation)
However, other shows are
adapted and each country
has their own version e.g.,
Britain’s Got Talent
Worked example
Describe two different ways disadvantaged groups have benefited from the spread of global culture
[4 marks]

 You will need to give two different ways a global culture element spreads e.g., migration, tourism, social
media for up to 2 marks
 For the remaining 2 marks you will need to explain the benefits to a disadvantaged group
 You will not receive any marks for naming a disadvantaged group and your answer must focus on
culture

Answer:

 The success and popularity of the Paralympics celebrating the achievements of disabled
people [1] encourages equal opportunities [1]
 Global media e.g., YouTube raises awareness of human rights [1] so minority groups demand rights
e.g., chance to vote, education, equal job opportunities [1]
 Rural-urban migrants in developing countries are exposed to equal opportunities for disadvantaged
groups [1] so become confident in challenging the treatment of women/LGBT and other minority groups
in their home region [1]

Exam Tip
For this question, you must make sure the benefits you write about are linked back to the ways that
global culture spreads e.g., migration, tourism, social media

For example, if you stated that poor people had gained employment on its own you would not gain
any marks, you would need to link this to rural-urban migration
Cultural Erosion
Cultural Erosion

 The idea that a ‘westernised’ culture is spreading as a result of cultural erosion in different countries is
called hyper-globalisation
 Some people view this negatively because:
o They are concerned that as the use of the English language spreads it will result in the loss of
other languages
o They worry that ecosystems are becoming devalued as economic growth is prioritised
 However, some people view this positively because:
o The emergence of a global culture is placing more value on equality and reducing discrimination

An Example of Cultural Erosion

 Indigenous people living in the tropical rainforests of Amazonia and Papua New Guinea are some of
the most isolated groups remaining in the world
 More and more indigenous people are becoming aware of western culture and lifestyles which has
changed the way they live:
o Many members of these tribes now wear westernised clothing such as t-shirts when traditionally
they would wear very little
o Many young people are moving to urban areas like Manaus in search of jobs, education and
healthcare

Exam Tip
Remember that whilst cultural erosion is often considered to have many negative impacts, there can
be positive impacts too so make sure you are able to discuss both in the exam.
Opposition to Globalisation
Opposition to Globalisation

 There are a range of individuals, pressure groups and governments that all have some concern over
the impacts of globalisation
 Countries have reacted in different ways from resisting almost all change (e.g., North Korea) to being
more selective over how much change is accepted, for example:
o China prevents internet users from using BBC or Facebook and has a strict quote of 34 foreign
films a year however, Christmas is now celebrated by many Chinese people
o France is very protective of its culture with the government encouraging work filmed in French
through subsidies and 40% of television must consist of French productions under local content
law
 There have been many movements where groups of people have taken a stand against globalisation,
for example:
o Occupy Wall Street Movement - a 59 day extended protest against economic inequality
o Global Justice Movement promotes the equal distribution of resources and access to
advances in technology

Exam Tip
Make sure you have specific examples of how different countries, such as North Korea and China,
have opposed globalisation to refer to in the exam.

4.3 Consequences of Globalisation

4.3.1 Changes in Development
Economic Measures vs Social Measures
Measuring Development

 Development can be measured in different ways using single and composite (combined) indicators
 A composite indicator uses more than one indicator to assess development, for example the Human
Development Index uses three different measures
 An example of a single indicator that can be used is income which can be measured in different ways
o Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - the total (financial) value of goods and services produced in
a country. It can be divided by the total population of the country to work out a per capita
(average per person) figure to use to compare to other countries
o Gross National Income (GNI) - the total amount of money earned by the people and
businesses within a country. A per capita figure can also be calculated for GNI
o Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) measures the price of certain goods in different countries
which can help compare the purchasing power of different currencies

Economic and Social Measures of Development

Measure Description How it is calculated

The total source of income for a country
Income per The mean average income of a group of
and divided by the population to provide
Capita people
an average
Economic
The economy is split into four economic Estimation of the contribution of each
Economic Sector
sectors and their importance changes as a economic sector to the total national
Balance
country develops income
The three measures (life expectancy,
Human A composite indicator, created by the income and education) are scored
Development UN, that ranks countries according to between 0 (worst) and 1 (best). An
Index (HDI) economic and social criteria average score is then taken to rank all
the countries in the world
A composite indicator, created by the
UNDP, measuring gender inequalities Countries are scored between 0 and 1.
Gender Inequality
Social linked to three aspects: reproductive The higher the value, the greater the
Index (GII)
health, empowerment and labour force inequality
participation rate
Measured using the global
Environmental Performance Index (EPI) Countries are ranked in order according
Environmental
which looks at the amount of pollution to their performance across 11 areas
Quality
outdoors as well as the quality of air related to environmental quality
inside homes
Worked example
State an example of a composite index measuring development
[1 mark]
Possible Answers:

 Human Development Index (HDI) [1]

 Gender Inequality Index (GII) [1]
 Happy Planet Index [1]
 Human Poverty Index [1]

Incorrect answers:

 GDP
  KOF Index
 Gini Coefficent
 Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD)

Exam Tip
Read the question carefully, it asks for a composite index not a single index. Remember a composite
index is an index that combines two or more elements to provide a more accurate picture of a
country’s development
Widening Income Inequality
Widening Income Inequality

 As globalisation has increased so has the development gap

 The global economy has grown much faster than the population has grown
 This economic growth has been accompanied by a changing spatial pattern of global wealth
o All continents have seen a rise in average incomes since 1950,
 This rise has been very slow in the poorest countries of Africa
o The average income gap between the world’s richest and poorest has widened as a result of the
rapid growth in European and North American countries
o Absolute poverty has fallen globally as a result of the introduction of the Millennium
Development Goals in 2000
 Poverty does still exist in many countries
o Many low-income countries have progressed to middle-income since the 1970s creating a world
of developed, emerging and developing economies

Gini Coefficient

 The Gini Coefficient is a measure of inequality in the distribution of household income

 Countries are scored between 0 and 100, the higher the value, the greater the income inequality
o A score of 0 suggests that everyone has the same income in a country
o A score of 100 suggests a single person receives all of a country’s income

o Gini Coefficients for

Wealth within Countries (2019)

Winners & Losers Globalisation

 Globalisation has created winners and losers in developing, emerging and developed economies

Examples of Winners and Losers of Globalisation

Winners Losers
There are currently 2,668 billionaires globally, most made There are still rural areas in Asia and Sub-Saharan
their wealth through ownership of TNCs Africa which remain isolated, with few global
connections

Developed countries have been good at maintaining their

wealth, even with competition from emerging economies Many workers in industrial cities within developed
such as China countries have lost jobs as manufacturing relocated

Factory and call centre workers in Asia have a better, Workers in sweatshops are exploited - forced to
more reliable income work in poor conditions for low pay
Worked example
Study Figure 1a

Identify the country that has experienced the fastest rate of growth in GNI (PPP) per capita between 2004 and
2014.
[1 mark]
Answer:

 South Korea [1]

Exam Tip
Be careful when identifying the country with the fastest growth just by eye, you could end up
identifying the wrong country (China). To ensure you have identified the correct country, use the
graph data to calculate the change or use a ruler to check the gradient of the line
Trends in Economic Development & Environmental Management
Trends in Economic Development

 All regions have seen a rise in GDP per capita since 1820, however the rise in Africa, Asia and Latin
America has been significantly less than Western Europe and the USA

 GDP per capita (PPP) Growth since 1820

Environmental Issues & Management

 The majority of global environmental issues can be linked to globalisation for example:
o Converting 40% of the world’s terrain into productive agricultural land has resulted in the loss of
habitats and biodiversity
o Intensive agriculture and cattle ranching can cause a range of environmental impacts
from depleting groundwater sources to the removal of mangrove forest (increasing flood
risk)
 These environmental issues have been felt more by developing and emerging countries
 There is now a greater awareness of these risks to the environment that can be associated with
globalisation and attempts are being made to reduce these risks through environmental management

4.3.2 Social, Political & Environmental Tensions

Social, Political & Environmental Tensions

 International migration is a feature of globalisation and has been encouraged by:

o Open borders - e.g., the large numbers of post accession migration following eight eastern
European countries joining the EU in 2004
o Deregulation - the removal of ‘red-tape’ for businesses
o Foreign Direct Investment which have encouraged TNC workers to move abroad
 This has created culturally mixed societies and thriving migrant diasporas throughout the world
 However, tensions can easily arise between immigrant groups and communities in the host country for
example:
o Migrants require housing, jobs and education which could put certain services under strain
which could lead to tensions between communities
o Immigrants may feel that they are being discriminated against
o The rise of extremism in Europe e.g., there are some nationalist parties that oppose
immigration

Worked example
Explain how rapid globalisation has created political tension in some locations.
[6 marks]

 This is a levelled answer

 Rapid global changes include:
o Open borders
o Deregulation
o Encouragement of FDI/TNCs
o Migration
o Use of social media
 Tensions could be between countries, governments and locals and include:
o Migration pressures
o Economic development but growing inequalities
o Environmental damage
o Tourism, leading to clashes of culture
o Climate change

Level Marks Example Answer

Globalisation has led to the opening of borders which leads to large numbers of people
1 1-2 migrating to other countries. This rapid increase of people can put a strain on services in
the area such as schools and healthcare which can create tensions.
 Globalisation has led to the opening of borders, for example the opening of borders for EU
nations which led to large numbers of people migrating. This influx of people can put a
2 3-4
strain on services and some people worry that the birth rate will increase beyond the
coping capacity of schools in the local area.

Globalisation has led to open borders, for example, in 2004, eight Eastern European
countries became members of the European Union (EU). This led to huge numbers of
3 5-6 migrants in the UK and Ireland which can put a strain on services in some areas. Some
local people worried that because of the large numbers of young migrants, the birth rate
may increase beyond the coping capacity of schools in the local area.
Exam Tip
Migration can be a sensitive issue, with many people having different opinions. In the exam, make
sure you provide a range of different opinions/attitudes from a geographical viewpoint to maintain
balance in your answer
Limiting Globalisation
Limiting Globalisation

 There are governments that have tried to prevent or control the spread of globalisation through
government policy
o Censorship - governments limiting access to online information
 In China the internet is widely used but censored e.g., Facebook and Twitter are
unavailable
 In North Korea the internet is banned as the Leader Kim Jong-Un, to avoid access to
westernised ideas
o Strengthening laws to limit immigration
 Australia uses a points based system to ensure the economic needs of the country are
met
 Tightening restrictions on immigration was one of the reasons behind the UK voting to
leave the EU
o Trade protectionism - the restriction of international trade to help domestic industries
 In 2005, the EU banned imports of cheap chinese textiles, for a short period, to try and
protect its own manufacturers

Cultural Identities & Economic Advantages

Resource Nationalism & Protecting Cultures

 Resource nationalism is when governments take measures to ensure that domestic industries and
consumers have priority access to the resources found in their country, for example:
o Hugo Chávez took control of ExxonMobil operations in Venezuela
o Canada based First Quantum had to hand over 65% ownership of a copper mining project
(worth US$550 million) in the Democratic Republic of Congo to the country’s government
 Cultural groups within a country may oppose the exploitation of their resources by global companies
especially when the environment is threatened for example:
o The First Nations in Canada oppose attempts of global companies to exploit oil resources in
their region
4.3.3 Ethical & Environmental Concerns
Local Sourcing
 TNCs have been able to develop widespread global production networks due to cheap transport, labour
and material costs
 Whilst this has led to huge profits, it also produces a huge carbon footprint
 Ethical consumption is becoming increasingly popular with people buying locally sourced food and
commodities and avoiding supermarkets with high food miles

Benefits and Costs of Local Sourcing

Benefits Costs
Many small farms in the UK grown organic Local sourcing of meat and vegetables can be expensive
produce, using fewer pesticides, which could
have health benefits
UK farmers earn more by manufacturing Less demand from the UK for food from developing countries
goods such as jams, fruit juices and wine can have a negative impact on their economic growth
Local sourcing can help people to reduce their Some products e.g., tomatoes, are grown in heated greenhouses
carbon footprint during winter in the UK which produces a larger carbon
footprint than if they were imported from Spain
Fair Trade & Ethical Consumption
Fair Trade & Ethical Consumption

 Whilst consumers benefit from cheap goods as a result of the global shift, more and more consumers
have ethical concerns about worker exploitation
 Ethical purchases are becoming increasingly available as a result of NGOs, charities and a range of
businesses

The Evaluation of Ethical Consumption Strategies

Strategy Actions Advantages Disadvantages

The Fairtrade certification scheme Not all consumers will pay
offers a guaranteed higher income to more for Fair trade products
farmers Fair trade goods inform
consumers that what they
Fairtrade
have spent on the product
will reach the farmers It is impossible for all
Examples of Fair trade products: farmers in the world to join
coffee, bananas, chocolate,clothes this scheme
Large businesses start to accept the Difficult to monitor working
need for social responsibility conditions
Some TNCs such as Gap and
Supply Chain Nike not ban worker
Monitoring exploitation in their own
factories overseas
TNCs have thousands of suppliers Especially difficult to control
which increases the risk of branded working conditions in
 products being associated with factories of their suppliers’
exploitation suppliers
NGOs have limited financial
Charity War on Want helped South resources which can limit the
African fruit pickers by flying a scale of their impact
worker to a Tesco shareholder
meeting in London. Raise awareness of ethical
NGO Action
issues
Tesco told the farm it would use a
different supplier if working People still remain unaware
conditions did not improve or are not concerned with
worker exploitation
Recycling
Recycling

 Once used, manufactured goods usually end up as waste at a landfill site

 Recycling these manufactured goods will reduce the rate at which new resources are used
 However, the recycling process does still require energy and water for:
o Treatment of waste
o Transportation of waste to recycling sites
 Despite this, recycling is considered to be the first step towards the ambitious goal of a ‘circular’
economy

5. Regenerating Places
5.1 Place Variation
5.1.1 Classification of Economies
Economic Sectors
How and why places vary

 A place is shaped by:

o The physical nature of the place
 o What its residents do for a living
o Connections:


o
 Internal - people, employment, housing, services
 External - government policies, globalisation

o Changes:
 Locally e.g. counter-urbanisation
 Nationally e.g. government policies
 Globally e.g. climate change, pandemics

 The nature of a place affects the type of work on offer and therefore the type of employee required e.g.

o The town of Reading, due to its proximity to London, has a lot of professional people living
there
o The industrial town of Middlesbrough, located in North East England, has more manual workers
living there

The location of Middlesbrough and Reading

Exam Tip
For this unit on Regenerating Places, you will have studied your own two contrasting places. These
revision notes will focus on two contrasting places, Reading and Middlesbrough. You could use these
notes as additional case studies, alongside your own, in your exam answers

Classifying economic sectors

 Economic activity and job type vary from place to place within the UK
  The structure of the local economy can affect the characteristics of a place e.g.
o The income of the locals
o The lifestyle of individuals and communities
o The perception of a place

The Four Economic Sectors

Economic
Characteristics
Sector
 Collection of raw materials (mining) and producing good crops (farming)
 Mainly located in rural areas
Primary  Tends to be low-paid, manual work

 Manufacturing of raw materials into a finished product (car manufacturer)

 More regular income than the more seasonal primary jobs
Secondary  More secondary employment is located in northern cities - Sheffield, Middlesbrough
 These sectors have declined over time

 Providing a service (education, sales)

 Private (retail ) or public sector (government department)
Tertiary  Concentrated in urban areas
 Wages vary from cleaners on minimum wage to highly paid professionals like doctors

 Providing specialist services in finance, law, hi-tech industries, and research and
development
 Requires a highly educated workforce
Quaternary 8.5  Mainly located in London and the South East
 The fastest-growing sector in the UK

 A place’s main economic industrial sector is likely to change over time.

 These changes are depicted in the Clark-Fisher Model
o Pre-industrial - The majority of the population works in the primary sector with only a small
percentage of people employed in the secondary sector
o Industrial - The proportion of employees in the primary sector declines due to the
mechanisation of farming, and as land is taken up by manufacturing, the secondary employment
increases
o Post-industrial - There is a decrease in amount of secondary jobs due to the movement of
factories overseas and cheaper imports; this coincides with an increase in employment in the
tertiary and quaternary industries due to higher incomes and more demand for holidays,
technology etc

The Clark-Fisher Model

  The UK has followed the expected trends in the model:
o A decline in the primary and secondary sectors due to deindustrialisation - employing just 1%
of the workforce in primary, and 15% in secondary
o A huge growth in the tertiary and quaternary sector, known as the new economy - employing
around 84% of the population

Employment type

 Jobs can be classified on whether they are:

o Full-time (35+ hours per week) or part-time (less than 35 hours per week)
o Temporary or permanent
o Employed or self-employed
 A place can be defined by the nature of economic activity and people's employment:
o A less successful place can have a large amount of economically inactive people (retired,
unemployed, long-term sickness or disability)
o A place with low levels of economic growth can have a large proportion of people on
temporary, part-time or 'zero hours' contracts, who earn little
o A rural place can have lots of seasonal work (farming, tourism)
o A place with a higher percentage of self-employed people, who identify gaps in the local
market and meet the needs of the area, can have a greater sense of community

Economic Activity & Social Factors

 Places vary according to their economic activity
 The economic activity is analysed using employment data and economic output data e.g.Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), Gross Value Added(GVA)

Employment Data for Reading and Middlesbrough (2020)

Pay and education People employed as: Reading (%) Middlesbrough (%)

Highly paid and highly educated Management 8.8 6.4

Professional (e.g. lawyers, doctors) 28.9 16.4

Professional and technical 20.2 12.1

Administrative 8.3 8.6

Skilled trades 8.8 7.5

Caring, leisure and other services 5.9 13.8

Sales and customer services 5.7 8.7

 Process plant and machine operators 3.3 11.3
Low pay and low education levels

Manual work 9.9 14.6

 From the data:

o Reading has:
 Nearly double the number of professionals than Middlesbrough
 Far fewer people working in manual work
 Fewer of the population are:
 Process plant and machine operators
 Carers and leisure workers
 The GVA is almost three times greater in Reading (£48,377 per person) compared to £16,856 in
Middlesbrough
 This evidence suggests that Reading is more economically successful than Middlesbrough
 Differences in economic activity can be measured by variations in social characteristics:

o Health - those with the lowest income have the poorest quality of health
o Life expectancy - it can be 5 years longer for people in management compared to manual
workers
o Levels of education - children from lower-income families are more likely to underachieve at
school and have fewer qualifications. This often results in them having lower-income jobs

Economic activity for 16-64 year-olds (2020)

 The differences in economic activity vary due to education and pay:

o Almost double the amount of adults had no educational qualifications in Middlesbrough (15.4%)
compared to Reading (8.2%)
o Over double the amount of adults had a university qualification in Reading (43%) compared to
Middlesbrough (19%)
 o The average hourly pay for a male worker in Middlesbrough was £13.13 and a full-time female
worker earned £509 per week, compared to Reading, which was £16.73 and £621 respectively

Exam Tip
You need to know some data and statistics on economic activity in your two chosen places
Inequalities in Pay & Quality of Life
 Quality-of-life indices reflect the inequalities in pay levels across economic sectors
o Families with a low income rank as having a lower quality of life than richer families

Income inequality

 Inequalities in pay levels are linked to differences in the type of employment

o The use of food banks has increased by 50% over the last 4 years, as people on casual
contracts struggle with the rising cost of living
o Managers and professionals are more highly paid than manual workers
o Low-level tertiary workers will get lower pay than more skilled workers, who have more
qualifications
o Jobs may be seasonal and insecure compared with manufacturing and higher-level service
o The top ten percent of workers earned around £62,583 a year (2022)
o The bottom ten percent of full-time workers earned an average of £19,403 a year (2002)
o Around 3% of the population is on zero-hour contracts, which can increase the chance of going
into debt
 There are huge differences in income and cost of living, both locally and nationally
o London and the South East are more expensive to live in than the rest of the UK
o Jobs offers in London often have the ‘London allowance’ to help make up for the higher prices
of goods and service

Quality of life indices

 Quality of life closely correlates with income levels as many of the things that contribute to quality of life
have to be paid for:
o Goods - house, furniture, food, electrical items
o Services - transport, leisure, utilities
o In 2016, the uSwitch Quality of Live Index ranked Berkshire (Reading) 6th out of the 138 UK
regions, with South Teesside (Middlesbrough) ranked 129th

Exam Tip
Make sure you know some of the possible measures for inequality and quality of life; have some data
from your two case studies to back these up.

 Economic inequality e.g. employment rates, average incomes

 Social inequality e.g. educational achievement, life expectancy, crime data
 Service inequality e.g. public transport timetable, interviews with local residents
 Environmental quality e.g. pollution data, environmental quality surveys

5.1.2 Changes in Function & Characteristics

Changes in Functions & Demographic Characteristics
 As places develop, the characteristics change:
o Accessibility, connections and government policies can change the place’s function. It can
change between administration, commercial, retail or industry
o Gentrification, age structures and ethnic compositions alter the demographics
Function

 The different functions of a location affect the employment opportunities, businesses and industries,
and the built environment:


o Administrative

 These are places that make decisions about how to organise infrastructure and
economic activity for the surrounding areas e.g. council offices


o

 Tend to be urban areas that influence the region surrounding them, e.g.
Manchester’s influence in the North West
o Commercial

 A location with strong business influence. Transnational Corporations (TNCs)
may have bases there
 There is a large volume of small and large-scale businesses e.g. legal services,
accountants


o Retail
 An urban area with attractive retail facilities - markets, shopping centres, unique
shops
 The retail industry is the main source of income and employment for locals


o Industrial


 A location whose economy and reputation is predominantly based on its
industrial capacity
 E.g. Sheffield is known as the Steel City for its large industries of steelworks

 One of these functions may dominate a place, but there is more likely to be a combination of them all
 A place’s dominant function is also likely to change over time as the economic needs change:
o The increased use of online banking and shopping, and click-and-collect (exacerbated by the
COVID-19 pandemic) has led to some places losing their retail function, resulting in economic
decline
o Industrial land in Middlesbrough has declined over the last 50 years due to factory closures in
the iron and steel industry
o In Reading, the commercial function has grown and several large TNCs have bases there
e.g. Microsoft and Intel

Demographics

 As the function of a place changes so might the characteristics of its population e.g. age, ethnicity
 New functions will attract different types of people e.g. older/younger, more skilled, higher education
qualifications
 Places that are experiencing economic growth will likely attract more young people and become
more ethnically diverse
  The ethnic composition of a place is likely to change over time with the movement of people from
different countries e.g. migrants to fill labour shortages

 Reading has experienced economic growth due to its developing commercial function, resulting in
younger, more economically active people moving there
o 30% of its population are aged 26-45
 Middlesbrough, which has experienced economic decline, has more older and retired people living
there
o 38% of its population is over 46
 The ethnic composition of the two towns also differs:
o 65.4% of Reading’s population were white British, compared to 84% in Middlesbrough
o This greater diversity suggests that Reading is more economically successful and
attracts economic migrants

Gentrification

 Gentrification is a change in the social structure of a place when affluent people move into a location
o E.g. the movement of middle-class people into a rundown inner suburb. This improves the
area’s image and houses e.g. Salford Quays in Greater Manchester
 Gentrification leads to an increase in property values. This often results in the displacement of the
original, usually poorer residents
o E.g. Portland Road in Notting Hill, was one of London’s most run-down and deprived areas; now
houses sell for £2 million

Exam Tip
The changing distribution of population age groups and ethnic composition is important to
understanding places, so make sure you learn some data for both of your case studies
Reasons for Changes in Place
 A range of factors cause changes in places including:
o Physical factors
o Accessibility and connectedness
o Historical development
o Role of local/national planning

 Physical factors include:

o Location - closeness to large cities and core economic areas
o Environment - how attractive the place is
 Accessibility and connectedness factors include:
o More accessibility to other places with improved transport infrastructure (road, rail, air)
o Connections help competition for investment and visitors
o Easier access means businesses can attract more skilled workers and trade goods in new ways
o Improved connectivity through the extension of the 5G network
 Historical development factors include:
o The decline in the primary and secondary sectors
o Changes in consumer trends
 Retail - from corner ship to supermarkets to shopping malls and online shopping
 House type - more demand for single homes
o More affluence means a greater demand for leisure and tourism activities, so buildings are
converted to other uses e.g. bars, holiday homes
 The role of local/national planning includes:
o Government policies on restructuring the UK economy after deindustrialisation. This involved
promoting growth in tertiary and quaternary sectors
o Government planning regulations can prevent developments, such as in areas classed
as green belt
 o Local authorities have a duty to find suitable land for new housing to reduce the housing
shortage in the UK. Estimates suggest that there are 1.2 million extra homes needed

How Factors have Influenced Reading & Middlesbrough

Factors Reading Middlesbrough

Physical  Located on the River Kennet, which was  Located on the River Tees, close to the
used to transport goods in the past estuary, where a port was established
 1-hour drive to London  Has a poor reputation, often near the top
 UK’s largest town of the “worst places to live” lists
 It is an attractive place to live and close to
rural areas

Accessibility and  Located on the M4 corridor, with very  Not on the UK motorway network, or a
connectedness good rail links, it is known as Silicon City mainline train route
 Close proximity to London with its strong  A long-distance north of London, the
economic hub and large amounts of economic core
consumer  5th largest port in the UK
 Close to the global hub airport of  Teesside International Airport
Heathrow  Teesside University is known for its
 Close to lots of major universities, enterprise and business engagement
including Oxford and Reading

Historical  Part of the M4 corridor, it has become a  A centre for industrial revolution -
development centre for footloose industry and mining, shipping, engineering, steel and
services (e.g. food companies, high-tech petrochemicals
companies) since the 1970s  Many of these industries have now
closed, leaving many factories abandoned
or demolished

Planning  A London 'overspill' town beyond  Almost a forgotten corner of the north-
London's greenbelt - by rail, it takes less east, it has not benefited from
than an hour to commute into London governmental regional investment,
 Reading Borough Council has plans especially in transport infrastructure
to regenerate Reading town centre,  It has a low level of educational
which includes building 187 new homes attainment and skill
 The government has invested in transport  There is a large amount of low-quality
infrastructure in the south-east and private rented housing
offered incentives, such as reduced land  It is one of the poorest areas in England
prices with tax exemptions and lacks community green space
 Middlesbrough has recently been granted
£21.9 million as part of the Government’s
Town Deal fund to encourage economic
regeneration and investment, and to
develop infrastructure

Measuring Changes
 These changes can be measured using employment trends, demographic changes, land use changes
and levels of deprivation
  Deprivation is a complex concept
 The multiple deprivation index measures development and takes into account the following:
o Income, employment and health deprivation
o Crime
o Quality of the living environment
o Abandoned and derelict land

The index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD)

 The IMD attempts to quantify deprivation for small areas within the UK
 It combines information from different categories of deprivation (e.g. income, employment, education) to
produce an overall score of deprivation
o Allowing analysis of whether a place is improving or declining
 The IMD is calculated separately for England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland; the results are not
comparable across the four nations
 To measure the deprivation, England is split into approximately 33,000 small areas, with about 650
households in each one
 It is an average measure as not every person will be deprived in a highly deprived area
 It enables the identification and targeting of the most deprived areas for various policies and
interventions, nationally and regionally
 Authorities in England use the following seven categories of deprivation. These are ranked by
importance (weightings):
o Income (large weight - 22.5%)
o Employment (large weight - 22.5%)
o Education (medium - 13.5%)
o Health (medium - 13.5%)
o Crime (less - 9.3%)
o Barriers to housing and services (less - 9.3%)
o Living environment (less - 9.3%)

Levels of Deprivation for Middlesbrough & Reading (2019)

Category of deprivation Middlesbrough (decile rank) Reading (decile rank

Income 1 8

Employment 1 8

Health 1 7

Education 1 7

Crime 1 2

Barriers to housing and services 2 9

Living environment 1 7

 Deciles divide the ranked areas into 10 equal groups - the most deprived (1) to the least deprived (10)
o
E.g. Middlesbrough having a decile rank of 1 in income deprivation means that people in
at least 90% of other places in England earn more than people in Middlesbrough
 Middlesbrough and Reading have very different levels of deprivation across the seven domains
 o Middlesbrough ranks amongst the most deprived areas in all domains, except for barriers to
housing and services (the second most deprived decile)
o Reading ranks amongst the least deprived districts in all domains, apart from crime
 Crime levels in Reading, especially violence against the person and sexual offences, are
the highest in Berkshire

Worked example
Suggest one reason why deprivation data is useul when investigating the need for regeneration
[3 marks]

 Identify one reason why deprivation data is useful

 Extend the initial reasons twice to gain full marks
 The question does not ask for three different reasons

Answer:
The Index of multiple deprivation, which is an example of deprivation data, uses seven types of data
e.g. education and health. As it does not rely on a single data type, any unusual and anomalous data
is balanced out by the large data set. This leads to more accurate deprivation scores

Other measures

 Population growth or decline is a key indicator of how economically successful places are:
o Reading's population has grown by nearly 11% since 2011 to 173,200 in 2021
o Middlesbrough's population declined by 5% between 1991 and 2011, but has started to grow
again by 3.6% to 143,700 (2021)
 This is still lower than 1991 figures of 146,000
o During this time:
 Reading gained nearly 40,000 jobs in digital economies (industries like mobile
technology, ICT, software design and app development) by 2016
 The Teesside Steelworks closed (2015) with the loss of 3200 direct and indirect jobs
 Increases in house prices can indicate economic success in an area:
o Average house price in Reading - £433,063 (3.2% growth from 2021)
o Average house price in Middlesbrough - £149,983 (1.7% growth from 2021)

Worked example
Study Figure 2. Suggest one reason average wages per week differ between urban places
[3 marks]

 This question requires a starter reason and then extended by two further points
 They are based on a resource, so there should be a link to the resource in the answer
Answer
Different employment sectors are available including digital and IT, which will pay more than old
manufacturing centres, as higher qualifications are required and graduates expect higher wages
5.1.3 Connection, Economic & Social Characteristics
Regional & National Influences
 Regional and national influences shape the social and economic characteristics of places, both through
past and present connections
 Transport connections
o Larger settlements often have multiple transport routes e.g. motorways, rail
 Reading is a preferred location for high-tech industries
 It is within the M4 corridor and close to Heathrow
 It has several principal railway routes

Transport infrastructure of Reading


o Smaller or more peripheral settlements often have fewer major road and rail connections
 Middlesbrough has a limited transport infrastructure (e.g. only 1 regional railway line and
not located next to a motorway)
 This makes it harder to link up to other urban areas e.g. Leeds and London

Transport infrastructure of Middlesbrough

 Settlement connections
o Major settlements nearby can offer opportunities for collaborative working e.g.

 Universities working together to address common challenges (climate change)
 Sharing of resources to attract investment and develop industries
 Industrial connections - places can have long histories with certain industries
o Middlesbrough’s industrial growth was initially driven by iron ore deposits. These are now
exhausted
o The iron and steel industry has declined due to deindustrialisation. This has left high
unemployment levels in Middlesbrough
  Local enterprise organisations
o Local charitable trusts funding local initiatives
 E.g. The Teesside Charity provides social and economic opportunities for the long-term
unemployed, those living in poverty and the homeless
o Local tourism boards work to promote the area to visitors

 National policies
o Different migration policies may impact the demographics
 E.g. the Windrush Generation - immigrants arriving from the Commonwealth to fill labour
shortages after World War II
o The Northern Powerhouse Initiative (2010-15) was a scheme designed to boost economic
growth and productivity in northern cities
o UK’s Green Belt policy aims to prevent urban sprawl by keeping land around major urban areas
open and undeveloped
 Reading is an attractive place for development. It lies outside of London’s greenbelt,
which has also drawn more migrants to Reading

The London Metropolitan Green Belt

Exam Tip
The Specification expects you to study two places to examine the past and present connections that
have shaped their economic and social characteristics. You should have first-hand experience of one
place and the other place should be significantly different.

Here are some enquiry questions and data sources you could use to examine the regional and
national connections which have shaped the economic and social characteristics of your chosen
places.

Scale Enquiry questions Data sources

Regional  How well are the places connected in terms of the transport  OS maps / public transport
infrastructure? timetables
 Are there major settlements nearby and how do they  Consider commuting, accessing
impact the places? services and leisure
 What are the policies on the growth and development of  Local authority and regional
the local authority / regional enterprise zone? enterprise zone websites
 What are the political motivations of the local councils?
 How strong is the sense of community?  Last local election results / Social
 What are the pressures for change regionally? media
 Local newspapers / social media
 Local newspapers / social media

National  What are the political motivations of the national  Last general election results
government?  Newspapers / social media
  What are the pressures for change nationally and how does  Look at IMD results
it affect the place?
 How do the places compare with national averages of
wealth and deprivation?
 How accessible are the places to important economic hubs?

Impact on people

 All places have a perceived image, which shapes people’s view of the place as either positive or
negative
o Reading could be perceived as a more modern, busy place, where there is lots to do
o Middlesbrough could be perceived as more industrial and less attractive
 These images and perceptions can affect the lives of students and other groups of people:
o Students might not want to study at the university due to their perception of the place
o Young people may feel they want to leave a place with a poor image
o Places with more positive images tend to attract more people
o There are likely to be more job opportunities in places with positive images as companies are
also attracted to them
 Continuity (things staying the same) and change affect people in different ways

 Deindustrialisation


o The connection between people and local industries can remain strong even after the industry
has disappeared e.g. the steel industry in Middlesbrough
o If the abandoned buildings remain, with no development, young people and migrants often
perceive the area as run-down with fewer economic opportunities
o Development of the area may attract migrants, with a wider set of skills, in search of
employment opportunities
o Older workers with the original, older industrial skill set may resent the new forms of industry
and the migrants

 In-migration


o With new economic development, places can attract a younger and more ethnically diverse
population
o Some people may welcome this diversity and learn more about the different cultures
o Other people may not like the change in the demographics of the local area and oppose in-
migration

 Development of the Internet

o It has changed the retail sector of settlements

o Online shopping (e.g. Amazon) is in direct competition with the high street shops (e.g.
Wilkinsons), causing lots of businesses to close, particularly in smaller towns, which increases
unemployment

International & Global Influences

 International and global influences can also shape the social and economic characteristics of places
o E.g. demographics may change if there is free movement of migration
  Transnational corporations (TNCs) may set up part of their business in an area, creating jobs and
enabling economic growth
o Global brands like Verizon, Oracle, Microsoft, Cisco, Pepsico and Vodafone are all located in
Reading International Business Park

 Globalisation and TNCs have contributed to deindustrialisation with the global shift in manufacturing
to emerging and developing countries


o In these countries, wages are lower and working hours are longer, so TNCs make more profit
o The global shift in the manufacturing industry led to iron, coke and steel factory closures in
Middlesbrough, with subsequent job losses
o One steel factory closure led to the loss of 2,200 jobs in Middlesbrough

 European Union (EU) policies (prior to Brexit)

o The UK had access to the EU Development Funds, which were used to stimulate economic
growth
 Middlesbrough received EU economic development funding as a 'Transition Region',
but less funding than areas like Cornwall and Wales
o The free movement of people gave EU citizens the right to travel, live and work in any EU
country
o The free movement of goods amongst EU countries, without import and export tax
 Global competition may cause a place to experience economic decline
o Global competition has made Middlesbrough’s steel and petrochemicals industries less
profitable
 Tourism can increase the amount of international visitors, when a place advertises its unique features
o Many globally known tourist sites (Windsor Castle, Legoland, Ascot racecourse) are close to
Reading
 International transport connections make places more accessible and attractive to TNCs
o Reading is close to the economic core of the EU, with Heathrow and the Channel Tunnel nearby

Exam Tip
The Specification expects you to study two places to examine the past and present connections that
have shaped their economic and social characteristics. You should have first-hand experience of one
place and the other place should be significantly different.

Here are some enquiry questions and data sources you could use to examine the global and
international connections which have shaped the economic and social characteristics of your chosen
places.

Scale Enquiry questions Data sources

Global  Are any global brands (TNCs) present – retail outlets,  Field observation
factories and offices?  Tourist information centres/visitor
 Does the place attract global tourists? numbers
 How well connected to the internet are your places?  Broadband speed tests
International

International  Are the places directly affected by specific  Look for signs in an area showing
government/EU policies or designations? players involved
 Is the place ‘twinned’ with a location abroad? Why  Use the local authority websites
was that place chosen?  Use a website e.g. OECD.stat
  How do the places compare with international
averages of wealth and deprivation?

Exam Tip
Make sure you can distinguish between the scales of influence (regional, national, international and
global) and where possible indicate which scale has had the most influence on the place and why.

 Regional: regional development policies, or attempts to increase interaction between settlements in a

region, e.g. the Northern Powerhouse, Midlands Growth Engine
 National: impact of policies from the central government, or expansion/demise of a business that has a
national presence
 International: impact of EU policies or international trade agreements
 Global: impact of TNCs in the area or impact of migration

Worked example
Explain how international and global influences have shaped the soial characteristics of your place
[6 marks]

 International and global influences do not need to be differentiated, they can overlap
 Need to name an example, otherwise unlikely to get out of level 2 (3-4 marks)
 The influences need to link to how they have helped shape the social characteristics

Answer:
Middlesbrough, located in NE England, was once known as Ironopolis, for its booming iron and steel
factories. However, the iron and steel industry has declined due to deindustrialisation, leaving high
unemployment levels in Middlesbrough. Globalisation and TNCs have contributed to
deindustrialisation, with a global shift in manufacturing to emerging and developing countries, where
wages are lower. This global competition has made Middlesbrough’s iron, steel and petrochemicals
industries less profitable, resulting in many factories closing down. One steel factory closure led to
2,200 jobs being lost in Middlesbrough.

This deindustrialisation and economic decline have led to high levels of deprivation and changes in
the demographics. Many abandoned factories remain in Middlesbrough, so young people and
economic migrants perceive the area as run-down with fewer economic opportunities and therefore
leave the area. In Middlesbrough, 84% of its population is white British, compared to Reading’s
65.4%, which is seen as more economically successful. Middlesbrough also has older and retired
people living there, with over 46-year-olds accounting for 38% of its population. It also has 5% fewer
26-45-year-olds than Reading, which suggests that the younger people are attracted to more
economically successful areas too. Based on the Index of Multiple Deprivation, Middlesbrough is
classed as a highly deprived area. Middlesbrough scores a decile rank of 1 for 6 out of the 7
categories, meaning it has more deprivation than 90% of places in England. So the people of
Middlesbrough earn the least, suffer from higher crime and unemployment, and have poorer health
compared to 90% of other places in England. A large contributing factor to this deprivation is
deindustrialisation due to global influences.
Economic & Social Changes & Identity
 Economic and social changes in an area can affect the lives of people and influence their identity
 As places change due to social and economic forces:
o Some people embrace the change (e.g. increasing diversity)
o Other people may feel that the original identity of a place has been lost

Identity
  Where people share similar ideals and values, a community (with shared beliefs and a way of life) can
form and create a collective identity
 This collective identity can connect to the place where people live or work

Exam Tip
The Specification expects you to study two places to consider how the economic and social changes
have influenced people’s identity. You should have first-hand experience of one place and the other
place should be significantly different.

Here are some enquiry questions and data sources you could use to examine factors that add
character to a place and create a specific identity.

Enquiry questions Source

Continuity - What buildings/architecture remain as reminders of the past? Field observations

What are the main functions and characteristics of the place? Field observations

What are the economic characteristics of the place (economic sector, type Office for National
of employment, levels of unemployment)? Statistics (ONS)

2021 census
What are the demographics of the place (gentrification, age structure, Office for National
ethnic composition)? Statistics (ONS)

2021 census
What socio-economic inequalities exist (deprivation levels, income, Office for National
health, life expectancy, education qualifications, crime) within the place / Statistics (ONS)
compared to the UK?
2021 census

Public Health England

Index of multiple
deprivation
What distinctive identity does the place have? Social media

Interviews/questionnaires

Social and economic changes

 Any changes to the place can impact how people view themselves and alter their sense of belonging to
that community
o Migration to a place can change the sense of community
 If a place is economically successful, it can attract more migrants, leading to a more
diverse community
 Migrants bring their own cultures (beliefs, values, way of life), which can enhance the
local community
 The mixing of cultures can make people more tolerant and open-minded
 E.g. Reading Carnival, which has been going on for 40 years, was started by the
Caribbean people to celebrate their culture with the rest of the town
  However, local people may feel their community is being eroded by the addition of new
cultures
 If there is a strong place identity, an influx of migrants could weaken this
 Feelings of cultural erosion can lead to racial tension between different ethnic groups
 E.g. Middlesbrough has received one of the highest amount of asylum seekers in
England, which has led to some locals complaining about the increased strain on health
and schools


o Industrial change
 If the function of a place changes, old industries may close down and new industries
could develop
 This could lead to a divided community between those people who can work in the new
economy and those who have lost their jobs
 The rise in inequality can affect the identity of people in the area, as the people who are
now unemployed may feel isolated

Exam Tip
The Specification expects you to study two places to consider how the economic and social changes
have influenced people’s identity. You should have first-hand experience of one place and the other
place should be significantly different.

Here are some enquiry questions and data sources you could use to examine recent social and
economic change.

Enquiry Questions Source

Have the employment sectors, employment types and income of the two 2011 and 2021 census reports
places changed between the last two census reports? If so, how?
Does any inequality exist in your places? Has it increased or decreased? IMD 2015 and 2019

2011 and 2021 census reports

Local authority GIS maps of IMD

What functional changes are evident? Old maps

Land-use surveys
Any evidence of future development plans (e.g. regenerate the town centres, Local authority websites
new shopping malls, changes to the housing or housing stock, new industrial
or science park, new communication and transport infrastructure)? Regional enterprise areas

Field surveys

Newspapers (local and national)

Any environmental changes (e.g. the creation of parks / open space, designs Local authority websites
to reduce crime)?
Land-use surveys

Local newspapers
In your opinion is the area developing or in decline? Developing evidence -
gentrification, improved quality
of houses, cafes and shops

Declining evidence - deteriorating

/ vacant housing, empty retail
outlets

5.2 Regeneration
5.2.1 Regeneration
Perceptions & Inequalities
 The economic and social inequalities, that occur in different places, can affect
people's perceptions of an area
 Perceptions are relative to people, place and time, for example in London:
o Wealthier people, who have a higher quality of life and more opportunities, may view London as
exciting and enjoy the fast pace of life
o Poorer people, with a lower quality of life, may feel economically and socially trapped by London
o Inequality can make young people feel like however hard they work, they will be unable to break
the cycle of inequality (unable to afford a house or get a well-paid job)
o Retired people may view London as too busy and look for other places which offer a slower
pace of life

Successful places

 Successful places often experience a spiral of growth, which can be shown in the cumulative
causation model
o Cumulative causation occurs when people move to a successful area to provide services for
those already there
o This makes the area even more attractive to people and investors

Cumulative causation model

 Successful regions, such as the San Francisco Bay area, tend to be characterised by:
o High rates of employment
o High rates of inward migration (both internal and international)
o Higher levels of income
 o Low levels of multiple deprivation
 However, a wealthy and developing region can develop negative knock-on effects:
o High property prices
o Skills shortages in urban and rural areas e.g. teachers, healthcare workers
o Congestion of roads and public transport
o Strains on services, such as healthcare and education

 The growth of rural areas is usually on a smaller scale than urban areas
o Improvements in broadband coverage mean rural businesses can attract customers from
greater distances
o Lots of growth in smaller and micro businesses (under 10 employees), such as artisan food,
winery, beekeeping, dog boarding, micro-brewery
o Investments in mobile networks and high-speed broadband have allowed more people to work
from home, regardless of their location

San Francisco - a successful place

 San Francisco is known as an international centre for commerce and innovation, particularly as a hub
for the technology industry
o IT and digital media companies, like Twitter and Dropbox, have their headquarters there
 There is also a large cluster of bioscience companies based there, which has fuelled job opportunities
 It has attracted highly educated migrants from across the USA, as well as Asia
o In 2019, 190,000 immigrants gained permission to work long-term in California, where San
Francisco is located
 The multiplier effect is fuelled by its technological and transportation infrastructure, high quality of life
and highly skilled workforce
 San Francisco is one of the wealthiest cities in the USA, with low unemployment levels of about 3%
(Unemployment rate for the USA = 3.9%)
 However, there are large amounts of inequality:
o In San Francisco, the average income of the top 1% of households in the city averages $3.6
million, 44 times the average income of the bottom 99%
o The city is facing an affordability and housing crisis
 In 2015, 64,000 jobs were created but only 5,000 new homes were built
 The average house in San Francisco now costs over $1.25 million
o The arrival of tech companies has led to the gentrification of poorer neighbourhoods (e.g.
Tenderloin) so that many existing residents can no longer afford to live there

Deindustrialisation & Decline

 Some places experience a spiral of decline after economic restructuring due to a change in economic
sectors.
 The spiral of decline is sometimes termed the negative multiplier effect
 It occurs in:
o Urban areas due to deindustrialisation, where factories close and unemployment increases
 Skilled, local people leave the area to find work, leaving behind the less skilled or older
workers, who would be difficult to retrain
o Rural areas due to a decline in the primary sector (e.g. agriculture) or the mechanisation of
farming, leading to unemployment
 Young people leave the area, leaving behind an ageing population
 Decline in rural services (e.g. post offices, banks, petrol stations) due to less demand
 Economic restructuring causes increased levels of social deprivation and a decline in:
o Job opportunities
o Education
o Health
o Crime
 o Services
o The living environment

The spiral of decline model

 Economic decline often leads to a social decline:

o Less investment in public services (healthcare, education)
o Unemployment can lead to depression and an increase in drug use
o Increased crime and anti-social behaviour
 It is difficult to break the spiral of decline and stop the area from declining without intervention e.g.
regeneration strategies

The Rust Belt, USA

 The decline of the heavy manufacturing industry (deindustrialisation) in the USA’s Rust Belt began in
the 1950s and led to higher levels of unemployment in the region:
o Cheaper imports increased
o Manufacturing shifted south due to cheaper labour
o The increased automation of industrial processes
 Cities such as Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit and Pittsburgh shared several difficulties:
o Population loss - some cities lost more than 40% of their populations
o Declining tax revenues
o Higher levels of unemployment - increased by 20%
o Limited opportunity for retraining
o Increased crime and drug use, especially among unemployed males

Exam Tip
Make sure you can use data to show why some places need to be regenerated.

For example, Detroit in the USA’s Rust Belt suffered due to deindustrialisation:

 Its population fell from 1.5 million in 1970 to only 680,000 by 2015 - a drop of over 50%
 The average household income was about $25,000 in 2015, half the national average
 By 2014, two-thirds of Detroit's residents could not afford basic needs like food and fuel; the poverty
rate was 38%
 Life expectancy in parts of Detroit is just 69 years
 Less than 30% of students graduate from high school
 In 2014, Detroit had the second-highest murder rate of any US city
 Average house prices in Detroit are about $40,000
 In 2015, approximately 30,000 houses were vacant and 70,000 other buildings were abandoned
 Detroit has severe shortages of public sector workers (teachers, nurses) because most have moved
away to better places
Worked example
Study Figure 3 and suggest one reason why the unemployment rates for Hartlepool have varied
[3 marks]
IMAGE

 Give a starter reason and extend this twice for two further marks
 There should be a link to the resource in the answer:
o An idea triggered by the resource
o It doesn't need to be a direct quote or use of data

Answer:
Unemployment rates have risen since 2005 because industries have closed due to competition from
abroad. People employed in the supply chain and service sectors will also lose their jobs due to
factory closures and reduced disposable income. The industrial workers will lack the skills needed for
any new businesses that may start in the area e.g. media.
Priorities for Regeneration
 Social and economic inequalities create a need for regeneration
 The role of regeneration is to reverse the spiral of decline and to create more equality through social
and economic change
 By regenerating an area, business opportunities occur, which improves the overall quality of life and
wellbeing
 Key priorities for regeneration, due to the vast inequalities found there, include:
o Sink estates
o Declining rural settlements

 Other areas, such as gated communities and commuter villages have low levels of deprivation and
are a low priority for regeneration

Regeneration priorities for four different places

High priorities Low priorities

Sink estates Gated communities

 Areas of low-income groups in need of greater social  Enclosed estates or buildings are often found in
assistance, who have been segregated from the rest regenerated areas of the inner-city
of society  Walls, gates and controlled entrances separate the
 Often have high levels of crime, drugs and gang gated community from the rest of the area
warfare  People who live in these areas tend to have higher
 Children born in these areas are incomes than the people living outside the gated
o Twice as likely to have mental health community
problems  Low levels of deprivation
o A fifth more likely to die  Emphasises the large inequality between those in
o Eleven times more likely to be severely the gated community and those outside
deprived  The number of gated communities is increasing in
 People living in these estates get trapped in a spiral the UK, with approximately 5 million of them
of decline  Examples of gated communities
 Examples of sink estates o Docklands in London
o Barracks in Glasgow o Brockhall Village in the Ribble Valley
o Broadwater Farm in London (Lancashire)
o Lower Falinge in Rochdale o St George’s Hill in Weybridge (Surrey)
Declining rural settlements Commuter villages

 These settlements are less accessible  The majority of rural populations live in accessible
 High levels of deprivation in terms of access to rural places, which are experiencing population
services, such as growth
o Banks  Accessible rural places are close to high-speed
o Post offices railways and motorways, encouraging commuters
o Leisure centres to locate there
o Travel time to food shops, doctors, schools  These places tend to have wealthy, economically
o Broadband and mobile coverage active populations and low levels of deprivation
 An estimated 200 village shops close every year  Fewer services are required as commuters do not
 Other measures of deprivation are good, such as always demand local shops, schools or bus services
o Community safety  House prices increase, forcing out the lower-paid,
o Housing young local people
o Environment  Examples of commuter villages
o Employment o Edale and Hathersage in the Peak District
 Examples of these rural settlements include o Lathom near Liverpool
o Tibenham in Norfolk o Audlem near Manchester
o Bickington, near Dartmoor National Park

 Areas that need regeneration can be found next to those that do not need it at all
o Rich, gated communities can be found right next to 'sink estates' in urban areas
o In rural areas, successful, wealthy commuter villages may be only a few miles away from less
accessible rural villages suffering from population decline and service deprivation

Worked example
Study Figure 1 and suggest one reason why economic regeneration is needed in some places more than
others
[3 marks]

 You need to analyse the resource to identify one starter reason why regeneration is needed
 The other 2 marks will be based on your explanation
 You can use numeric data from the resource to make points, but there are no separate marks for
simply quoting data
Answer:
Lower wages contribute to higher levels of economic and social deprivation. This leads to a spiral of
decline in the area as people leave in search of better-paid jobs. As a result, housing estates could
develop into sink estates, with high amounts of poverty and crime.

5.2.2 Variations in Lived Experience

Community Engagement
 People, who live in areas requiring regeneration, know they live in deprived, run-down areas but may
not be able, or want, to do anything about it
o This is the idea of community engagement
 There are variations in the level of community engagement, which can be measured through:
o Local and national election turnout
o The number of community activities
o The number of supported local community groups
 If an area is more deprived, it is likely to have a weaker sense of community and less engagement

Election turnout

 It is estimated that 9.4 million eligible voters (2019) in the UK are not registered to vote
 The groups least likely to be on the electoral roll and therefore can’t vote are:
o People living in poverty
o Black people
o Young people
o People living in urban areas
 Areas that need regeneration the most, have the poorest turnout for general and local elections
 Traditionally, rural areas tend to have higher turnouts in elections than urban areas
 In the 2019 UK general elections, 67.3% of the eligible population voted
 There were large variations in turnout:
o 74% of over-65s voted, compared to 47% of 18-24 year-olds
 Younger people often have more distrust of politicians
o East Dunbartonshire (Scotland) had the highest turnout (80.3%)
o Kingston upon Hull East had the lowest turnout (49.3%)
o 68% of people employed as professionals and managers voted, whereas only 53% of manual
workers voted
o Only 52% of ethnic minority groups chose to vote. This may be due to:
 People may feel a lack of belonging to a community and that they have little influence
 Possible language barriers

Electoral Characteristics for Reading & Middlesbrough

Electoral data Reading Middlesbrough

% turnout of registered voters (2019 General Election) 70 56.1

Turnout change since 2017 (%) -1.8 -2.2

Median age (years) 33 37

Professional and management jobs 57.9 34.9

Manual jobs (%) 13.2 25.9

Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) - average rank out of 317 local

141 16
authorities

Ethnicity (non-white %) 46.5 11.7

 The data shows that Middlesbrough:

o Is a substantially more deprived area than Reading
o Has a higher amount of manual workers, who will have lower incomes, compared to Reading
o Has a lower percentage of professionals and managers than Reading
o Has a lower level of community engagement based on the amount of people that voted
 This is due to the level of deprivation and the types of jobs found in the area
 The turnout for the 2022 local elections in England was 33.6%

Exam Tip
Find out what the local and general election turnouts are for your two contrasting places

Community groups

 People engage with their place through community action groups. These are created for many reasons:
o Voluntary committees managing local allotments, open spaces and nature reserves, village
shops
o Powerful and vocal 'NIMBY' (not in my backyard) groups protesting over planned
developments, such as new housing, fracking and wind farms
o Local charities fundraising to help vulnerable people in the local community (Meals on Wheels,
transport to hospitals and friendship groups)
o Residents of an estate may form a group due to growing inequalities or social issues e.g. to
reduce antisocial behaviour
 Support for local community groups varies across the country, depending upon local engagement and
the group's purpose
 A stronger community can be created by establishing social groups and encouraging members to join
 Regeneration relies on community participation at all stages

Variations in Lived Experience

 The lived experience and attachment of places (place attachment) varies according to different
factors as outlined in the diagram below

 Factors affecting levels

of engagement
  These factors may make a person feel excluded by a place or foster a sense of attachment to it. This
impacts the levels of community engagement
 Globalisation impacts on young people due to the wider cultural influences they experience (social
media, music, food, fashion)
 Some people (e.g. young people, ethnic minority groups, and the poor) can feel that a place does not
represent them, leading to a sense of exclusion and marginalisation
o This can result in the clustering of groups e.g.
 High-income, elite professionals cluster together
 Low-income social groups, dominated by low-skilled services jobs, cluster together

Worked example
Suggest why the lived experience of different in a particular place may differ
[6 marks]

 Briefly explain what the term ‘lived experience’ means

 Then, outline some of the factors that might affect lived experience, such as age, ethnicity and level of
deprivation
 Now, outline why different groups of people may have different lived experiences based on these factors
 Make sure you do this for several factors

Answer:
The lived experience is the actual experience of living in a particular place or environment. This experience can
have an important impact on a person’s perceptions and well-being. Some of the factors that can affect the lived
experience are level of deprivation, length of residence, age, gender and ethnicity.

Students may have a different lived experience compared to a person whose family has lived in an area for
generations. The student only lives in the area for a short amount of time, so they may feel disconnected from
the place where they are temporarily living and may not treat it with respect. The longstanding residents,
however, will have a strong connection to that place and may feel frustrated with the students, who care less
about the long-term success of the area.

Young people will have a different lived experience to older people, who might have lived in an area all their
lives. The older person may have a feeling of belonging and influence in the area, as they have a higher level of
engagement with the community. The young person might feel more like a global citizen due to the wider
cultural influences they experience, such as music, food and fashion. They also may struggle for a sense of
acceptance in the local areas in which they live.

A person on a low income, with higher levels of deprivation, may feel less attachment to an area than a high-
income professional. The poorer person may be living in temporary accommodation or rented housing, so
might feel less at home than the higher earner, who owns their home. This could lead to a sense of
powerlessness for the lower earner, who knows they have little chance of changing the area.

All these factors highlight that different groups of people will have varied lived experiences in the same area.
Conflicts within Communities
 Conflicts may occur between different groups within the community, who have contrasting views on
how the area should be regenerated
o This is due to their different lived experience
 Conflicts over regeneration are caused by:
o A lack of political engagement and representation
 Low-income groups are less likely to vote, so politicians direct their interest to richer
groups
  Regeneration is then imposed on locals by development companies, who have no lived
experience of the place
o Ethnic tensions - The minority ethnic groups are often displaced through gentrification as the
area now attracts younger, wealthier people, which raises house prices
o Social inequality - groups with lower incomes might not be able to afford to live in the area once
it has been regenerated
o A lack of economic opportunity - Local businesses are threatened by regeneration due to
increased competition from new companies and a rise in rental costs
 Top-down approaches to regeneration can reduce community engagement because:
o The approaches can erase the local character of the area and degrade the sense of place felt
by existing residents
o Local groups might not benefit from the regeneration scheme
o The development company might try to fit regeneration ideas from other areas into that place

5.2.3 Need for Regeneration

Statistical evidence
 The use of statistics can provide evidence of the need for regeneration
 The criteria showing the need for regeneration include:
o Social - ethnicity, access to education and healthcare, educational achievement, community
facilities
o Economic - types of employment, unemployment, business rates, property values
o Environmental - derelict land, closed shops, boarded-up buildings, graffiti, pollution, lack of
green space, transport provision

 Local authorities use:

o Census data to assess the need for regeneration and identify demographics that they want to
attract to the area
o The Labour Force Survey to determine the average income for different jobs and the types of
work carried out by local people
 This helps to identify gaps in the labour market


o Index of multiple deprivation (IMD) to identify small areas that are deprived and in need of
regeneration

 This quantitative data is very useful as it:

o Provides a way to measure the social, economic and environmental problems in an area
o Can be used to compare places

Exam Tip
You need to evaluate the need for regeneration in your chosen places, using different types of
evidence. Consider the following questions when gathering evidence:

Questions Possible evidence

Data on population, employment, housing,

services, crime, environment or multiple
 Is there a need to regenerate this place? deprivation
 Newspaper reports

Other media sources

 What are the regional, national, international and global Interviewing local residents
influences on the characteristics and lives of people in your
place? Historical oral accounts (Oral History
Society website)
 How have economic and social changes influenced people’s Social media
identity?
Interviewing local residents
 Is there any statistical evidence showing the need for Scattergraphs
regeneration in your chosen local place?
Spearman’s rank
Television documentaries

Social media and blogs

 Are there any regeneration schemes in your locality?
Newspapers

Council website
Television documentaries

Social media and blogs

 Who are the stakeholders involved, and what is their role?
Newspapers

Council website - Local Area Plan

Environmental impact assessment
 How effective have any strategies been? What do locals
think? Questionnaires

Interviewing local residents

Gather statistical evidence for your chosen places to determine whether regeneration is needed. Your
main source of information will be:

 The ONS website (census and neighbourhood statistics)

 Local authorities websites
 IMD
 Labour Force Survey

You should choose a range of economic, social and environmental data to see the need for
regeneration, and compare this with the surrounding region.

The more statistical evidence you collect, the more reliable and valid your conclusions will be. The
stronger the evidence, the better the conclusions and the higher the mark!

Reading-evaluating the need for regeneration

 Unemployment rates are low for Reading (4.1%); it is only slightly higher than the UK average (3.8% for
2022)
o 23.5% of the unemployed were on long-term sick
  Reading has a highly skilled workforce, with 20% more managerial, administrative or professional
households than the national average
 The average salary in Reading is £45,400 (2022), which is £5000 more than the UK average
 There was an increase of 5% in private rented housing between the 2011 and 2021 census
 Shoplifting was the fastest-growing crime in 2023 and it increased by 47.6% over the last year
 Reading is the 3rd most unequal ‘city’ in terms of wealth (Gini coefficient 2017)
 According to the Index of Multiple Deprivation (2019), Reading is ranked the 141st most deprived out of
317 local authorities in the country
 Life expectancy is 6.8 years lower for men and 7.8 years lower for women in the most deprived areas of
Reading than in the least deprived areas (Public Health England 2018-20)
 Some of the data shows that Reading is an affluent area, with a highly skilled workforce (unemployment
rate, salary) and therefore might not need as much regeneration as some other places
 However, evidence from the data (shoplifting rates, inequality in life expectancy and wealth) shows that
there are pockets of poverty within Reading, which would benefit from regeneration

Middlesbrough - evaluating the need for regeneration

 Middlesbrough has the third-highest unemployment rate in the North East at 8.2% (2022)
o With 33.2% on long-term sick
 Weekly pay is £555, compared to £642.2 per week in the UK (2022)
 29.1% of the working population are employed in manual/processing jobs, which are typically low-paid
 The health of people in Middlesbrough is generally worse than the England average
 Middlesbrough is one of the 20% most deprived districts in England
 Approximately 31.8% (9,450) of children live in low-income families
 Life expectancy for both men (75.3 years) and women (80) is lower than the England average (men -
79.6, women - 83.2)
 Life expectancy is 12.6 years lower for men and 12.0 years lower for women in the most deprived areas
of Middlesbrough than in the least deprived areas

 The evidence suggests that Middlesbrough requires more regeneration than Reading

Exam Tip
You need to bear in mind that statistical data can quickly become out of date e.g. the census only
takes place every ten years. Also, statistical data doesn’t represent how some stakeholders might feel
about a place.
Media evidence
 Using media (television dramas, blogs, films, news broadcasts, newspapers) can help develop a
viewer’s sense of place
 Media can provide contrasting evidence, including different stakeholders, and question whether the
chosen areas require regeneration
 However, media is subjective and may not accurately show the need for regeneration:
o Some writers may portray a favourable image of a place to enhance a story
o Other places may be depicted as worse than they are to add drama, which risks stigmatising an
area and its locals

 The BBC (2019) aired a series of short documentaries about Middlesbrough, called We Are
Middlesbrough
o The locals were all very positive about Middlesbrough, despite it being classed as one of the
most deprived areas in the UK
 Based on statistics, Reading is not a deprived area and has a high quality of life
o However, one news article states “Reading town centre among most crime-ridden in England
and Wales” (2021)
o Whilst another report states Reading is the 26th safest place in the UK
 Different representations
 Different representations of places can influence the perceived need for regeneration
 Some possible representations that could influence people’s perceptions regarding regeneration
include:
o Newspapers
o News reports
o Documentaries on TV
o YouTube video clips uploaded by individuals
o Estate agents
o Tourism and local enterprise offices
o Local authorities
 It is important to consider the accuracy of documentaries and video sources:
o Only a small number of people might be interviewed
o Only a few images might be shown
o The local community forums might be very vocal and not represent the majority

Worked example
Using a place you have studied, explain why it is difficult to assess the need for regeneration
[6 marks]

 State the place you will use as your example

 Explain why statistical data might not give the full picture of the need for regeneration
 Give examples of statistics from your chosen place and comment on how they show whether the place
needs to be regenerated or not
 Finally, explain why media depictions of a place can be unreliable
 Give an example of how your chosen place is depicted in the media and why it might not be accurate

Answer:
Using information about Reading, in Berkshire, shows it is sometimes difficult to assess the need for
regeneration.

Statistical data (such as census data, and the index of multiple deprivation) is often used by various
stakeholders to help determine whether an area requires regeneration. However, statistical data can
quickly become out of date e.g. the census only takes place every ten years. Also, statistical data
doesn’t represent how some stakeholders might feel about a place. Therefore, this type of data does
not always give the full picture of the need for regeneration.

Statistical data for Reading overall suggests that it is an affluent place, which would require little
regeneration. Reading has a highly skilled workforce, with 20% more managerial, administrative or
professional households than the national average. The average salary in Reading is £45,400 (2022),
which is £5000 more than the UK average. Unemployment rates are low for Reading (4.1%), which is
only slightly higher than the UK average (3.8% for 2022). However, when inequalities between the
more and least affluent in Reading are taken into account, the picture becomes very different.
Reading is the 3rd most unequal ‘city’ in terms of wealth (Gini coefficient 2017). Life expectancy is 6.8
years lower for men and 7.8 years lower for women in the most deprived areas of Reading than in the
least deprived areas (Public Health England 2018-20). This suggests that there are deprived areas
within Reading that would benefit from regeneration.

Media depictions of a place are often unreliable as they are subjective and may not accurately show
the need for regeneration. Media can also be biased towards certain ideas depending on the storyline
or agenda of the writer or presenter. Some writers may portray a favourable image of a place to
enhance a story, whilst other places may be depicted worse than they are to add drama. Based on
much statistical evidence, Reading is not a deprived area and has a high quality of life. One news
article reported that Reading is the 26th safest place in the UK. However, one recent news report
stated that “Reading town centre among most crime-ridden in England and Wales”. This highlights
how the media can be misleading and makes it difficult to assess the need for regeneration.

5.3 Management of Regeneration

5.3.1 UK Government Policy
Infrastructure Investments
 It is the role of national governments to facilitate regeneration projects, in partnership with charities and
developers, to tackle economic, social and environmental inequalities
 By investing in infrastructure, such as high-speed rail and airport developments, the UK
government can maintain economic growth and improve accessibility to promote regeneration of
regions
o As relatively remote places become more accessible, they become more attractive to
businesses and investments, which generates jobs and can lead to the positive multiplier
effect
 Infrastructure projects are generally very expensive and take time to complete, so require government
backing and funding
 Most projects are public-private partnerships
o The private sector is used to design, build, finance and/or maintain public sector investments in
return for a share of profits generated by the project
 A variety of stakeholders are involved in regeneration projects
o Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) markets the UK’s image abroad and
includes Sport England and the National Lottery
 Some of its projects include the London Olympic Park regeneration plan and the various
Commonwealth Game developments
o Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) aims to achieve
environmental stability as part of sustained economic growth by:
 Developing rural villages in decline
 Protecting eroding coastlines
 Improving the agricultural industry
o UK Trade and Investment supports UK businesses and aims to attract more foreign direct
investment
o Local councils aim to improve their area by:
 Attracting new businesses
 Increasing housing stock or improving the quality
 Regenerating a problematic location (abandoned, deprived or dangerous places)
o Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as pressure groups, environmental groups,
charities and businesses
o Local individuals
 There may be differences of opinion between stakeholders that need to be resolved by the government
or legal systems
 To encourage economic growth within the UK, national infrastructure investment has been used to
improve accessibility and reduce the North-south divide
 Examples of infrastructure investment projects in the UK include:
o £27 billion to improve the quality, capacity and safety of the motorways and major A roads,
which were largely built in the 1960s and 70s
o HS2 is a new high-speed rail network that will connect London to Birmingham and then the
north
 Phase 1 is expected to open between 2029 and 2033
  It has been announced (2023) that phase 2 will no longer go ahead
 Estimated to create 22,000 jobs
 Cut travel times by half

The HS2 route


o The expansion and upgrade of Heathrow Airport
 Building a third runway to increase flight capacity by 260,000 flights per year
 Terminals 1 and 3 would be demolished, and terminals 2 and 5 would be expanded over
30 years
 It is expected to cost just under £20 billion, which would be privately funded
 Business leaders are in favour of the expansion, which could boost the wider economy
by £61 billion and create an additional 77,000 jobs
 Local residents and environmental NGOs oppose the project as 761 homes will be
demolished and pollution will increase with the extra flights
 The expansion project is currently paused due to the pandemic, inflation and the
Government’s commitments to reducing the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions

Exam Tip
Show that you understand that national governments invest in large infrastructure projects in the UK
because of the perceived benefits it will create for places
Development & Effect on Regeneration
 The UK government is a key player in making decisions about regeneration:
o Government actions may prioritise national needs over local needs, which can delay
regeneration projects and widen regional inequalities
o Their domestic policies influence regeneration through:
 Planning laws and restrictions
 House building targets
 Housing affordability programmes
 Granting permissions for ‘fracking’


o These domestic planning policies can affect the rate and type of development, which impacts
the amount of economic regeneration taking place in urban and rural areas
UK planning laws

Planning for housing needs in the UK

Fracking

 Onshore shale gas fracking began in the UK in 2008

 The government saw fracking as a national priority for securing energy supplies and increasing
economic stability
 Planning policies could be avoided if authorities thought the proposed schemes were in the national
interest
 In 2015, a new fast-track system was introduced to speed up licence applications for fracking
 Many of the UK regions that have been granted fracking licences are located in either rural areas or
deindustrialised areas, and would benefit from regeneration
o Fracking is helpful for local economies as it generates jobs at the shale gas companies
o Other sectors then benefit, such as construction, hospitality, engineering
 Fracking causes considerable conflict over its environmental consequences:
o Small earthquakes can be experienced at the drilling sites
 One earth tremor lasted 100 hours
o Fracking requires huge amounts of water, which must be transported to the site
o Contamination of groundwater
o Increased methane emissions, a greenhouse gas that traps 80 times more heat than carbon
dioxide
The threat to wildlife from fracking
IMAGE

 In 2019, a high court ruling suspended the process of fracking due to the government’s lack of
consideration over the climatic impact of fracking

Worked example
Explain why infrastructure investment such as fracking may help regeneration in some local economies but not
others
[6 marks]
Image

 Other examples of infrastructure investment, such as transport infrastructure, can be used

 Take into consideration that some local economies are helped ‘but not others’
 The question does not ask for a description of how fracking works, it is about regeneration
 Answers need to include connections between the map and the question

Answer:
Infrastructure investment, such as fracking, can help regeneration in some areas as it creates more
well-paid jobs than perhaps previous industries did. Many of the areas that have been granted
licences are located in the north of the UK, in places where deindustrialisation has occurred, such as
Liverpool. The introduction of fracking means there will be a reduction in unemployment levels in the
area, especially in places with low average incomes, such as South Wales and North Yorkshire. This
will help regeneration through the positive multiplier effect. If more people are employed with a higher
income, this will increase the demand for services. This attracts more businesses and investment,
which generates even more jobs and leads to more regeneration.

Some areas may be negatively affected by infrastructure investment, like fracking, as some people
and places will suffer the negative consequences of disruption without receiving any benefits.
Fracking can lead to air and noise pollution for people living close to the fracking sites, which might
decrease the value of housing in the area. There are also the environmental risks of fracking such as
water contamination, loss of land and biodiversity. For example, the Avon (in the south of England) is
a unique habitat, rich in ecology, including salmon and trout but has a fracking site located near it.
These negative impacts of fracking could lead to different stakeholders, within the region, getting into
conflict, which would slow down the process of regeneration.
Government Decisions & Effect on Growth
 The government’s international policies can significantly impact on economic growth and direct/indirect
investment, including:
o The degree of their involvement in capital markets, like banking and the stock exchange, which
is achieved through the deregulation of financial markets
o The government creating open door migration policies to influence labour supplies and skills

International migration policies

 In 2022, UK net migration reached 606,000, the highest figure ever recorded according to the Office of
National Statistics (ONS)
 The rise is driven by people arriving from non-EU countries on government-issued visas to study, work
or join family members
 The current policy for people wanting to work in the UK is they have to apply for a visa through
a points-based system
 The main economic arguments for immigration are:
o Increased gross domestic product (GDP)
 o Extra taxes and production
o Both well-qualified and lower-skilled immigrants can fill skills shortages

 However, high levels of net migration can also hinder regeneration:

o Increased pressure on services and housing availability in certain areas
o Social issues caused by asylum seekers being housed in hard-to-let properties in already
deprived areas, such as estates in Middlesbrough

Exam Tip
The impacts of migration are often assumed to be either a good or bad thing, but the evidence
suggest that the impacts are not so straight-forward

Deregulation policies

 Before the deregulation of financial markets in the 1970s and 80s, London was viewed as globally
uncompetitive as only UK banks could operate in UK cities
 In 1986, the government decided to deregulate the financial sector in a policy known as the big bang,
which meant:
o The London Stock Exchange became a private limited company
o Overseas companies to set up in London without governmental approval eg. banks like HSBC
 The big bang resulted in:
o Banking, finance and business services creating almost 30% of the UK’s GDP by 2015, double
that of 1986
o It drove the regeneration of London Docklands in Canary Wharf, with the skyscrapers the
visible evidence of this new investment
o London becoming the leading financial centre in the world
 Deregulation also enabled wealthy foreign investors to buy property as second homes, which meant
they paid less tax in their home countries
o This has added to the lack of available housing as the owners often leave these homes
unoccupied
o It is estimated that 138,000 residential and commercial properties in England and Wales are
owned by offshore companies (2022)

5.3.2 Local Government Policy

Local Government & Development
Exam Tip
Make sure you are clear about the different roles of national and local governments in the planning
process

 Local governments compete to create attractive business environments, such

as science and technology parks, which attract:
o Domestic investors from within the UK
o Foreign investors from overseas
o Highly skilled workers
 The outcome of regeneration projects is determined by how successfully the local government
develops plans and attracts investment
o A comprehensive economic development plan will need to consider both new housing and
infrastructure
 An attractive business environment can be achieved:
o In enterprise zone areas
o Through the development of science parks

Enterprise zones
  There are 48 designated enterprise zones across the UK
 The local government in each area can decide what incentives they give to businesses in an enterprise
zone, such as:
o Discount on business rates for premises
o Tax relief
o More relaxed planning regulations
o Superfast broadband
o Government support for start-up costs

Science parks

 Science parks are designated areas created to promote innovation and act as hubs for advances in
high technology e.g. pharmaceuticals, cyber-engineering
 They are intended to:
o Support regeneration in economically depressed regions and cities of the UK by attracting new
businesses and start-ups, which promotes economic growth
o Encourage the start-up and development of innovation-led, high-growth knowledge-based
business
o Provide an environment where international businesses can develop links with universities and
higher education institutes
o Raise the value of the business located there, as well as the income of people working there

 To encourage investment, science parks are often located in enterprise zones

 Local governments will manage the infrastructure and provide the original funding for the parks as
follows:
o A thriving science park requires additional services and amenities to meet the needs of many
businesses, employees and students all in one place
o The economic benefits extend to the local cafes, shops, gyms, childcare settings and
accommodation providers, improving employment opportunities in the local area
 There are over 100 science parks in the UK, employing about 75,000 people
 Thames Valley Science Park (established in 2018) in Reading:
o The University's science park is based next to the M4 for easy access to important cities (e.g.
London) and transport links (e.g. Heathrow)
o It is home to more than 80 companies, ranging from small start-up companies to global
research and development organisation
o The companies represent a wide range of technologies and sectors, from digital media to
pioneering medical equipment
o Large companies, such as Oracle, Huawei and Symantec, have based their UK Headquarters at
the science park
o The science park has recently diversified into film and TV production to attract more domestic
and foreign investment
o The Natural History Museum in London has opened a new facility at the science park to house
around 27 million objects; it is the largest collection move since the 1880s

Exam Tip
You need to know a named example of a science park to exemplify how it can be used to attract
inward investment by the local government and encourage economic growth
Local Interest Groups & Development
 Local authorities collaborate with different local interest groups in regeneration planning and
management, such as:
o Chambers of Commerce try to persuade local and national governments to invest in
infrastructure, education and skills training
o Local preservation societies aim to ensure that the regeneration and development does not
lead to negative local consequences
 o Trade unions work to ensure that employers consider the rights and needs of workers in
regeneration plans

 However, there is often conflict between these groups as their attitudes and aims differ
o Some groups may wish to preserve places, whilst others seek to change them

London Olympic Games (2012)

 The site of the Olympic Park covers part of Stratford, Bow, Leyton, and Hackney Wick in East London
 These areas needed urban regeneration as they had:
o High levels of deprivation and poverty
o Large amounts of industrial wasteland
o Higher than average unemployment than the rest of London
 The Olympic Park was mainly built on 560 acres of neglected and unused brownfield land
o 2.3 million cubic metres of contaminated soil from past industries had to be cleaned
 Investment in the London Olympic Games boosted the UK’s economy by £9.9 billion
 However, the regeneration plan created challenges:
o Residents of Clay Lane Housing Cooperative protested as their affordable housing was
compulsorily purchased and demolished to make way for some of the Park
 450 residents were evicted
 The ‘East End' community and its culture were lost
o Gentrification increased rents in the area, making them unaffordable for the original residents
 To live in the Olympic area after the Games, people needed to earn between £60,000 -
£90,000 per year
 The average income for local residents was approximately £27,000
o Many Olympic-related jobs were temporary construction jobs
 Few went to local people, despite high unemployment rates in the area

Worked example
Explain why different groups would have contrasting views about regenerating vacant land in cities
[6 marks]

 Identify several (at least 3) groups that will have contrasting views about vacant land
 Provide reasons for their views, along with some examples
 Make sure the groups identified are specific rather than vague e.g. It is very unlikely that a group
identified as ‘locals’ would all share the same opinion about the strategy

Answer:

Regeneration can produce winners and losers. Building more housing on brownfield sites can provide
much-needed homes for an area. However, if the prices are too high, local people will not be able to
afford these and will have to leave the area. Wealthy people who can afford the housing will move in,
which can change the culture and demographics of the area. This happened in Stratford (London),
where the 2012 Olympic Park provided the catalyst for regenerating this deprived area, which had
large sections of vacant land. The 450 former residents of Clay Lane housing cooperative protested
as they were forced out of their homes by planning decisions and the new houses built were not
affordable. The wealthier city workers, who subsequently moved in, viewed the development of the
Olympic Park positively as they had convenient accommodation close to improved, fast transport
links into central London.

Regeneration can also have positive and negative environmental impacts. For example, using
brownfield rather than greenfield sites helps protect the natural environment. A large part of the
Olympic Park was built on brownfield sites. So some environmentalists will have viewed the
regeneration as successful as 560 acres of brownfield land were used and decontaminated, which
will improve the quality of the local environment. However, other environmentalists might have been
concerned about the amount of carbon dioxide created by the regeneration scheme and during the
actual Games.
Urban & Rural Regeneration Strategies
 Urban and rural regeneration strategies include:
o Retail-led plans - create business and job opportunities
o Tourism - brings money into the area and provides a flow of culture and positive media
attention
o Leisure and sport - allows for community integration and social wellbeing
o Public/private rural diversification - to allow new or different businesses to flourish in more
remote areas and boost income

Retail-led regeneration

 The development of retail centres:

o Provides a wide variety of jobs to people of different backgrounds and ages
o Boosts local spending as the centres contain cinemas, gyms, and restaurants, which can be
used outside the traditional shopping hours
o Often built on disused industrial land, e.g. Meadowhall (Sheffield) and the Trafford Centre
(Manchester)
 The high street has suffered because of:
o The increase in retail centres, which are usually located on the outskirts of settlements
o The rapid growth of internet shopping
 The government has invested £1 billion into a Future High Streets Fund to help regenerate the high
street by:
o Encouraging more click-and-collect locations, pop-up shops, street markets and gyms
o Funding structural changes to allow more covered markets
o Reducing business rates and allowing more short-term leases to attract smaller retailers
 Middlesbrough Council has spent £12 million of its Future High Street budget on purchasing the
Cleveland Shopping Centre, which is located in the town centre
o It accounts for 30% of the overall retail space in the town centre
o The council hope to diversify the floor space to a mix of commercial and leisure use

Tourism-led regeneration

 Many rural and urban areas within the UK encourage tourism, as it can help regeneration through:
o Individual households offering AirBnB
o Custom-built private centres e.g. Center Parcs
o Entire settlements devoted to tourism e.g. coastal resorts - Blackpool, Bridlington
 The tourist industry is not a reliable way to secure regeneration, as its success can be affected by:
o Terrorist attacks
o Pandemics e.g. Covid
o The weather
 Making use of the cultural heritage of an area can also boost tourism:
o Music festivals at an international (e.g. Glastonbury) and national scale (Reading and Leeds
Festival)
o Art galleries e.g. the Tate Modern, London
o Book and film settings e.g. Alnwick Castle (Northumberland) was used as Hogwarts in Harry
Potter

Leisure and sport-led regeneration

  Hosting large sporting events can enhance the image of a place and attract tourists to the sporting
events e.g World Cups, the Olympic Games
 The media coverage before and during such events helps put the place on an international stage,
which can attract more inward investment
 Investing in new facilities means that local people will benefit from this regeneration after the event,
such as new buildings and transport infrastructure
 For example, the London 2012 Olympics brought regeneration (through sport) to areas of East London:
o The Olympic stadium is now home to West Ham Football Club
o The aquatics centre is used by the community and schools
o The Olympic Village has been converted into 2,800 flats
o The transport infrastructure has improved making commuting into central London easier
o The Olympic Site was built largely on 560 acres of brownfield land, property that had been
neglected, unused, and contaminated
o Many of the grounds in the Olympic Park have been kept as parkland and are open to the public

Public and private rural diversification

 Over 60% of UK farms have diversified

 Farms may start to produce and sell speciality cheeses, farm unusual animals, or even convert their
buildings for other uses (e.g. galleries, farm shops)
 The most common forms of diversification are:
o Renewable energy (29%)
o Property letting (15%)
o Holiday lets (12%)
 Grants are available from Defra’s Rural Development Programme (RDP), as well as from commercial
banks and charities

Powys Regeneration Partnership

 2011 Census showed just under 50% of Powys’ rural communities were in the most deprived 10%
of the country
 LEADER (Links between actions for the development of the rural economy) programme &
regeneration partnership
o Example of a coordinated and integrated approach to economic and community
Background regeneration in a rural area
o Funded by the Welsh government and the EU
o Uses local knowledge of the value of a place to promote grassroots, community-led rural
development

 Between 2011 and 2013:

o Grants of over £4 million helped 310 businesses and community projects across Powys
o Created 36 full-time jobs
o Safeguarded 80 more jobs
Benefits  Between 2014 and 2020, a further £3.75 million was secured for projects aimed at:
o Developing renewable energy
o Encouraging local creative industries, which celebrated traditional Welsh crafts
o Investing in fast broadband connections, which enabled people to work from home
5.3.3 Rebranding
Re-imaging of Urban & Rural Areas
 Regeneration usually involves some form of rebranding, which can help remove any negative
perceptions people may have of an area
 This involves re-imaging places using media coverage, art and events to enhance the image of urban
and rural locations:
o Positive news stories during regeneration
o Advertising in newspapers and online
o The use of logos and slogans to portray an image to the outside world
 Rebranding of areas is designed to make places:
o More competitive
o Attract new investment, residents and visitors
o Gain a new, improved identity
 Sometimes large international events are used as catalysts to begin the rebranding of an area, which
often happens when cities host the Olympic Games
 ‘Moving Middlesbrough Forward’ is the slogan used in Middlesbrough’s regeneration scheme
o The aim is to remind people of the amazing things that Middlesbrough has to give and offer as a
town
 Rebranding works in both urban and rural areas, by focusing on particular activities or features of a
place

Aims of rebranding

Rebranding of Deindustrialised Areas

 It is harder to rebrand deindustrialised cities, with their derelict land, disused factories and job losses
(e.g. Sheffield, Glasgow)
 Rebranding of deindustrialised cities involves creating an identity by focusing on their industrial
heritage:
o Celebrating their industrial history with museums, historical trails and public artworks
o Redeveloping warehouses and old industrial buildings into apartments, shops, restaurants and
office space
o Building contemporary apartments and hotels on old industrial brownfield sites
o Regenerating canals and quaysides into marinas, bars/restaurants and canals for leisure
 The rebranding can change tourists’ perceptions about a deindustrialised area, making it more
attractive to tourists and new investors

‘Glasgow: Scotland with Style’ program

  Glasgow was an industrial city focused on shipbuilding before cheaper overseas competition led to the
industry collapsing in the 1960s
 Many people held negative perceptions of the city in the 1990s, even though Glasgow’s economy was
growing and many areas had been redeveloped
 In 2004, Glasgow launched a £1.5 million rebranding campaign to present itself as more cosmopolitan,
using the slogan ‘Scotland with Style’
 It successfully focused on:
o Attracting tourists to Glasgow on short breaks, making £23 million in revenue
o Increasing the number of business conferences and events held there
o Hosting large sporting events (2007 UEFA Cup Final, World International Gymnastics
Championships)

 In 2013, the slogan “People Make Glasgow” replaced the former slogan to help promote the city in the
lead-up to Glasgow’s Commonwealth Games (2014)
o 1.26 billion people saw or read about Glasgow

Worked example
Explain the importance of re-imaging as part of the wider regeneration process
[6 marks]

 Answers need to show an understanding of re-imaging, as well as how this fits into a broader physical
and economic regeneration strategy
 An example, using place-specific detail, would help to illustrate points and give the answer more depth

Answer:
Regeneration involves changing the image of the place, as well as making physical and economic
changes e.g. developing new residential and commercial buildings, improving infrastructure, and
investing in retail centres. Re-imaging is about improving the reputation of a place to outsiders by
marketing it as more attractive. If re-imaging is successful, people’s view of the area will change and
it will attract more visitors and investment.

Re-imaging is very important to cities that have experienced deindustrialisation, as people’s

perceptions will involve run-down, derelict areas with abandoned factories. Glasgow used re-imaging
in 2004, under the slogan “Glasgow: Scotland with Style '' to encourage visitors and business
conferences. However, in order for this advertising campaign to be successful, Glasgow’s City
Council had to make physical changes first through redevelopment. Glasgow’s regeneration included
conference centres, hotels, retail and residential developments. This complete regeneration package
attracted tourists to Glasgow on short breaks, making £23 million in revenue for the city, as well as
increasing the number of business conferences and events held there.

So re-imaging is an important part of regeneration, however, it will only work if the physical
environment has been regenerated successfully too.
Rural Rebranding Strategies
 It is not only urban areas that require regeneration; rural regions are some of the most deprived areas
in the UK (e.g. Powys in Wales, rural villages in North East Lincolnshire)
 Rural rebranding strategies in the post-production countryside are based on:
o Farm diversification (e.g. Campsites) and specialised products (e.g. cheese products)
o Outdoor pursuits and adventure in inaccessible and remote areas e.g. paintballing, climbing,
whitewater rafting
o Heritage and literary associations e.g. Brontë country
 These strategies aim to:
o Increase the amount of national and international tourists
 o Improve services and transport links for locals
o Provide a wider source of income other than the traditional employment sectors of agriculture
and forestry
 The strategies have benefitted accessible rural areas more than remote rural areas, leading to growing
economic differences between rural areas

The Different Rebranding Strategies for Rural Areas

Accessible rural areas Remote rural areas

 Rural areas situated close to towns and cities will find  More remote areas may focus their rebranding
be able to use a wider range of rebranding strategies on the wilderness and the remote nature
o More potential for diversification e.g.  Allows people to escape busy urban centres and
Christmas tree farms, camping, farm shops experience beautiful places unspoiled by human
o More scope for visitors to have an overnight development
retreat from the city  Makes use of the remote landscape to offer
o Larger market to sell their goods adventurous, outdoor activities

Rebranding by literary association: Brontë Country

 The rural village of Haworth (located west of Bradford) was the birthplace of the famous authors, the
Brontë sisters (Wuthering Heights, Jane Eyre)
 It is a tourist hotspot, with 11.8 million visitors in 2018:
o Walking around Top Withens (a farmhouse ruin), the setting for Wuthering Heights
o Visiting Brontë Parsonage Museum (their former house)
o Walking to Brontë Waterfall
 Regeneration strategies include:
o Refronting shops in a victorian style to restore its traditional character
o Running events (e.g. 1940s weekend, hosting the Tour de France) to attract more visitors
o Introducing a new Bronte bus route, designed to promote the area’s attractions
o Repairing natural stone paving and footpaths on Main Street
o Hosting Haworth Artisan Market
o Establishing independent local shops e.g. coffee shops, micro art galleries, gastropubs

Rebranding Kielder - an inspirational place for leisure, exploration and fun

 Kielder, a very remote village in Northumberland, has become a playground for outdoor enthusiasts
due to its large coniferous forest and 11 km long reservoir
 In 2011, the Kielder Partnership was established to manage the area; its objectives include:
o Ensuring the sustainable development of the forest for public benefit
o Developing leisure activities in the interests of social welfare
o Engaging the public in the natural environment
 Kielder Water and Forest Park attract 350,000 annually:
o Activities include walking, fishing, birdwatchers, stargazers, archery, mini golf
o Special wildlife - red squirrels and ospreys
o Observatory for Dark Skies to attract space tourism
 More attractions have been designed to encourage further tourism:
o New events - Wild at Kielder Festival to celebrate wildlife; KielderFest to celebrate cycling
o 17 new lodges opened to increase the capacity for overnight visitors
o A gym has been built, which tourists and locals can use
Exam Tip
You need to know a range of rebranding strategies used in both urban (converting old warehouses to
apartments, hosting large international events) and rural settings (examples of farm diversification,
outdoor pursuit activities), Make sure you can also explain how these strategies are used to make
these places more attractive to national and international tourists.

5.4 Success of Regeneration5.4.1 Assessing the Success of Regeneration

5.4.1 Assessing the Success of

Regeneration
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Test Yourself

Measures used to Assess Regeneration

 The success of economic regeneration can be evaluated using indicators of:
o Social e.g. life expectancy, demographics
o Economic e.g. income, poverty, employment
o Environmental e.g. pollution, derelict land
 Different areas can be compared by looking at variations within each measure
 This can help determine which regeneration projects have been more successful
 The economic aim of regeneration is to increase income and employment, and decrease poverty

Economic Measures of Regeneration Success

Economic
How indicators show the success of regeneration
indicators

 Higher levels of income indicate that regeneration is successful:

 Greater income, more disposable income and spending power lead to more local tax
Income revenues and more economic opportunities

 If fewer people are living on low incomes, more people can meet their basic human
needs, which suggests regeneration is successful
Poverty  Local authorities can then spend more money on improving services for everyone
(e.g. community spaces), instead of supporting those in poverty

 Higher levels of employment (especially full-time and permanent roles) mean greater
economic opportunities for the area
Employment  More people will have higher spending power due to the extra disposable income

 Both relative and absolute change can be used to measure a change in numerical data:
o Relative change considers by what percentage (larger or smaller) did the number change from
the original number e.g. the percentage change in the amount of people employed
o Absolute change considers the difference between the original number and the new one e.g
how many more people are employed in total
Exam Tip
When you’re measuring the impacts of regeneration and whether it has been successful, you need to
consider:

 Timescales - it might take many years to see improvements in educational attainment

 The areas being compared - two places directly affected by the regeneration scheme or one
regenerated place versus one undeveloped place
 Multiple measures - whilst economic indicators might suggest the regeneration is successful, social
indicators could show that people have been negatively affected

Measuring Social Progress

 Social progress can be measured by:
o Reductions in inequalities between and within areas
o Improvements in the Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) e.g. a reduction in health deprivation
o Demographic changes - life expectancy improvements, population growth
 Looking at changes in indicators before and after a regeneration scheme will help measure its success

Social Measures of Regeneration Success

Social indicators How indicators show the success of regeneration

 Regeneration leads to improved physical and mental health due to:

o New health facilities and improved outdoor spaces encourage more
physical activity
o An improved living environment increases the sense of well-being
o Better types of employment, with higher incomes, increases food security
Health and life
and nutrition
expectancy  Signs of success include:
o Increased life expectancy
o Reduction in infant mortality
o Less risk of premature death

 More economic opportunities attract:

o People to the area and the population increases
Demographics o Increases the amount of younger, working-age people

 Regeneration projects involving increased access (e.g. improved public transport/

pedestrianised areas/cycle tracks) encourage:
o People with personal mobility challenges to access services
Access o Increased customer numbers using services
 Improved access to affordable housing, leads to a decrease in the number of
people receiving housing benefits and fewer homeless people
  Increased percentage of young people:
o Leaving school with qualifications
Education o Accessing higher levels of education

 Analysing the IMD scores before and after regeneration to show the difference in
deprivation
Deprivation o E.g. reduction in levels of crime

 Regeneration can unintentionally create greater inequality as the area

Inequality regenerated progresses, whilst other areas stagnate

Exam Tip
Remember that ‘success’ can be subjective and that any improvement may not benefit all of the
people living in an area.
Improvements in the Living Environment
 Successful regeneration schemes will lead to improvements in the living environment, which
subsequently improves social and economic security
 Improvements can be monitored through:
o Reductions in pollution levels
o Decreased amounts of abandoned and derelict land

Environmental Measures of Regeneration Success

Environmental
How indicators show the success of regeneration
indicators
 Less air pollution can improve people’s health
 Renewed habitats by removing water and soil pollution
Pollution o E.g. 3 km of waterways were cleared and 4000 trees were planted before the
2012 London Olympics

 Regenerating brownfield sites means less derelict land and the removal of
Derelict land contaminants

 Creating more spaces for people to be outside can lead to healthier, more active
Green space lifestyles

Worked example
Explain why regeneration usually improves people's local living environment
[6 marks]

 Include reasons why regeneration often brings environmental improvements

 The question is not about regeneration in general e.g. the number of jobs created
 6-mark questions without a resource require a 'broad range' of geographical ideas
o Three different reasons why improving the living environment is often part of regeneration or two
reasons in greater depth

Answer:
Regeneration is the process of making an area more attractive to people. Once the regeneration
scheme is completed, the local living environment should have improved. For example, regeneration
occurred in areas of East London in preparation for the 2012 Olympic Games. The Olympic Site was
built largely on 560 acres of brownfield land, property that had been neglected, unused, and
contaminated from previous industries. This area was not very aesthetically pleasing or healthy due
to its industrial past. The Olympic Village has been converted into modern housing for people living in
East London, along with a range of shops, restaurants and bars. Many of the grounds in the Olympic
Park have been kept as parkland and are open to the public. This regeneration scheme has created
vibrant and unique living conditions for the population, which was desolate before the Olympic
Games. This has changed people's perception of the area, which encouraged people to move there.

Regeneration can also improve the local environment, as well as improving living conditions. This can
involve reducing water, air and soil pollution, which helps renew habitats and encourages more
wildlife. During the London Olympics, 4000 trees were planted and 3 km of waterways were cleared.
As a result, the ecosystem has flourished, with the Olympic Park becoming home to a range of rare
plants and animals including the streaked bombardier beetle, black redstart bird and brown-banded
carder bee. This has improved the living environment for both nature and people.
Exam Tip
For the 6-mark questions, you may be able to use your local or contrasting places in your answer.
Look for opportunities to refer to all your studies and use the facts you have to provide developed
detailed support.
5.4.2 Urban Stakeholders & Regeneration Success
Regeneration Strategies
 In urban areas, where population density is higher, regeneration strategies are often judged
against social indicators e.g.
o The well-being of residents
o The narrowing of any gaps in inequality
o The regeneration of Salford Quays

Impacts of the Salford Quays’ regeneration scheme

 The regeneration of Salford Quays

 In the 1980s, the landscape of Salford Docklands was dominated by derelict warehouses
 To remove the industrial perception, the name changed from Salford Docklands to
Salford Quays
Background  Salford Quays is an area of Salford (Greater Manchester), near the end of the
Manchester Ship Canal

 The suburb of Pendleton, located just north of Salford Quays, received investment to:
o Modernise 1300 houses and build 1500 new homes
Housing o Develop green space to provide more places for people to meet

 Improved transport infrastructure:

o MetroLink Tram
o Pedestrianised waterfront area
 New facilities built:
Transport / o MGM cinema
Facilities o Copthorne hotel
o Water sports centre
o The Lowry museum
o The Imperial War Museum

 New employment opportunities are mainly service-based

 New employment opportunities attract a younger population (median age = 35)
 Unemployment has nearly halved in 10 years
Employment  153 businesses set-up
 23,000+ new jobs created

 £550 million MediaCityUK development e.g. BBC relocated there

Other investment

 Due to the regeneration initiated by Salford City Council (a key stakeholder), Salford Quays has
become a desirable residential location with a growing population
 Problems and conflicts have arisen due to the regeneration:
o Almost a third of Salford's existing population live in highly deprived areas
o 10,500 people live in places of extreme deprivation in Salford, whilst some neighbouring areas
have the highest levels of growth
o New housing is not affordable to the majority of locals
 In 2020, two-bedroom apartments in The Lightbox (a new MediaCityUK development)
were on sale for £325,000
 The bottom 20% of workers in Salford earn £16,894 per year
o In 2012, it was reported that only 24 of the 680 new jobs at the BBC in Salford had gone to local
people
o In 2013, local historians and local people were upset when two iconic industrial quayside cranes
were demolished - one of the last icons of Salford's industrial heritage
o As part of the Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) for Salford (2019)
 Crime has increased - 16th most deprived English local authority out of 317
 The greatest improvement for Salford has been in the health category, from 7th most
deprived to 12th
 The overall index of deprivation rank for Salford (2019)

 The relative success of Salford Quays’ regeneration will therefore be viewed differently by individuals
and groups of stakeholders e.g.
o Salford City Council will view the job creation of Salford Quays as successful, but may not be
pleased that the IMD Ranking has got worse
o Existing residents will welcome the new affordable housing development at Pendleton and the
improved environment, but will be displeased by all the extra traffic congestion and the new
unaffordable housing
o Local businesses will welcome the increasing population of wealthier, younger people to boost
profits, but not if their business has had to relocate due to the regeneration

Exam Tip
It is worth researching regeneration schemes, such as the 2012 Olympic site, to see if any further
improvements or conflicts have taken place since the initial regeneration e.g. by 2036, more than
33,000 new homes will be built in the Olympic park, with a third of the housing being affordable
Worked example
Study Figure 2 and suggest one way the writer of the blog presents a negative view of this attempt at
regeneration.
[3 marks]
IMAGE

 The specification focuses on perception and sense of place; you need to be able to use a range of
sources of information to find out about contrasting views e.g. Photos, blogs
 For this question, you need to use the text and/or the photograph to help say how the views of the
blogger are conveyed
 You need to make three linked points for these questions, rather than introducing a new idea

Answer:
The writer uses a harsh, sarcastic tone when describing this regeneration attempt by implying it is
boring, “big and ugly”, whilst further suggesting that the only reason for this sculpture is for Siemens
to advertise their products. This suggests that the regeneration has done little for the local people and
more for the interests of Siemens and its investors.
Variables to Measure Changes
 The success of urban regeneration can be judged using four variables:
o Economic e.g. increasing average incomes and the number of better-paid jobs
 
o Social e.g. reducing levels of deprivation


o Demographic changes e.g. improving life expectancy and reduced health deprivation


o Environmental e.g. reducing pollution levels and the amount of derelict land

 The economic variable:

o Is often the driving force of urban regeneration
o National benefits sometimes are seen as more important than local views e.g. the national
fracking debate
 The social variable:
o Any change should cater for the needs of locals as well as newcomers to the area
o Locals should not be excluded or forced out of their area
 The environmental variable:
o Some residents may have to live in an area that has a poor environment, as they do not have
the money to move
o An enhanced environment will attract people to live, work or visit the place
 The variable for demographic changes:
o An increase in the proportion of younger, working-age people indicates that the area has more
economic prospects or greater opportunities for tertiary education e.g. universities
o A decrease in the overall numbers of any age group, in an area, is not a positive indicator
 The regeneration strategy may have caused these groups to leave the area

Stakeholder Criteria for Success

 Urban regeneration involves a wide range of stakeholders with different social, economic and
environmental expectations and interests
o Therefore the relative success of regeneration is often viewed differently by individuals and
groups of stakeholders e.g.
 Locals
 Local government
 National government
 Developers (property, business)
 Migrants
 Local businesses
 A stakeholder’s lived experience of a place can affect their judgement of urban regeneration and
whether it has successfully changed the place, as well as the image of it.

Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Urban Regeneration

Stakeholder Viewpoint Roles Possible success measures

 Resolving conflicts over  Planning permission  Levels of internal and

regeneration  Pump priming to start large international
 Prioritising national goals national developments migration to fill job
National
e.g. attracting TNCs to vacancies
governments deindustrialised areas  Increased levels
and planners  Reduced dependency on of regional gross
benefits value added (GVA)
  Tackling inequality in the  Small or local regeneration  Census data
communities schemes  IMD data trends
 Balance out the  Strategies to help  Job creation numbers
economic, social and regeneration e.g. alcohol  Amount of derelict
Local environmental needs of free zones, city centre land regenerated
governments an area ambassadors
 Portraying a positive
external image to attract
investment

 Better housing and  The silent majority may be  Rising incomes

community facilities represented by a few  Improved health and
 Improved environment residents, who willingly give life expectancy
 More job opportunities up time to voice opinions on  Increased access to
 Maintain the level regeneration services
Local residents of ‘community spirit’  Lobby councils  Harder to measure
 Vote for local and national the level of
political parties community spirit
 Form pressure groups before and after
regeneration

 Some business owners  Lobby councils  Changes in profit

will boost income  Invest in schemes  Hiring rates of new
through regeneration employees
Local  Other business owners  Increased population,
businesses may feel threatened by especially the young
new businesses opening
up in the area

 Economic standpoint:  Funding of schemes  Amount of profit

profit is essential made
 With no lived experience  Value of the shares
of the place, the  Increase in land value
Developers emotional attachment is  Increase in property
minimal prices
 These viewpoints could
lead to high rental values

Worked example
Explain how the viewpoints of players differ for urban regeneration
[6 marks]

 Rather than briefly writing about four players, pick two or three groups and explain what their viewpoint
is and suggest why they might hold these opinions
 Better answers might discuss what has happened in named places, e.g. Salford or your local or
contrasting place case study
 To access Level 3, you need to include at least two reasons for different viewpoints

Answer:
The viewpoints of players differ for urban regeneration due to different social, economic and
environmental expectations and interests of the regeneration scheme.
Some players, such as developers, will be motivated by economic interests, whilst social variables
will not feature as highly for them due to not having a lived experience of the place. The developers
will prioritise money over social aspects, as they will have invested a considerable amount of money
into the regeneration scheme and will want to make as much profit as possible. For example, after the
2012 London Olympic Games, the Athletes’ Village was sold to Qatari Diar Real Estate Investment
Company for £557 million. The company has transformed this area into the East Village providing
over 2,800 homes for people. On average, properties are now worth £601,000 and rents begin at
£1,750 per month for a studio flat. The East Village is now worth approximately 3 times what the
company paid for it.

Other players, such as local residents, will be motivated by social interest. The local residents will
want to see their quality of life improved, with more services and facilities, more affordable housing
and a better environment. The environment was dramatically improved during the regeneration of Lea
Valley for the Olympic Games as large amounts of derelict, industrial wasteland was transformed into
cleaner, open spaces. However, some local residents were evicted from their homes to make way for
the regeneration, such as Clay Lane Housing Estate. Gentrification subsequently increased house
prices in the area, making them unaffordable for the original residents. To live in the Olympic Village
after the Games, people needed to earn between £60,000 - £90,000 per year, whilst the average
income for local residents was approximately £27,000. This has led to the destruction of the East
London community and culture.
Exam Tip
Not all stakeholders are equal at influencing the character and management of a regeneration
scheme. Generally, national or local governments, alongside developers, will have the power and
resources to influence the planned regeneration scheme. Local businesses and residents might be
consulted about their views on the regeneration scheme, but not all these viewpoints will be
considered in the final plans.
5.4.3 Rural Stakeholders & Regeneration Success
Regeneration Strategies
 Large-scale developments are less common in rural areas; however, over recent years these areas
have come under pressure from:
o Housing developers
o Tourists
o City-dwellers seeking a country life
 Some decisions on rural regeneration and rebranding strategies generate more conflict within local
communities than others, such as:


o Renewable energy


o
 Developments, such as wind and solar farms, often lead to NIMBYism e.g. local
people are for renewable energy but don’t want wind turbines behind their house


o Housing developments


o
 Local residents often oppose housing developments, despite knowing more houses are
needed:
 
Air and noise pollution created during construction

The extra traffic congestion created on the roads
 Developers attempt to dismiss the concerns of existing residents by calling them
NIMBYs


o Derelict land

 Local people in rural areas welcome nature establishing itself in former industrial
sites e.g. quarry pits
 Regeneration plans seeking to build on these rural brownfield sites are often
met with negative responses from local residents


o Conservation

 The conservation of natural areas is often an important element of regeneration

schemes for locals
 There is an expectation that regeneration plans should have a negligible impact on local
wildlife and ecosystems.
 Local people and conservation groups (e.g. Wildlife Trust, The National Trust) will not
support projects which fail to do this

Regeneration along the North Antrim coast

Impacts of regeneration at the Giant’s Causeway

Regeneration Along the North Antrim Coast

 County Antrim is located in the north-east of Northern Ireland

 The Giant’s Causeway was designated a World Heritage Site in 1986 because of its
unique geology and striking landscape
Background  Attracts over 1 million tourists per year
 A fire destroyed the old visitor centre in 2000

 Provides 75 full-time jobs

 Challenges for local communities:
o Overtourism (too many visitors)
o The money spent on parking etc goes to the National Trust, not the local
The Giant’s causeway community
visitor centre o Community access to the site is now limited by the National Trust, despite
having had access to it for thousands of year
o 65% of the community were not involved in the tourist industry, so make
little monetary gain or contribute to tourism development

 National Trust - increased visitor numbers, increased revenue

 Moyle District Council - more employment, higher tax revenues
Criteria of success for  Local community - less disruption due to tourist numbers
different stakeholders  Translink (public transport network) - increased demand for services, more profits
 Local businesses (e.g. cafes, craft shops, hotel) - more customers, more profit

Conflict created via

 Development plans to create the Bushmills Dunes Golf Resort and Spa at Runkerry
proposed golf course
  Runkerry is 500 metres away from the Giant’s Causeway - a UNESCO World
Heritage Site, which led to objections from environmentalists (e.g. the National
Trust, UNESCO)
 Due to strong opposition and inadequate finances, the golf course did not go
ahead

Worked example
With reference to a named example, explain the limitations of the strategies used to regenerate a rural place.
[6 marks]

 The question asks for a rural location, not an urban location

 To access Level 3, a named example must be included
 Better answers will include two example of regeneration strategies used in the named location

Answer:
Regeneration strategies may involve economic, social and environmental aims and it is difficult to
meet all of these in one strategy. This results in limitations for different stakeholders, depending on
their social and economic characteristics, and their level of environmental concerns. The North Antrim
coast, in Northern Ireland, is famous for the Giant’s Causeway, which is a protected UNESCO World
Heritage Site. Due to its importance, there are a huge number of stakeholders involved in any
development decisions; and this can lead to conflict. Plans to develop a £100 million golf resort,
called Bushmills Dunes Golf Resort and Spa at Runkerry (500 metres from the Heritage Site) created
conflict. The National Trust believed that the golf course, with its 120-bedroomed hotel and 70 lodges,
would impact on the distinctive landscape, despite the 360 jobs it would create in the area. The golf
course development failed to materialise due to financial issues.

The Giant’s Causeway is also a popular tourist attraction, attracting more than 1 million visitors per
year. As a result, The National Trust wanted to create a flagship visitors’ centre, after the previous
one burnt down. The new visitors’ centre opened in 2012, creating a further 75 full-time jobs.
However, the majority of the local community gain very little from living in this tourist honeypot and
experience a variety of challenges. Their access to the site, which previous generations have had
access to for thousands of years, is restricted by the National Trust, who now manage the land. The
money spent on parking at the visitors’ centre and in the visitors’ centre goes back to the National
Trust, rather than the community. The local residents feel unsafe on the roads due to the volume of
traffic, international tourists driving on the wrong side of the road and coaches driving too fast. So,
despite the economic benefits to Moyle District Council and the National Trust, living so close to a
World Heritage Site is limiting the quality of life of local communities.
Variables to Measure Changes
 As with urban settings, the success of rural regeneration can be judged using four variables:
o Economic e.g. increasing average incomes and the number of better, paid jobs


o Social e.g. reducing levels of deprivation


o Demographic changes e.g. improving life expectancy and reduced health deprivation


o Environmental e.g. reducing pollution levels and the amount of derelict land

 The Egan Wheel is a useful technique to use when judging the success of rural regeneration strategies
 o It can also be used in urban settings

Using the Egan Wheel to plan sustainable

regeneration schemes

Exam Tip
The Egan Wheel can be used to create an evaluative scoring system, which could be used as part of
a questionnaire or interview. This technique could be used to compare your two chosen places. A
small sample of a questionnaire is shown below.

Stakeholder Criteria for Success

 Rural regeneration involves a wide range of stakeholders with different social, economic and
environmental expectations and interests
o Therefore the relative success of regeneration is often viewed differently by individuals and
groups of stakeholders e.g.
 Locals
 Local government
 National government
 Developers (property, business)
 Land owners
 Local businesses
 Farmers
 A stakeholder’s lived experience of a place can affect their judgement of rural regeneration and
whether it has successfully changed the place, as well as the image of it
 Successful rural regeneration may involve:
 o Better leisure and retail
o More jobs
o More visitors
o Better housing
o Higher biodiversity
 Rural areas which cause the most amount of conflict are:
o National Parks
o The Urban-rural fringe
o Greenbelts

Stakeholders’ Perceptions on Rural Regeneration

Stakeholder Viewpoint

 More likely to have a perceived sense of a rural place rather than a lived experience,
so the needs of the local community might not be met
National governments
 Development plans will be carefully considered due to the government’s
and planners responsibility to protect rural areas for future generations (e.g. National Parks)

 The long-term health of the local economy and the traditions and heritage of the
area are more likely to be considered by members of the local government
Local governments o These members are more likely to have a lived experience of the place they
work in

 Residents may have a lengthy lived experience of a place, with multiple generations
having lived there
 Some residents will welcome regeneration, especially if they will benefit from it
Local residents  Some residents will not want the area to change, especially if the regeneration plan is
not sympathetic to the character of the area

 Will encourage a regeneration scheme that will expand their market and customer
base
 A new development will be viewed more positively if it involves the local business
Local businesses community in the decision-making process
 Local businesses may view a development project negatively if it increases
competition in the area

 People who are regular visitors or own a second home in a rural area, will have a
different lived experience to the locals
Second home owners  Visitors and holiday home owners are mostly seasonal (over the summer months), so
and visitors may favour regeneration projects that improve their experience over that time
period

6. Diverse Places6.1 Population Structure Variation

6.1.1 Variations in Population Structure
6.1.1 Variations in Population Structure
Variations in UK Population
  Populations vary over time and from place to place
 Populations can vary by:
o Total numbers (rising and falling over time)
o Population Structure
o Increasing in some places, whilst decreasing or remaining stable in other places

What is ‘place’?

 Places (like areas and locations) are parts of geographical space, where physical and human
elements of a given society coexist
 A place is shaped and constantly transformed by:
o The physical nature of the place
o What its residents do for a living
o Connections:
 Internal - people, employment, housing, services
 External - government policies, globalisation
 An important aspect of place is how individuals and groups of people perceive, engage with and form
attachments to it

The UK’s uneven population growth

 Characteristics of the UK population:

o A total population of 67.8 million (July 2023)
o The population has grown by over 11 million people in the last 50 years
o It has grown unevenly:
 London and the south-east have seen a rapid population growth rate
 Between 2004-14, the population of the UK increased by 4.3 million people, with eight
out of the ten local authorities experiencing the most growth were located in London
 The north-east of England has been growing at a much slower rate
o The UK has an ageing population as life expectancy has increased and death rates have
fallen due to better medical care

IMAGE

The UK’s population growth

The Factors Driving Population Growth Within Areas of the UK

London and the south-east The north-east of England

Rapid population growth over the last 20 years (29.5% Slower population growth over the last 20 years
increase), due to: (1.7% increase), due to:

 The growing knowledge, financial and service industries  High levels of deindustrialisation in the
 People, from within the UK and overseas, moving to region as manufacturing (e.g. steel
London for jobs production) has moved overseas
 Plentiful opportunities for tertiary education, including  High levels of unemployment and fewer
over 30 institutions in London e.g. universities economic opportunities for younger people
 High-tech businesses are attracted to this area to take  People have migrated away from the area to
advantage of the highly-skilled labour find employment, in particular to the south-
east
Exam Tip
For this unit on Diverse Places, you will have studied your own two contrasting places. These revision
notes will focus on two contrasting places, Liverpool and Lerwick (in Shetland). You could use
these notes as additional case studies, alongside your own, in your exam answers.
IMAGE

The location of Liverpool and Lerwick

Rural-Urban Continuum & Population

 Places can be arranged along the rural-urban continuum, depending on how rural or urban a place is
 Population characteristics vary along the rural-urban continuum:
o Population change
 In England, both rural and urban areas have seen an increase in overall population
between 2011 and 2019
 The rural population increased by 5.2% and urban by 6.2%
 Within rural areas, the greatest rate of population increase was in rural towns and the
rural areas which fringe urban areas (5.7%)
 Within urban areas, population increase was the highest in major
urban conurbations (6.9%), such as Birmingham and London
o Population density
 The population density Is lower in rural areas and higher in urban areas
o Population structure

The Population Structure for Urban and Rural places

Urban areas Rural areas

 Urban places offer more economic and social  Rural places have more limited economic and social
opportunities with a wider range of businesses opportunities as there are fewer businesses and
and industries to provide jobs industries to provide jobs
 This leads to urban areas having a younger and  Rural places tend to have older populations, with
more ethnically diverse population, with higher higher numbers of older adults (over 50 year olds)
proportions of young adults (20-40 years old)  As a result, rural populations show lower fertility
 As a result, fertility rates and population growth rates and higher mortality rates than urban areas
are higher than rural areas  The rural population is also less ethnically diverse
due to the limited opportunities

Population density

IMAGE

Population densities within the rural-urban continuum model

Exam Tip
Make sure you know where your two contrasting places sit on the rural-urban continuum e.g.

 Lerwick, a rural town with a population of approximately 7000, would be in between isolated hamlets
and commuter villages on the continuum due to its remote location (Situated on Shetland, an island,
123 miles from the Scottish mainland)
 Liverpool, a city of 498,042 (2019) would cover the categories of suburbs, inner city and CBD
  Other factors can also cause population density to vary, including:
o Accessibility - places that are more accessible will have higher population densities
o Physical factors (relief, extreme climates) - flatter, low-lying land will have higher population
densities
o Historical development - during the industrial revolution, workers will have lived in small
houses close to their place of work, creating higher population densities (in the area which is
now classed as the inner city)
o Planning policies
 The UK’s Green Belt policy aims to prevent urban sprawl by keeping land around
major urban areas open and undeveloped
 Leading to inner city areas becoming more densely populated
 Local authorities also built new suburbs outside the Green Belt (commuter villages),
which have become more densely populated

 The UK’s population distribution

Exam Tip
Make sure you know the difference between population distribution and population density as
these concepts are easily confused.

Population distribution is the pattern of where people live, whereas population density is the number
of people per unit of land. So population density can be used to measure population distribution.

Population structure

 Population structures (e.g. age, gender, ethnic diversity) vary from place to place and over time
o Population pyramids can be used to highlight changes in age and gender
 Population pyramid for the UK (2019)

 The age of population varies between locations:

o Remote rural areas have a higher proportion of older people, who wish to retire to quiet and
beautiful surroundings
o Rural areas have fewer young people as they leave to look for work elsewhere
 This is due to the mechanisation of farming decreasing employment opportunities
o Urban areas attract younger people as there are more job and educational opportunities

Causes of Variations in Population

 Population dynamics and population structures are also a result of differences in:
o Fertility rates, and birth and mortality rates
o International and internal migration
 Places with high fertility and birth rates, such as Niger, will have larger family sizes and a growing
population with young dependents
 Places with high mortality rates, such as Bulgaria, will face natural decrease and a declining
population

The components of population change

  Population change is the outcome of two processes:
o Natural change
o Net migration
 If natural change and net migration are both positive, the rate of population growth will be dynamic
 If natural change and net migration are both negative, the rate of population decline will be dynamic
 If natural change and net migration are working in opposition, the rate of population growth will be
less dynamic as the processes are cancelling each other out
 Population change within the UK (2019):
o The UK’s population continues to grow, but at a slower rate than previous years
o In 2019, the UK experienced a natural change of 109,973 with 712,680 live births and 604,707
deaths
 The lowest level of natural change since 2003
o The UK’s fertility rate has been declining since 2012
 The average number of children per woman was 1.68
o Migration to the UK has been the main reason of population growth since the 1990s
 An estimated 313,000 more people moved to the UK than left

Exam Tip
Investigate the birth and death rate, as well as international and internal net migration, for your
two chosen contrasting places.

Population Demographic Indicators (2019)

Location Birth rate Death rate

Liverpool 10.7 10.3

Shetland 11.2 9.0

Net Number of Long-term Migrants -

Staying Longer than 12 Months (2019)

Location International Internal

Liverpool +3217 -1152

Shetland -50 +20

Worked example
Study Figure 1 and suggest reasons for the changes to the population of England and Wales shown
[6 marks]
Figure 1 - Changes to the population of England and Wales, 1991-2011 (UK census data)

 This is a data stimulus question, so evidence needs to be used to answer the question
 The bar chart needs to be studied carefully - it shows changing ethnicity, with the additional information
about changing total population
 Both pieces of data need to be explained with reference to immigration (both EU and non-EU
movement) and internal growth (fertility rates and birth rate)
 A logical answer might start with total numbers and then move on to suggest reasons for the change in
ethnicity
Answer:
Between 1991 and 2001, the total population increased by just over 2 million, and by 2011, there
were a further 3.2 million people living in England and Wales. This population growth is due to natural
change with higher fertility and birth rates, and declining death rates and longer life expectancies due
medical advancements. Some of the population growth will also have been caused by immigration
into England and Wales.

The accelerating population growth, between 2001 and 2011, was a result of higher levels of
immigration. In 2004 and 2007, 12 countries joined the EU, which promotes free movement of
workers. These countries were mainly from Eastern Europe, which were not as economically strong
as the UK, meaning many younger workers will have migrated from Eastern Europe to England and
Wales in search of higher paid jobs. Higher levels of immigration will have further boosted the total
population.

With regards to ethnicity, the increase in percentages from white-other and white-Irish will be due to
the freedom of movement of EU citizens. Nationalities, such as the Polish, French and German, will
have migrated to the UK to work. The increase in the non-white population is partly due to
immigration, but also existing UK black and Asian populations having children, which doubled the
percentage between 1991 and 2011.
Exam Tip
You need to bear in mind that statistical data can quickly become out of date e.g.

The census only takes place every ten years.

6.1.2 Variations in Population Characteristics
Variation between Settlements
 In the UK, there are similar numbers of males (49%) and females (51%) for most ethnic groups
o The exceptions are Chinese, Black Caribbean and Other White ethnic groups, where females
represent 53% of the population (2021 census)
 Settlements vary in their population characteristics (gender and ethnicity)
o Some urban areas have more males than females due to the industries located there
 E.g. the offshore oil industry in Aberdeen is dominated by male employees
o Rural areas have more single men than women (103 males for every 100 females) as women
are more likely to move to urban areas for job opportunities
o Coastal areas, especially the south coast and east coast of England, have higher rates
of elderly people
 On average, women live longer than men, so these coastal retirement locations tend to
have more older women
o There are more male international economic migrants than females as male immigrants are
more likely to get a job compared to females
 This often leads to inner city areas having more young male immigrants
 The ethnic diversity of a place increases too
o Urban areas attract more international migrants as they cater for a wider range of cultural
needs e.g. places of worship for religious practice

 The population pyramids for Liverpool (an urban area) and Shetland (a rural area) show differences
e.g.
o Liverpool has a larger proportion of younger, working-age people, whilst Shetland has more of
an ageing population

IMAGE

Population pyramid for Liverpool (2019)

 Image

Population pyramid for Shetland (2019)

 There are significant variations in population characteristics within larger urban settlements (towns and
cities)
o The inner city areas has a larger proportion of younger working age people, whilst
the suburbs are dominated by families
o The inner city attracts higher numbers of university students and graduates (internal
migration), compared to the suburbs
o The inner city has higher levels of international migrants, due to social clustering, than the
suburbs
o The population of inner cities has a wider ethnic diversity than the suburbs

Worked example
Study the population pyramids below and suggest one reason why the population structures of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne and Northumberland differ
[3 marks]

 A starter reason is required, which is then extended for a further two points
 The answer needs to be based on the population pyramids shown in the resource
 There should be a link to the resource in the answer
o It doesn't have to be a direct quote or use of data
o It could be an idea or example triggered by the two contrasting population pyramids
 Try to select a broader starter reason (e.g. migration) as this is then easier to extend the answer by a
further two marks

Answer:
Internal migration has led to a key difference in the population pyramids. The population pyramid of
Newcastle has a much higher percentage of people in the 18-25 year old category compared to
Northumberland. This is because young people are migrating to Newcastle for education
opportunities at Newcastle University, whilst older people are migrating to rural areas, like
Northumberland, for the peace and quiet.
Variations in Cultural Diversity
 The extent of ethnicity and cultural diversity of places within the UK is being driven by:
o The social clustering of immigrants
 Immigrants become highly concentrated in particular places within cities e.g. Brent’s (a
borough in north-west Greater London) population consists of 56% non-UK born
residents
 Clustering occurs largely due to the availability of cheaper housing and the feeling of
safety created by an already established community, with a shared language, religion
and culture
o The pull of accessible cities - ethnic immigrant groups are more concentrated in Britain’s
major cities (e.g. London, Birmingham) due to more job opportunities
o Remote rural areas will be less culturally diverse due to physical factors making
accessibility harder (mountainous terrain, difficult climates)
o Government policies
 Since the European Union (EU) introduced free movement of EU citizens in 1995, the
number of international migrants has doubled in the UK
 Half of the international migrants settled in the South East region
 Skills shortages in the knowledge-based industries force companies to recruit from
overseas e.g. the EU, USA and Australia
  Shortages of semi-skilled and unskilled workers (e.g. refuse collection, construction,
childcare) are filled with workers from the EU, as well as southern Asia and West Africa

Ethnic diversity (%
population)

2021 (England) 2022 (Scotland) census data

 Ethnic diversity for Liverpool and Shetland is lower than the averages for England and Wales, where
18% identify as non-white
 Liverpool has a much wider range of ethnic diversity than Shetland
 Delving deeper into Liverpool’s ethnic diversity:
o Approximately 5% of the population identify as “Other White”, predominantly from Poland
o Between the 2011 and 2021 census, the amount of people identifying as “Other White”
residents in Liverpool has doubled
o After English, the highest non-English languages are Arabic and Polish
o The area with the highest rate of non-White English/British is in Princes Park (69%),
an inner city area of Liverpool

Exam Tip
It is a good idea to create a glossary of the key terms used for each topic. Continue to add to your
glossary as you work through the topic e.g.

 International migration
 Internal migration
 Fertility rate
 Social Clustering

To make this even easier, key terms are highlighted in blue on our revision pages. Hover over these
terms and a definition will appear!
Changes in Cultural Characteristics
 The cultural characteristics of a place can be influenced by internal and international migration, as
well as fertility and mortality rates

 The majority of places experiencing cultural change will be urban areas that have higher levels
of ethnic diversity
o The concentration of ethnic groups in certain areas will lead to the introduction of food and
clothing shops on the high streets
o Fertility rates could rise if the immigrants’ culture promotes larger families
 Internal migration can also lead to cultural changes within a place
o The influx of students into a neighbourhood can lead to studentification of an area
 Family homes becoming a house of multiple occupation (HMOs) for students
 Increase in the amounts services directed at students e.g. discount stores, fast food
outlets
Worked example
Suggest reasons for the different levels of cultural diversity between Newcastle-upon-Tyne and
Northumberland
[6 marks]

 There is no expectation that your have studied either location, so specific knowledge about the places
is not required
 The expectation is that you recognise that Newcastle is an urban area, whilst Northumberland is rural,
which leads to variations in cultural diversity

Answer:
International and internal migration is changing the cultural characteristics of places. Northumberland
will have less variation in cultural diversity as internal migration to this area will be predominantly by
older, retired people. This leads to an ageing population in rural areas, like Northumberland, and as a
result there are less services aimed at economically active migrants. There are also fewer
opportunities for employment in rural areas, attracting less migrants and therefore limiting cultural
diversity.

The vast majority of international migrants will end up in urban areas, like Newcastle, due to the
variety of job opportunities available. This leads to greater cultural diversity as the immigrants will
bring their own culture. The introduction of new shops, places of worship and eating places will reflect
this and this may result in the area being unofficially renamed, for example, Chinatown in London.

Within these urban areas, like Newcastle, immigrants become highly concentrated in particular places
within cities. For example, Brent’s (a borough in north-west Greater London) population consists of
56% non-UK born residents. This social clustering occurs largely due to the availability of cheaper
housing and the feeling of safety created by an already established community, with a shared
language, religion and culture.
6.1.3 Connections, Demographic & Cultural Characteristics
Regional & National Influences on Place Characteristics
 Regional and national influences shape the demographic and cultural characteristics of places, both
through past and present connections
 Transport connections
o Larger settlements often have multiple transport routes e.g. motorways, rail
 Liverpool, located in North-west England, has significant road, rail and ferry networks

IMAGE

Transport infrastructure of Liverpool


o Smaller or more peripheral settlements often have fewer major road and rail connections
 Lerwick, located in Shetland, is relatively isolated as it has no rail service or motorways
 The transport infrastructure consists of a road network, a ferry terminal, bus routes and
an airport

IMAGE

Transport infrastructure of Lerwick

 Physical characteristics
 o The surrounding landscape can shape the character of a place
o Coastal settlements can form trade connections with other coastal settlements e.g. Liverpool’s
location on the River Mersey allowed easy trade with and access from Ireland

 This contributed to a history of Irish migration to Liverpool, widening its cultural
diversity
o Physically isolated places, such as Lerwick, experience less trade and immigration, which can
limit cultural diversity

 Industrial development
o Places can have strong historical associations with certain industries e.g.
 Fishing has been the main industry in Lerwick, since the 17th century
 Liverpool was an important hub for textile imports during the Industrial Revolution

 National policies
o Different migration policies may impact the demographics
 For example, the Windrush Generation - immigrants arriving from the Caribbean (as well
as other Commonwealth countries) to fill labour shortages after World War II, around
15% settled in Liverpool
o The Northern Powerhouse Initiative is a scheme designed to boost economic growth and
productivity in northern cities through improved transport links, and investment in science,
innovation and culture
 The government awarded a £35 million grant to the Liverpool2 port programme to
enable larger container ships to dock at Liverpool

Exam Tip
The Specification expects you to study two places to examine the past and present connections that
have shaped their demographic and cultural characteristics. You should have first-hand experience of
one place and the other place should be significantly different.

Here are some enquiry questions and data sources you could use to examine the regional and
national connections which have shaped the demographic and cultural characteristics of your chosen
places.

Scale Enquiry questions Data sources

Regional How well are the places connected in terms of the OS maps / public transport timetables
transport infrastructure?
Consider commuting, accessing services
Are there major settlements nearby and how do they and leisure
impact the places?
Local authority and regional enterprise
What are the local authority’s policies on development? zone websites

What are the political motivations of the local councils? Last local election results / Social media

How strong is the sense of community? Local newspapers / social media

What are the pressures for change regionally? Local newspapers / social media
National What are the political motivations of the national Last general election results
government?
Newspapers / social media
 What are the pressures for change nationally and how Look at the Index of Multiple
does it affect the place? Deprivation (IMD) results

How do the places compare with national averages of

wealth and deprivation?

How accessible are the places to important economic

hubs?

Impact on people

 All places have a perceived image, which shapes people’s view of the place as either positive or
negative
o Liverpool could be perceived as a modern, busy place, where there is lots to do
o Lerwick could be perceived as being very remote (12-hour ferry trip from Aberdeen) with few
services
 These images and perceptions can affect the lives of students and other groups of people:
o Students might not want to study at a university due to their perception of the place
o Young people may feel they want to leave a place with a less positive image
o Places with more positive images tend to attract more people (internal and international
migration)
o There are likely to be more job opportunities in places with positive images as companies are
also attracted to them

 Continuity (things staying the same) and change affect people in different ways
 Deindustrialisation can have a number of impacts including:
o Higher levels of unemployment
o The connection between people (who worked in the industry) and local industries can remain
strong even after the industry has disappeared e.g. the steel industry in Middlesbrough
o If the abandoned buildings remain, with no development, young people and migrants often
perceive the area as run-down with fewer economic opportunities
o Development of the area may attract migrants, with a wider set of skills, in search of
employment opportunities
o Older workers with the original, older industrial skill set may resent the new forms of industry
and the migrants

 Migration
o With new economic development, places can attract a younger and more ethnically diverse
population
o Some people may welcome this diversity and learn more about the different cultures
o Other people may not like the change in the demographics of the local area and oppose
immigration
o As urban centres become more crowded, wealthier people move out of these areas

 Inner city regeneration

o Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the UK authorities demolished terraced housing, replacing
them with high-rise flats to cope with the increased demand for housing
o Many people felt more isolated from one another in these tower blocks, which reduced the
sense of community
o During the 1990s, new developments replaced the tower blocks, some of which were
experiencing structural decay due to the rushed construction
o Inner city areas are undergoing regeneration (funded by the UK government) to create
sustainable developments combining housing, leisure and business and improve community
spirit
 Improving broadband and mobile infrastructure
o The rollout of a more efficient broadband and mobile infrastructure has enabled more
businesses to operate from rural areas
o It has also encouraged more young people to stay in villages
o It allows people to work from home and reduces the need to commute to urban centres
 Diversification
o Some farmers choose to diversify their farmland e.g.
 Generating renewable energy (solar farms)
 Building new holiday accommodation for tourists
 Offering leisure pursuits (alpaca trekking, quad biking)
o This has created new employment opportunities in rural areas, especially for younger people
o Rural places experiencing this diversification will attract more young people
 Growth of commuter villages
o As rural villages grow due to counter-urbanisation, they begin to lose their rural character e.g.
increased housing density
o Urban incomers may retain their urban focus, spending a lot of their time and money in the city
o Some long-term residents of these rural villages may resent these changes and the new
arrivals

International & Global Influences

 International and global influences can also shape the demographics and cultural characteristics of
places
o Demographics and cultural characteristics may change if there is free movement of migration

 Transnational corporations (TNCs) may set up part of their business in an area, creating jobs and
enhancing the local economy
o Global companies, like Unilever and Princes Food, have headquarters in Liverpool

 Globalisation and TNCs have contributed to deindustrialisation with the global shift in manufacturing
to emerging and developing countries
o In these countries, wages are lower and working hours are longer, so TNCs make more profit
o The global shift in the manufacturing industry led to the decline in coal, glass and vehicle
manufacturing, and shipbuilding in Liverpool and the surrounding area of Merseyside
o Liverpool’s workforce was 30% smaller in 1990 compared to the 1970s, due to
deindustrialisation
 Liverpool’s population declined annually by 2% over this period

 International migration
o The free movement of people gave European Union (EU) citizens the right to travel, live and
work in any EU country
 2.5% of Liverpool's population are EU migrants (predominantly Polish)
 In Lerwick, when the fish processing factory is in full production, the staffing numbers
double
 These temporary roles are mainly filled by seasonal workers from the EU
o International migration influences a place through food, music, language and religions e.g.
 The Al-Rahma mosque in Liverpool holds up to 2500 worshippers, reflecting the
religious diversity within the city
 In Lerwick, there is still evidence of Norse (Viking) influences in the area, such as the
names of places, geographical features and birds
 The Viking and Norse heritage is celebrated annually with the Up Helly Aa
celebration in January

 Global competition may cause a place to experience economic decline

 o E.g. In 2010, the mackerel fishing industry in Lerwick faced strong competition, when Iceland’s
government increased the fishing quota, allowing Icelandic fishermen to catch higher volumes of
fish
 Tourism can increase the number of international visitors when a place advertises its unique features
o For 317,156 people visit The Beatles Story exhibition in Liverpool every year, with 60% coming
from overseas
 International transport connections make places more accessible and attractive to TNCs
o E.g. Liverpool John Lennon Airport connects the city to 23 countries across Europe, North Africa
and the Middle East; handling over 5 million people every year

 Cultural and sporting events

o Large events can help shape the culture of a place and raise its cultural profile.
o E.g. Liverpool is home to the World Museum (displaying artefacts from around the world) and
was awarded the European Capital of Culture in 2008
 This positive image has resulted in Liverpool being the fifth most visited UK city by
international tourists

Exam Tip
The Specification expects you to study two places to examine the past and present connections that
have shaped their demographic and cultural characteristics. You should have first-hand experience of
one place and the other place should be significantly different.

Here are some enquiry questions and data sources you could use to examine the global and
international connections which have shaped the demographic and cultural characteristics of your
chosen places.

Scale Enquiry questions Data sources

Global  Are any global brands (TNCs) present – retail outlets,  Field observation
factories and offices?  Tourist information centres/visitor
 Does the place attract global tourists? numbers
 How well connected to the internet are your places?  Broadband speed tests

International  Are the places directly affected by specific  Look for signs in an area showing
government/EU policies or designations? players involved
 Is the place ‘twinned’ with a location abroad? Why  Use the local authority websites
was that place chosen?  Use a website e.g. OECD.stat
 How do the places compare with international
averages of wealth and deprivation?

Exam Tip
Make sure you can distinguish between the scales of influence (regional, national, international and
global) and where possible indicate which scale has had the most influence on the place and why.

 Regional: the political viewpoint of the local authority e.g. Shetland Council was strongly opposed to
Brexit due to the amount of seasonal EU migrants it needs for the fishing industry
 National: impact of policies from the central government, or expansion/demise of a business that has a
national presence e.g. closure of glass factories in Liverpool due to industrialisation
 International: impact of EU policies or international trade agreements e.g. Some Shetland fishermen
were in favour of Brexit and the removal of fishing quotas established by the EU Common Agricultural
Policy
 Global: impact of TNCs in the area or impact of migration e.g. Unilever headquarters in Liverpool
employs 1500 people
Worked example
Assess whether places are impacted more by global or national influences
[12 marks]

 Start by defining global and national influences

 Identify key players (stakeholders) and explain their influence on places
 Explain how places might be affected by national influences, referring to specific places, such as
Liverpool and Lerwick, or the places you have studied
 Explain how places might be affected by global influences, referring to specific places, such as
Liverpool and Lerwick, or the places you have studied
 Write a conclusion that states whether places are impacted more by global or national influences
o This should be based on your personal opinion, but also needs to draw on evidence used within
your answer

Answer:
A place's demographic and cultural characteristics are influenced by both national and global factors.
Places can be influenced nationally by policies of the central government or a change in the structure
of a national business (expansion or closures in that place). Global factors are at a much larger scale
(e.g. International migration) and highlight the connections between countries. These influences
include the movement of people, capital, information and resources; and can make places more
demographically and culturally diverse, whilst other places remain less dynamic.

One of the most important players that can influence a place is the national government, through their
policies and decisions. Different migration policies can impact the demographics of a population. For
example, immigrants arriving from the Caribbean (known as the Windrush Generation) were given the
right to live and work in the UK, which helped fill labour shortages and rebuild the economy after
World War II. Around 15% of these immigrants settled in Liverpool, introducing their culture, food and
music to the area. The national government can also develop schemes to encourage economic
growth and productivity in different regions, including the Northern Powerhouse Initiative’s focus on
northern cities like Liverpool. This scheme is designed to improve transport links, and investment in
science, innovation and culture. These improvements will encourage economic growth, attracting
more migrants to these areas. However, recent data shows that Liverpool’s net internal migration is -
1152, which suggests that the Northern Powerhouse scheme might not be completely successful yet.
This net migration might also be a reflection of Liverpool’s limited transport links to other urban areas;
for instance, it will not be a key part of the government’s HS2 high speed railway line.

The national government also has the potential to negatively influence an area. Lerwick’s main
source of income is based on the fishing industry, from catching the fish to processing them in a
factory. During the busiest periods, the processing factory needs to double the amount of staff, which
was seasonally sourced from the EU. Brexit will make this seasonal migration harder, which could
negatively affect production in Lewick and reduce economic output. The impact of Brexit is one of the
possible reasons for Lerwick’s net international migration of -50 and its limited ethnic diversity (only
3% of the population identifies as non-white).

Global influences also play a part in shaping a place, such as globalisation and global competition. In
Liverpool, between the 1970s and 1990s, the workforce shrank by 20% due to deindustrialisation.
The global shift in the manufacturing industry, to developing and emerging countries, led to the
decline in coal, glass and vehicle manufacturing, and shipbuilding in Liverpool and the surrounding
area of Merseyside. This led to people moving away from Liverpool, reducing the population annually
by 2% over this period. However, whilst manufacturing declined in the UK, the quaternary sector (e.g.
knowledge based industries) grew, encouraged by the decisions of the UK’s government. TNCs have
established their headquarters in the UK to take advantage of the skilled workforce, which
has created jobs and enhanced the local economies. Global companies, like Unilever and Princes
Food, have headquarters in Liverpool, employing over 1500 people. These employment opportunities
have led to a high proportion of younger working aged people in Liverpool, which is evident in its
population pyramid.

The EU’s policies have also impacted places within the UK. For instance, fishermen in Lerwick had
quotas placed upon them by the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy. These quotas limited their catch
and therefore their income. Due to Brexit, these quotas have been removed and Lerwick fishermen
can now fish more competitively. As Leriwck’s main economy is the fishing industry, there are slightly
more working aged men than women living there.

In conclusion, both national and global players influence a place. However, I believe that the UK
government (a national player) ultimately has the greatest impact on places through their policies and
decisions. For example, globalisation and industrialisation created a decline in the UK’s
manufacturing, which led to the UK’s government encouraging the quaternary sector to develop and
boost the economy of different places, such as Liverpool. This has led to cities attracting younger,
working age people to move there, as well as international migrants, which alter the cultural and
demographic characteristics of a place.
Impacts of Demographic & Cultural Changes on Identity
 Demographic and cultural changes in an area can affect the lives of people and influence
their identity
 Where people share similar ideals and values, a community (with shared beliefs and a way of life) can
form and create a collective identity
 This collective identity becomes connected to a place, so changes to a place can affect how people
view themselves
 Any changes to the place can impact how people view themselves and alter their sense of
belonging to that community
o Some people embrace the change (e.g. increasing diversity)
o Other people may feel that the original identity of a place has been lost

 Migration to a place can change the sense of community

o If a place is economically successful, it can attract more migrants, leading to a more diverse
community
o Migrants bring their own cultures (beliefs, values, way of life), which can enhance the local
community
o The mixing of cultures can make people more tolerant and open-minded:
 In Liverpool, Chinatown celebrates the long history of Chinese immigration to the city
through its unique architecture and authentic restaurants
 Despite the limited ethnic diversity in Lerwick, it embraces its Nordic heritage through the
Nordic street names and annual Viking festival
o However, local people may feel their community is being eroded by the addition of new cultures
o If there is a strong place identity, an influx of migrants could weaken this
 Feelings of cultural erosion can lead to racial tension between different ethnic groups
 E.g. the 1981 Toxteth riots highlighted how Black people felt about being targeted by
stop and search tactics of the police
 The riots were exacerbated by the poverty and deprivation experienced by the residents
of Toxteth (which has a high percentage of ethnic minorities and unemployed)
o Industrial change

 If the function of a place changes, old industries may close down and be
replaced by new industries
 This could lead to a divided community between those people who can work in
the new economy and those who have lost their jobs
  The rise in inequality can affect the identity of people in the area, as the people
who are now unemployed may feel isolated

Exam Tip
The Specification expects you to study two places to consider how demographic and cultural changes
have influenced people’s identity. You should have first-hand experience of one place and the other
place should be significantly different.

Here are some enquiry questions and data sources you could use to examine recent demographic
and cultural changes.

Enquiry questions Source

Have the populations of your places changed 2011 and 2021 census
over the last intercensal period; if so, how?

To what extent has population change been 2021 census

the result of migration?
What cultural changes are evident? Field survey

Web searches for services

catering for minority groups
Has the mix of socioeconomic groups Office for National Statistics
changed? (ONS)

2011 and 2021 census

Are demographic and cultural changes Office for National Statistics
significantly changing the type of people (ONS)
living in the places?
2011 and 2021 census
In your opinion is the area developing or in House prices
decline?
Social media

Field surveys:

Developing evidence
- gentrification, improved
quality of houses, cafes and
shops

Declining evidence -
deteriorating / vacant housing,
empty retail outlets
In what ways have recent demographic and Oral accounts or interviews of
cultural changes impacted on the identity of different groups of people e.g.
local residents and the place?
White British

Other ethnic origin

Secondary school students

Adults with children living at

home

Retired people

6. Diverse Places
6.2 Diverse Living Spaces
6.2.1 Lived Experience & Perception of Urban Places
Changing Perception of Urban Places
 Individuals or groups of people will have different perceptions of living spaces due to a variety of factors:
o A person’s lived experience and understanding of the area gives them an insider’s perspective
o The media experience of a place (films, social media, news, TV programmes, music and art) will help
develop an outsider’s perspective of a place
o A person’s gender, ethnicity, age and life cycle stage can also influence perceptions
o Wealth can determine perceptions
 A person with good health, a high income and good qualifications will view a place differently
from someone living in poverty and deprivation
o The characteristics of a place can be valued differently by people e.g.
 Some people want a place that is highly accessible (transport infrastructure) and connected
(super-fast broadband)
 Other people value a natural environment with plenty of green space and cleaner air
 Most people prioritise employment opportunities and affordable living

Urban places

 Urban places and areas within them are perceived differently by individuals or groups of people
 During the 19th century industrialisation, urban places were perceived as being dangerous and threatening as
they were the hotspots of crime, prostitution and corruption
o Rural-urban migration led to high population densities in urban areas
o High levels of poverty in some UK cities led to crime hotspots
o Industries created air pollution, which affected human health
 Some people (the young and migrants) now view these same urban places as attractive because of the range of
social and leisure activities, and economic opportunities

Changing Perceptions of London

Victorian London Modern-day London

London developed rapidly during the Industrial Revolution London’s population has continued to grow and
is estimated to be 9.6 million (2023)
Between 1801 and 1901, the population exploded from 1
million to 6.5 million Today, London is perceived as being much safer,
healthier and wealthier, compared to Victorian
The city authorities were unable to provide housing or basic times
needs for everyone, leading to the development of slum
terraces This attracts internal and international migration:

The slum terraces, located next to the factories, were Wide range of employment opportunities e.g
overcrowded and unsanitary (no running water or sewers) finance in The City of London and retail on
Oxford Street
Children in extreme poverty turned to petty theft and
pickpocketing Good quality commercial and social services

The living conditions of the poorest created a negative Variety of entertainment and other leisure
perception of London activities e.g. Tate Modern

High crime rates Well-developed infrastructure e.g. The London

Underground
High levels of disease (cholera, typhoid)
Wide ethnic and cultural diversity
Dangerous
In a 2016 poll, London was voted as the “best
Wealthy residents moved out of the inner-city areas to the perceived” city in the world
suburbs
Perceptions of Urban Places as Undesirable
 Cities in the UK can be perceived as undesirable or even threatening by residents and/or outsiders due to:
o High crime rates
o Poor environmental quality e.g. high levels of litter, graffiti, derelict buildings and air pollution
o High cost of living, such as house prices
o Racism towards migrants or other minority ethnic groups
 Some of the cities with the poorest reputations include:
o Birmingham - has a high crime rate
 In a survey 44% of its residents did not recommend it as a safe place to live
o Manchester - receives 200,000 reports of crime each year and has a high level of poverty and
homelessness
o Cardiff - more than a third of residents do not feel safe during the day and/or at night
o Bradford - unemployment levels in some areas are over 25%, as well as high levels of social deprivation
 Liverpool has struggled to shift its undesirable reputation, despite major regeneration, following the 1981
Toxteth riots in the inner-city
o During the 1980s, the media experience of Liverpool was negative
 The media depicted part of Toxteth as a no-go area for local police
 News reports portrayed inner-city Liverpool as being out of control
 The television series Bread focused on the daily struggle many Liverpudlian working-class
families experienced (over-crowded terrace houses, unemployment and trying to pay bills)
o The Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) can be used to justify this negative reputation,
using quantitative data rather than qualitative data

Level of Deprivation for Liverpool (2019)

Type of deprivation Liverpool (Decile rank)

Education 1

Health 1

Crime 1

Housing access 9

Income 1

Employment 1

 Deciles divide the ranked areas into 10 equal groups - the most deprived (1) to the least deprived (10)
o Liverpool has high levels of deprivation as at least 90% of places in England experience less deprivation
than Liverpool in six categories
o For instance, Liverpool has a decile rank of 1 in income deprivation, which means that people in at least
90% of other places in England earn more than people in Liverpool
o The only category where deprivation is the least is access to housing
o Based on this level of deprivation, the lived experience of local people appears negative

Exam Tip
Where possible, try to back up your discussion of a place’s image and the perceptions of that place with data,
such as the IMD or census data
Worked example
Study Figure 3 below and suggest one way the writer of the blog presents a negative view of her life in inner-city London
[3 marks]
IMAGE

 The specification focuses on perception and sense of place; you need to be able to use a range of sources of
information to find out about contrasting views e.g. Photos and blogs
 For this question, you need to use the text and/or the photograph to help say how the views of the blogger are
conveyed
 You need to make three linked points for these questions, rather than introducing a new idea

Answer:
The author of the blog mentions that her flat is damp as the heating doesn’t work and that the landlord is
ignoring her request for help. Due to this problem, she has to use alternative heating, which costs a lot of her
benefit money, and rely on friends.
Perception of Suburban areas
 Cities are complex places
o One part of the city may appeal to some people but not to others depending on demographic
groups e.g. age and ethnicity
 The inner city may be desirable for a migrant due to social clustering and the closer proximity to
job opportunities in the city, e.g. 23% of the population of Toxteth, an inner-city area of
Liverpool, were born outside the UK
 The inner city may not be perceived well by an elderly resident due to the busy nature and
potential lack of care opportunities
  Inner-city areas are populated by younger adults, who want to be closer to the Central Business
District (CBD) for work and leisure
o As working adults move through the life cycle, the appeal of different areas within the city change
 Suburban areas are family-based residential places, where the houses are bigger and have
gardens
 For example, the population of Broadgreen (a Liverpudlian suburb) consists of 50 percent 25-
64-year-olds, who are more likely to have a family.
 16-24-year olds make up just 10 percent of this area’s population

Urban area What type of people it appeals to

Inner-city Disadvantaged or low-income families - the most affordable social housing is located there

International immigrants - cheaper housing, more job opportunities in the CBD and a higher
chance of an established ethnic community

Students - close to university, entertainment and job opportunities

Young, professional workers - a higher choice of apartments close to work, and the CBD
contains more entertainment facilities
Suburb Young families - a higher choice of the best schools, houses have gardens and the public
transport routes make commuting into the CBD easier

Older and retired people - crime is generally lower, it is more peaceful and there is less need
to travel into the CBD
Worked example
Suggest reasons why perceptions of living in an inner-city area, such as in London, may vary.
[6 marks]

 You need to use the resource to gain ideas and offer reasons why perceptions of living in an inner-city area may
vary between different groups of people
 Identify two or three groups by ethnicity, age, length of residence or employment status, and then explain how
their perceptions might vary
 Your answer will be vague and weak if you start the sentence with “some people think…. but others think…”
 Explain two reasons for the varying perceptions, rather than just stating what it is e.g. wealth and ethnicity
 You are not expected to know about London specifically, but you could discuss the named place

Answer:
Perceptions of living in an inner-city area are affected by various factors, including age, ethnicity, income and
life cycle. Young, professional people might find inner-city areas more attractive due to the range of services
and leisure activities available in the CBD. Also, there is a greater range of employment opportunities in the
CBD, which is near the inner city, making commuting easier. These jobs are generally higher paid, such as the
financial district in the City of London. Immigrants, who have recently arrived in the UK, might also find the
inner-city areas appealing as the houses are cheaper, and there is a feeling of safety created by an already
established community, with a shared language, religion and culture. For example, the Muslim community
around Nether Edge (Sheffield) raised several million pounds to pay for a new mosque and Islamic centre.

Older, retired people may find the inner-city areas less appealing as there is less need for them to be close to the
CBD. They could have a negative perception of the inner city due to higher crime rates and levels of air
pollution. Instead, they would probably prefer a quieter area, with more open space, like the suburbs. So,
perceptions of living in an inner city differ due to different priorities.
6.2.2 Lived Experiences & Perceptions of Rural Places
Perception of Rural Places
 Rural places, like urban places, are viewed differently by different groups because of their lived
experience and perceptions of these areas
 The perception will depend on:
o A person’s gender, ethnicity, age and life cycle stage
o How the person intends to use the rural space e.g. recreation and work
o The characteristics of the rural area based on their position on the rural-urban continuum e.g.
commuter villages or isolated farms and hamlets

The rural idyll

 Rural places are often perceived as the ideal places to live by people living in urban areas due to:
o The scenic, natural landscapes of green fields, gently rolling hills and woodlands
o Old, traditional thatched cottages with white picket fences and flower gardens
o A relaxed, tranquil pace of life away from the hustle and bustle of urban living
o A strong sense of community, fostered through village activities e.g. cricket, socialising in the
village pub and village fetes
o Rural places have low crime rates, which consist of minor and non-violent offences
o Some rural places have strong historical and cultural associations, such as Hardy’s Wessex
and the Bronte country - made famous for being home to these popular British authors

 Hardy’s Wessex - the author Thomas Hardy wrote detailed descriptions of country life in the fictitious
country of Wessex
o Idyllic depictions of thatched cottages set in peaceful surroundings, close to nature, were based
on his home county of Dorset
o Hardy also portrayed the undesirable elements of rural life e.g. remoteness and limited
opportunities

 Media representation can reinforce the rural idyll attitude

o TV programmes, like Midsomer Murders and Emmerdale, are set in attractive countryside
locations
o Art and literature connections (e.g. Beatrix Potter and The Lake District) encourage tourists to
visit and improve the economy of the area

Exam Tip
You can use YouTube and other video sites to watch past episodes of television series and get a
sense of how rural and urban areas are depicted e.g. Bread for Liverpool and Shetland for Lerwick
Perception of Rural Places as Undesirable
 The reality of living in a rural area can differ from the rural idyll
 Some people can view rural regions unfavourably because of the:
o Remoteness - very few people want to move to rural places that are isolated and difficult to
access
o Limited social opportunities - ageing populations mean limited social opportunities for
children and young people, causing a feeling of isolation
 TV programmes, like This Country (a BBC comedy), highlight these limited opportunities
 Young people feel they don’t have a space where they can meet with friends
 Limited range of services - post offices, shops, petrol stations and banks are often
limited or have closed down due to lack of profitability, isolating the elderly
 One in five households in rural areas live more than 4 km from a doctor’s surgery
 o High transport costs - infrequent, expensive buses and long distances increase transport
costs
 Households in rural hamlets spend an average of £139 per week on transport, compared
to £79 in urban areas
o Population characteristics - an ageing population, with fewer young workers as some migrate
to urban areas in search of work
o Poor mobile and broadband infrastructure - isolated places are more expensive to deliver
broadband to as installation costs are higher, reducing the commercial return for providers
o High housing costs - the average sale price of residential properties in rural areas is higher
than in urban areas, making housing harder to purchase for the bottom 25% of earners in these
areas

 Shetland (located about 200 km north of the Scottish mainland) is an isolated area, with undesirable
characteristics for its residents:
o There is a sparse population density (16 people/km2), therefore inhabitants might not have a
close connection with neighbours as they live so far apart
o The only banks in Shetland are in Lerwick
o Only 31 per cent of young people felt that the speed of their broadband connection was good
enough
o The average household income in Shetland is £33,934, lower than the Scottish (£34,619) and
the UK average (£36,400)
o The average property price in Shetland is £207,954, which is approximately 6 times the
average income
 In the UK, a person cannot borrow more than 4.5 times their salary
o The number of second homes/long-term empty properties has nearly doubled in Shetland over
the last 16 years to 723 homes
 This has made it harder for residents to secure affordable housing
o More than 2,000 households in Shetland live in extreme poverty, defined as having an annual
income of just £13,573
o The cost of living in Shetland is up to 40 per cent higher than on the UK mainland, meaning
the living wage of £7,85 per hour is not enough
o Work is not a guaranteed route out of poverty - working a 37-hour week on the minimum wage
gives people an annual income of just over £12,000

Worked example
With reference to a named example, explain why people have different opinions about rural living spaces
[6 marks]

 Identify a suitable rural area and use specific ideas relevant to that place within your answer
 Avoid using ‘some people’
o Be precise about which group you are discussing
 Zero marks would be awarded for an urban area

Answer:
Named rural place: Lerwick in Shetland

Rural living spaces are viewed differently by contrasting demographic and ethnic groups (e.g. young
people, retired people, families and migrants). Lerwick in Shetland (an island) is classed as a remote
rural living space due to its location, which is 200 km north of the Scottish mainland.

Young residents perceive Lerwick as lacking in places to meet their friends. They use the Bressay
ferry waiting room instead, which has WiFi, but ferry users regularly complain about them. 69% of
young people also feel like the broadband speed in the area isn’t good enough. These things have
led to young people feeling lonely and bored in Lerwick.
Young families in Lerwick will feel frustrated by the housing crisis on the island, alongside lower
incomes compared to the national average. The average property price is 6 times the yearly income
for a resident of Lerwick, making it hard for young families to secure affordable housing. This situation
has become worse due to the number of properties registered as long-term empty properties or
second homes.

Lastly, Shetland’s population is classed as 97% White, which could lead to ethnic minority groups
feeling isolated and detached, especially if they experience a lack of tolerance.

These lived experiences lead to different groups of people having their own opinions about life living
space in Lerwick and Shetland.
View of Rural Areas
 Rural places can be categorised according to their relative accessibility from urban areas:
o Very remote areas
o Retirement villages (accessible rural)
o Commuter villages
 These types of rural areas are viewed differently by different groups due to their lived experience and
perceptions of these places

Different types of rural space

Different Perceptions of Rural Space

Rural area Positive perceptions Negative perceptions

Commuter People can escape from the downside of urban The rising costs of housing due to
village areas e.g. crime and pollution (middle-aged increased demand (middle-aged adults)
adults)
Fast rates of population growth -
A pleasant location in which to live and bring up migration and fertility rates (elderly)
family (middle-aged adults)

Good access to social services (elderly)

Retirement A slower pace of life with less noise (elderly) It can get too busy if it is a tourist
village (accessible hotspot (elderly)
rural) Some accessible rural areas are classed as
honeypots, attracting tourists and creating jobs and Limited employment
income (younger people, middle-aged adults) opportunities (middle-aged adults)
 Limited range of entertainment
opportunities (younger people)
Remote rural Good outdoor recreation (young people) Poor accessibility and transport
infrastructure (middle-aged adults)
Quiet and peaceful (elderly)
Incomes are lower, especially in a tourist
hotspot where jobs are
seasonal (younger people)

Limited range of services, especially

healthcare (elderly)
Exam Tip
Do not assume that everyone sees the rural idyll in exactly the same way. One person’s dream can
be another person’s nightmare!
6.2.3 Methods of Evaluating Views of Rural Areas
Use of Statistical Evidence
 Places are represented in a huge range of qualitative and quantitative ways
o Quantitative data includes census data, crime rates, house prices, demographic data like
population pyramids and economic data (usually found on a council website)
o Qualitative data includes songs, novels, poetry, paintings, photographs and films
 The use of statistics can help determine whether people have a positive or negative image of
their living spaces

Quantitative data

 Census data about population growth and decline, age categories, ethnicity and health
o This can help determine how the population structure is changing and what impacts it might be
having on the place

 The Labour Force Survey to determine the average income in an area, the types of work carried out
by local people, and whether they are full-time or part-time
o This can help identify the types of lifestyles people in rural and urban areas might enjoy

 Index of multiple deprivatioin (IMD) data to identify small areas that are deprived
o The IMD is divided into seven deprivation categories (e.g. housing access and health), which
can support the analysis of people’s perceptions

Level of Deprivation for Lerwick (2020)

Type of deprivation Lerwick (Decile rank)

Education 7

Health 5

Crime 2

Housing access 3

Income 6
 Employment 6


o Deciles divide the ranked areas into 10 equal groups - the most deprived (1) to the least
deprived (10)
o Lerwick has:
 Relatively low levels of deprivation for education
 High levels of crime - at least 80% of other places in Scotland experience less crime
than Lerwick
 Poor levels of access to housing

 The National Well-being Survey, conducted by the Office for National Statistics (ONS), measures the
well-being of people living in the UK by assessing their life satisfaction, happiness, anxiety, and feeling
that the things they do in life are worthwhile
o The results can be viewed at a local level e.g. Shetland and Liverpool

Personal well-being for Liverpool and Shetland (2022-2023)

Personal well-being measure (out of 10) Liverpool Shetland

Life satisfaction 7.1 7.9

Worthwhile 7.6 8

Happiness 7.3 8.2

Anxiety 3.3 2


o The data shows that residents of Liverpool have lower levels of personal well-being than
Shetland
 For anxiety, the higher the score, the more anxious people feel

 Quantitative data is useful as it:

o Provides a way to measure the social, economic and environmental problems in an area
o Can be used to compare places

Exam Tip
Remember, not every person feels the same way about the area in which they happen to live.
Perhaps, some people have been forced to move there due to the limited availability of social
housing, so they feel unhappy. Other people may feel secure in the area, so they have a happy
attachment to the place.

People’s perceptions (subjective opinions) and image of a place are personal, rather than objective,
so quantitative evidence is harder to collect. You could design an interview to ask different population
groups, such as secondary school students, retired people and working adults; also consider the
ethnic diversity of the area’s population.

Some possible questions about belonging and place:

 How long have you lived in this place?

 Do you feel that you belong to this place?
o No
 What is it that makes you feel this way?
o Yes
  What is it that makes you feel this way?
 Have your feelings changed during the time you have lived here?
o No
o Yes
 Have your feelings become more or less positive?
 What factors have prompted this change in feeling?
 What do you think is the most negative aspect of the place’s image today?
 What do you think is the most positive aspect of the place’s image today?

The quantitative evidence (e.g. census data and the personal well-being survey) can be used
to support the findings of the qualitative data.
Use of Different Media
 Using media (television dramas, blogs, films, news broadcasts, newspapers) can help develop a
viewer’s sense of place
o These types of media reach a large audience and can give outsiders an image of what a place
is like by portraying the lived experiences of people
o People can form attachments to places through perception gained from media or hearing the
experiences of others
 People can become attached to a place they have never visited
 Media can provide alternative evidence about the image and perceptions of places
o The images shown could be in contrast to what the residents’ views are
 However, media is subjective and may not accurately show how people perceive a place:
o Some writers may portray a favourable image of a place to enhance a story
o Other places may be depicted as worse than they are to add drama, which risks stigmatising an
area and its locals

Exam Tip
Remember, some of these media, such as television documentaries, are controversial and need to be
considered carefully e.g. Liverpudlians believed Desperate Scousewives, a reality TV show based in
Liverpool, created an unfair image of people from Liverpool.
Use of Different Representations
 Different representations of places can influence the perception of cultural and demographic issues
and conflict:
o Changes in the demographics of an area (e.g. total numbers and age structures) could lead to
tension, such as the building of new houses on a greenfield site to accommodate an increasing
population
o Changes in the ethnic mix of an area could lead to social clustering and the segregation of
ethnic minorities, such as Polish migrants living in an area of poor housing in Boston
 Some possible representations that could influence people’s perceptions of issues include:
o Newspapers
o News reports
o Documentaries on TV
o YouTube video clips uploaded by individuals
o Estate agents
o Tourism and local enterprise offices
o Local authorities
 Consideration needs to be given to the accuracy of documentaries and video sources:
o Only a small number of people might be interviewed
o Only a few images might be shown
o The local community forums might be very vocal and not represent the majority
Worked example
Explain why it's difficult to assess the validity of someone's perception of a place.
[6 marks]

 Define the terms perception of place and lived experience

 Explain why the statistical analysis of data might not give the complete picture of what a place is really
like
o Back up with statistical evidence from your chosen places
 Explain why media depictions of a place can also be unreliable in assessing what a place is like
o Give examples of how your chosen places are depicted in the media
o Comment on whether these depictions validate or contradict the lived experience of a place

Answer:
Individuals or groups of people will have different perceptions of a place, whether positive or negative.
These images, held by a person or group of people, are created by a person’s assessment of
information, so these images are subjective rather than objective. An outsider’s perception of a place
(perhaps gained from the media) could be different from an insider’s view, who has experience of
living in a particular place. These factors can make it difficult to assess the validity of someone’s
perception of place.

Statistics can help determine whether people have a positive or negative image of a place, however,
quantitative data may not always provide a valid image. The National Well-being Survey measures
the well-being of people living in the UK by assessing their life satisfaction, happiness, anxiety, and
feeling that the things they do in life are worthwhile. These results show whether people are feeling
positive or negative towards the area they live in. The results show that Shetland residents have a
higher level of personal well-being than Liverpudlians. However, the sample size of the survey may
be very small, which may not reflect the majority of the population. Some Liverpudlians, who did not
complete the survey, could have very high levels of personal well-being. The Census can help
determine how the population structure is changing and what impacts it might be having on the place.
For example, Liverpool’s 2019 net international migration was +3217. Many of these international
migrants will settle in inner-city areas of Liverpool, like Toxteth, where 23 percent of the population
were born outside the UK. However, the Census is only done once every 10 years, so the data used
could be out-of-date.

Using media can help develop or change a viewer’s perception of a place. It can provide contrasting
views to what the residents feel about the place. For example, Bread (a 1980s TV programme)
depicted inner-city, working-class Liverpudlian families as work-shy and benefit-cheating. This
stereotype was criticised by some Liverpudlians. Some media representation of Shetland is also
contradictory. The book, Shetland, portrayed Shetland as having high levels of violent crimes. In
reality, violent crimes only account for 1.3 percent of crimes; the majority of crimes are motoring
offences. The personal well-being survey shows Shetland’s anxiety levels are low, which might not
necessarily be the case if residents viewed Shetland as violent.

It’s difficult to assess the validity of someone’s perceptions as perceptions are subjective. Perceptions
can be formed using quantitative data and media representations. However, the data might be out-of-
date and the media could be biased.

6.3 Demographic & Cultural Tensions

6.3.1 Diverse Culture & Society
 Uneven Demographic & Cultural Patterns
 Rural and urban places experience cultural differences due to:
o Internal migration
o International migration
 Significant internal movement of people has created uneven demographic and cultural patterns
across the UK, as it has:
o Changed the total number of people living in an area
o Altered the structure of an area’s population

The North-South drift

The UK experienced a major internal migration, known as the North-South drift

The UK’s North-South drift

 Since deindustrialisation began, an estimated three million workers have migrated toward the southern
areas of the UK
 Internal migrants tend to be:
o Young, mostly under 35
o Relatively skilled and more educated e.g. university qualifications
o Seeking employment opportunities in more prosperous areas of the UK
 As most internal migrants are young, it creates a lower average age in the area they are migrating to

Suburbanisation

 Suburbanisation has also changed the demographic and cultural patterns in places
 The majority of people moving out to the suburbs and beyond are retired people and young families,
who want to live in quieter, more affordable living space
 As more homes become available, the inner-city areas experience an influx of immigrant ethnic groups
(some of whom arrived after the Second World War)
o A more culturally diverse population is created e.g. London has a diverse population with a mix
of British, Indian, African, Chinese and Caribbean cultures

London and the south-east

 The south-east receives most of the UK’s internal migrants, who are mainly young workers
 This internal migration creates regional disparities in the UK:
o More than one in five people living in Inner London (23.1%) are between 25 and 34 years old,
compared to the rest of England (12.7%) (2023)
o 59 percent of London’s working-age population held a high-level qualification (NVQ4 or higher),
compared to the rest of England (43%) (2020)
  Despite over 218,000 domestic migrants moving to London in 2020, net migration was negative as
more people moved away from London (320,000)
o The majority of the people leaving London were aged 25-44 years old and 0-17 years old
o Most of these people moved to the commuter belts around London, as house prices are
cheaper and there is more space to raise a family

Exam Tip
You are expected to know a range of mathematical and statistical skills. Before the exam, check you
can do basic calculations e.g. mean, mode, range, percentages, equations, ratios and fractions

For example, use the calculation:

Distance (km) = Speed (km/hour) x Time (hour)

Worked example
The bus timetable from Sharnford village to Leicester city centre
Mondays to Fridays

Bus stop Bus Bus Bus Bus

Sharnford 0945 1230 1530 1815

Sapcote 0950 1235 1535 1820

Stoney Stanton 0955 1240 1538 1825 (last stop)

Fosse Park 1000 1245 1545 -

West End 1008 1253 1553 -

City centre 1015 1300 1600 -

Figure 4

Using Figure 4, complete the table below by calculating the journey time and journey distance from Sharnford
to Leicester city centre.
[2 marks]

Sharnford to Leicester city centre

Journey time ………………………………. hours
Speed of journey 34 km/hour
Journey distance ………………………………. km
Answer:
Sharnford to Leicester city centre
0.5 hours (1)
Journey time
Allow 30 mins or 1/2 hour
Speed of journey 34 km/hour
Journey distance 17 kms (1)
 International Migration & Impact on Culture & Society
 International migration has had a significant impact on the culture and society of the UK over the
last 70 years
 The main international migration flows into the UK include
o More than 500,000 Poles migrated to the UK between 2004 and 2007
o Post-colonial migrants from former colonies (e.g. The Indian sub-continent and the West
Indies), from the 1950s on wards, to help with labour shortages after the Second World War
o Immigrants from the European Union from the 1990s due to the free movement of workers
agreement

2021 Census information

 One in six residents of England and Wales were born outside the UK, an increase of 2.5 million
migrants over 10 years to 10 million
 White British account for 81.7% of the population, a decrease of 5.4% from the 2011 census
 The Asian/Asian British population has increased the most across the non-white ethnic groups,
increasing by 2.4% to 9.3% (from 2011)
 Of the top 20 Local Authorities (England and Wales) with the highest proportion of non-UK born
residents, 18 were located in London including:
o Brent (56.1%)
o Westminster (55.6%)
o Kensington and Chelsea (53.9%)
 70% of residents born outside the UK were aged 26-64, compared to 48% of the UK born
 The distribution of immigrants is unevenly spread across England and Wales

IMAGE

The distribution of non-UK born residents across England and Wales

The impact of immigration on the UK’s culture and society

 International immigration is driving population growth

o In 2022, UK net migration reached 745,000, the highest figure ever recorded according to the
Office of National Statistics (ONS)
 The majority of migrants were non-EU nationals e.g. India
o Net migration accounts for 60% of population growth, especially in England
 This growth puts pressure on services, housing and infrastructure
o In the absence of net migration, Scotland will experience a population decline by 2043
 The UK has an ageing population, putting pressure on social and health care, and government
spending e.g. pensions
o Young, working immigrants can fill job shortages in health and social care, and boost
government finances by paying tax
 The UK has a greater cultural diversity due to the influence of immigration
o Music - the use of Jamaican beats in popular music e.g. ska and grime
o Sport - the number of foreign footballers in the Premier League
o Food - the food introduced by migrants has become part of the UK e.g. doner kebabs, sweet
and sour pork, chilli and bagels
o Business - 39% of the UK’s fastest-growing start-up companies have at least one immigrant
co-founder e.g. Will Shu, an immigrant from the USA, launched Deliveroo

Migration from the Indian sub-continent and the West Indies

  After World War II there were labour shortages, especially in the transport network and the newly
created NHS
 To increase the workforce the UK government promoted immigration from:
o Former British colonies e.g. the Caribbean
o The former Indian Empire e.g. India, Pakistan and Bangladesh
 Over 3 million immigrants arrived in the UK between the 1940s and the 1970s
 The main push factors for the migrants were:
o High unemployment and a poor quality of life e.g. the Caribbean
o Violence and conflict e.g. India and Pakistan, and Nigeria
 The majority of migrants settled in major cities with plenty of job opportunities, such as London,
Birmingham and Manchester
 The wages were poor, so immigrants could only afford accommodation in the most deprived inner-city
areas
o This residential pattern still exists as families (second-generation migrants) tend to live near
the first-generation migrants
 The influx of non-white migrants into cities led to rising hostility from the white-working class population,
resulting in rioting e.g. the 1958 Notting Hill riots
 The government tightened the immigration policy in response to the opposition to post-war immigration:
o In 1962, the Commonwealth Immigration Act removed the automatic right of Commonwealth
citizens to live and work in the UK
 The government is the main player in immigration; it acts as a ‘gatekeeper’ by controlling and allowing
migration flows

UK Immigration from the West Indies and the Indian Empire

Major
Origin Time period Push or pull factor
Concentration
The Caribbean e.g. 1948 - 1971 Job opportunities in the UK e.g. transport network London e.g. Brixton
Jamaica
Birmingham e.g.
Aston
India 1950s - 1970s Job opportunities in the UK e.g. Heathrow Airport West London e.g.
Hounslow
Pakistan 1950s - 1960s Job opportunities in the UK e.g. textile industry Bradford
and car factories
Birmingham
Bangladesh 1970 - 1971 To escape civil unrest in their homeland London e.g. Tower
Hamlets

Birmingham
Uganda 1972 Deportation of 60,000 Indians from Uganda by the Leicester
President, Idi Amin (27,000 settled in the UK)
London

Migration from the European Union

EU migration to the UK
  Immigration from the EU to the UK fell sharply after the Brexit referendum

Worked example

Using Figure 3 below, suggest one reason why the distribution of international migrants varies across the UK
[3 marks]
IMAGE

Distribution of international migrants and asylum seekers

 A starter reason is required, which is then extended for a further two points
 The answer needs to be based on the map shown in the resource
 There should be a link to the resource in the answer
o It doesn't have to be a direct quote or use of data
o It could be an idea or example triggered by the distribution pattern
 More than one reason cannot be credited

Answer:
International migrants tend to settle in major urban areas, such as London, close to other migrants,
which is known as social clustering. Social clustering is beneficial as the migrant can find support
from family or friends speaking the same language and are more likely to find places to worship or
buy familiar food.
International Migrants & Rural Areas
 Some international migrants opt to live or work in rural areas (e.g. Boston in Lincolnshire) due to:
o The migrant’s background, such as living in a village environment in their own country
o Employment opportunities in the agricultural sector
o Labour shortages e.g. the fishing and fish processing industry in Shetland using Polish workers
to help fulfil the economic potential of the area

Eastern European immigrants in Boston

 Boston has seen an influx of Eastern European immigrants since the expansion of the EU in 2004
 Currently, 24% of Boston’s population was born outside of the UK, with the majority of migrants
originating from Eastern Europe e.g. Poland, Romania and Latvia
o In 2011, 16% were from Eastern Europe
o In 2004, 0% were from Eastern Europe
 The rapid demographic change can put pressure on:
o The housing market leading to higher house prices
o Education and healthcare, with further problems created by the language barrier
o Some locals will resent the ‘outsiders’ and their impact on the traditional rural area
 The migrants are attracted to this ‘rural’ market town:
o Plenty of agricultural jobs are available in the surrounding countryside as the local people
avoid this ‘picking, packing and plucking’ work
o The migrants earn more money compared to their home country, despite working long hours
o A lower cost of living in rural areas compared to urban areas e.g. housing, so many migrants
stay long-term
o A changing culture makes the migrants feel more at home and boosts the local economy
 A Lithuanian supermarket and cake shop
 A Polish restaurant and pub
 Several European-labelled stores
 The immigrant workers are exploited with long working hours and poor pay, but there is no trade union
protection
Exam Tip
It is a common misconception that many migrants choose to live in rural areas. They may do rural
work but they tend to live in nearby towns.
6.3.2 Segregation & Change Over Time
International Migrants & Segregation
 International migrants tend to cluster in distinctive places across cities (known as enclaves), such as:
o Russian oligarch families in Kensington and Chelsea, London
o Indian community in Hounslow, London
 The level of ethnic segregation varies and changes over time due to:
o Economic indicators e.g. income and employment
o Social indicators e.g. health, crime and education

Indicators Linked to Ethnic Segregation

Economic indicators Social indicators

Areas of deprivation and affluence can become inhabited Migrants feel more supported and protected when
by different ethnic groups surrounded by people from the same culture

 Rich Russians in Chelsea Clustering of similar ethnicities can increase political

 Poor Bangladeshis in Tower Hamlets (One of the 10% power, leading to more influence in local decision-
most deprived areas in England) making

Language barriers and racial discrimination may reduce Middle-income groups may leave an area (perhaps
the chances of employment and earning a higher income due to prejudice and racism) and leave behind a
particular ethnic group, creating segregation
International migrants are more likely to live in cheap,
poor-quality housing, where there is less investment in Social hostility from the majority population
healthcare and education

Some ethnic groups experience high levels of

deprivation

Russian oligarchs in London

 London is one of the main capitals of the super-rich, including wealthy Russian oligarchs
 Russians have bought £1.5 billion worth of property in the UK since 2016
o There are an estimated 1,895 Russian-owned properties in London
o Eaton Square, an exclusive garden estate in Belgravia (London), is nicknamed "Red Square"
because of its many wealthy Russian residents e.g. Roman Abramovich
 London is attractive to investors:
o Property prices can increase by 10% annually
o Before 2022, a £2 million investment allowed foreign investors to receive a visa, which offered
residency to them and their families
o The British pound holds its value more consistently than the Russian rouble
 The Russian economy is volatile due to the Ukraine war and the economic sanctions
placed on Russia
o Owning UK property gives investors access to bank accounts and private schools
Worked example
Using Figure 2 below, suggest one reason why recently-arrived Asians tend to live in the area indicated
[3 marks]
IMAGE
A map showing ethnic segregation in part of Chicago, (USA)

 A starter reason is required, which is then extended for a further two points
 The answer needs to be based on the map shown in the resource
 There should be a link to the resource in the answer
o It doesn't have to be a direct quote or use of data
o It could be an idea or example triggered by the map
 More than one reason cannot be credited

Answer:
Recently-arrived Asians will be attracted to this area in Chicago as there could be an existing cluster
of Asian people there, including family members or friends, who can offer housing and economic
opportunities in this inner-city area or the nearby CBD. This clustering means there also will be
shared characteristics (e.g. language and belief systems), meaning new immigrants feel more
supported.
Ethnic & Cultural Characteristics of Urban Areas
 Changes in the urban landscape occur when an area has a high concentration of ethnic groups,
including the introduction of:
o Places of worship
o Restaurants - ethnic cuisines
o Grocery stores - ethnic foods
o Clothes shops - traditional clothing
o Social clubs and community building
o Cultural festivals and ceremonies
o Cinemas showing ethnic films
o Non-English signs and advertising
 The diverse living spaces incorporate social characteristics that reflect the dominant ethnicity and
culture e.g. The concentration of South Asian people in Rusholme (Manchester) is reflected in the
abundance of curry houses and South Asian supermarkets along its Curry Mile
 Southall, part of the borough of Ealing (West London), contains the largest Asian community in London
and has experienced changes in its urban landscape to reflect this dominant ethnic group:
o The majority of shops on the main road of Southall (The Broadway) cater to the Indian and
Pakistani community
o Varied places of worship, including churches, and mosques.There are also ten gurdwara
temples to serve the 20,000 Sikhs living in the area
o Southall tube station displays signs in English and Punjabi
o A Southall radio station (Desi Radio) broadcasts in the Punjabi language and plays Bhangra
music

Worked example
Explain how cultural diversity can change the built environment of an urban place
[4 marks]

 Aim to provide two ways cultural diversity can change the built environment, then either extend that
point or provide an example with detail

Answer:
As migrants from different ethnic and cultural groups move into an urban area, the urban landscape
will change to cater to the migrant’s needs, such as the building of places of worship or signs written
in the language of the migrants. For example, signs in the Southall tube station are written in Punjabi,
where over 20,000 Indians live. Entrepreneurial migrants will set up new shops and businesses in the
area to reflect the food and clothing from the migrant’s home environment. The migration of South
Asian people into Rusholme (Manchester) in the 1950s led to the development of the Curry Mile,
where there is an abundance of curry houses and South Asian supermarkets.
Changes in Perceptions & Experiences
 Communities evolve economically and culturally as new attitudes and values are introduced into an
area
o This can change the intergenerational experiences and perceptions of living spaces

The changing experiences of intergenerational migrants

 Not all intergenerational migrants experience this positive assimilation as UK

 Statistics show that Black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME):
o Are twice as likely to be unemployed as white people
o Are more than twice as likely as white people to experience extreme poverty
o The average health of BAME 60-year-olds is similar to that of a white British 80-year-old
o The number of Muslim children living in overcrowded housing is more than four times the
national average

Worked example
Explain the factors that may result in ethnically segregated communities
[6 marks]

 Either develop two factors in greater detail, using examples to illustrate your ideas, or include a range
of factors
 It is beneficial to incorporate historical perspectives in this answer, but as a geographer, you also need
to offer an up-to-date comment too

Answer:
When first-generation immigrants move to an area, they are initially attracted to urban areas of low-
cost housing as they often have little money and are in search of employment. These areas are
usually located in the inner city, which leads to social clustering as migrants feel safer and more
secure living in a place with other people who have shared characteristics. This need for safety is
also exacerbated by the prejudice and discrimination the migrants may experience when they first
arrive, such as the attacks on the Caribbean community that led to the Notting Hill riots in 1958. The
need for safety and low-cost housing results in more ethnically segregated communities.
 The social clustering of migrants can also increase ethnic segregation. For example, Southall, in
West London, currently contains the largest Asian community in London. Over time, its urban
landscape has changed to reflect this ethnic group. Now, the majority of shops (clothes, food and
restaurants) on the main road of Southall cater to the Indian and Pakistani communities, and ten
gurdwara temples were established to serve the 20,000 Sikhs living in the area. As a result, middle-
income groups may leave an area (perhaps due to prejudice, racism or tension) and leave behind a
particular ethnic group, creating further segregation. In 2011, only 6.3% of Southall Broadway’s
residents were White British.

6.3.3 Changes Can Lead to Tension & Conflict

Lived Experiences Link to Challenges & Opportunities
 Places are dynamic and constantly changing, which can lead to new challenges or opportunities for
local people and their lived experience of place
o In all changing situations, there are winners and losers
o For example, building a new place of worship may benefit some locals but may cause tension
with other locals, who disapprove
 Changes to the land use of a place are often caused by competition for space, especially in urban
areas, from:
o Different community groups, who want to improve their local neighbourhood
o Local governments, who identify and deliver on local priorities e.g. increasing local housing
stock and regenerating town centres
o National governments, who identify national priorities e.g. in the UK the current government
aims to build 300,000 new homes every year and make the UK net zero by 2050
o Transnational Corporations (TNCs), who aim to make as much profit as possible
 85.5% of the UK’s population live in urban areas, with numbers increasing every year, resulting in the
expansion of urban areas to accommodate new:
o Housing
o Services
o Retail
o Industrial and office parks
o Recreation
o Transport infrastructure

The Impacts of Changing Land Use

Changing land use Opportunities Challenges

Improving transport infrastructure Local governments invest in transport Local governments may displace local
systems, improving accessibility for people through compulsory purchase
people and businesses orders to enable the building of new
transport routes
New housing projects Local governments use land to create The new housing might not be practical
areas of affordable housing to tackle for all the needs of local people e.g.
the national housing crisis, allowing high rise tower blocks can be viewed as
people on lower incomes to rent or buy unattractive and unpractical for elderly
people
 In rural areas, housing developments
can interfere with the needs of local
wildlife and their habitats
Commercial developments The creation of new retail spaces and Large TNCs can afford to pay more for
services by entrepreneurial migrants can commercial plots of land compared to
encourage cultural hybridisation, as well as smaller, local businesses
generate higher tax revenues
To make more profit, local governments
may grant planning permission for
commercial developments rather than
for housing projects
Regeneration projects Local and national governments invest in Regeneration projects can lead
regenerating run-down urban and rural to gentrification, attracting wealthier
areas, creating new employment people to the area, which prices the
opportunities for local people and locals out of the area
attracting more investment from TNCs
Local people and community groups
often have little control over the new
developments

Local people and businesses may be

affected by forced relocations

Tensions appear in a community

between those people able to afford the
redeveloped housing and the people
who remain in substandard housing
Exam Tip
Exam questions will want you to discuss the positive impacts of the UK’s increased cultural diversity
and the problems in a balanced way. Focus on both types of impacts, unless the exam question
specifically asks for positive or negative impacts

Impacts of Increased Cultural Diversity

Positive impacts Negative impacts

 Filling labour shortages eg. Farm  Net migration accounts for 60% of the UK’s population growth,
labourers in Boston and social care putting pressure on services (healthcare, education)
positions  In 2022, UK net migration reached 745,000, which can lead to
 Enhancements to the current culture conflict between long-term residents and immigrants e.g. The
eg. music, food and businesses Notting Hill riots
(Deliveroo)  Some people feel the UK’s culture is being diluted due to
 Boosts government finances by paying changes in the built environments e.g. changes to shops to
taxes cater to migrants’ needs

Tensions over the Diversity of Living Spaces

 In the UK, not all people welcome diverse communities
  This can lead to tensions over living space between people (e.g. long-term residents)
seeking continuity and people who want change (e.g. recent in-migrants)
 In 1950, the UK was almost 100% white British compared to 83% in 2021; this change can lead to
tensions because:
o Some UK citizens are concerned about this change and the threat to “British culture”
o Some people believe that migrants don’t want to integrate due to evidence of social clustering
o Incoming ethnic groups can be accused of forcing the existing population out of an area and
creating white flight
o Migrants often face racism and are victims of hate crimes
 70% of hate crimes are racially motivated
o Ethnic minorities living in deprived areas with high levels of poverty and few opportunities
experience resentment over their treatment
o These feelings between different ethnic groups can occasionally lead to racially motivated
riots:
 The Notting Hill race riots (1958)
 The 1981 riots - Brixton (London), Handsworth (Birmingham), Chapeltown (Leeds) and
Toxteth (Liverpool)
 The Broadwater Farm (London) riot (1985)
 The Bradford riots (1995 and 2001)
 London riots (2011)
o Ethnic minorities also face prejudice in rural areas
 Long-term rural residents might not welcome those in search of the rural idyll
 Increased numbers of international migrants can create social challenges:
 More pressure on small rural schools
 More pressure on limited healthcare services

Tensions in Luton

 Luton (a town in Bedfordshire) experiences tension between long-term residents and new in-migrants
 Statistics from the 2021 Census state:
o This is one of the highest proportions of non-UK born residents outside of London
o This has increased to 17,067 (7.6% of the population in Luton), up from 12,739 in 2011
o Nearly two in five of Luton’s residents were not born in the UK
o Pakistan was the most common non-UK birthplace
o Almost 4% (8,666) of Luton’s residents were born in Romania, a more than 2000% increase
since the 2011 Census
o Of Luton’s non-UK born residents, 37,391 (43.2%) have arrived since 2011
o Almost 45% of Luton’s non-UK born residents were aged between 18 and 29 when arriving in
the UK
 Luton has been linked to Islamic extremism after a BBC report identified the town as the second
largest source of jihadists travelling to Syria in support of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in
2016
o This can lead to increases in Islamophobia among residents
 The English Defence League (EDL), a far-right Islamophobic organisation, is based in Luton
o The EDL has been accused of creating tension between the Muslim and non-Muslim community
 In reality, the majority of Luton’s residents feel they get on well (82% of respondents in a local survey);
it is only a minority of:
o White British people who feel threatened by the pace of ethnic change
o Muslims who take an extreme religious position

Worked example
Using Figure 3, explain why there are tensions between long-term residents and international migrants in some
areas but not others
[6 marks]
IMAGE
 Distribution of international migrants and asylum seekers

 Make sure to refer to the map in your answer

 Develop and explain all points rather than just stating simple ideas, such as “migrants take jobs”
 Use contrasting places to show understanding about the issue ‘in some areas but not in others’

Answer:
Tensions between long-term residents and in-migrants vary across Britain. One reason for this could
be the amount of migrants living there, which is up to 54% in some areas. Some places might
experience high levels of immigration over a short period, so tensions become more pronounced.
Boston has the highest levels of Eastern European immigrants in England and Wales, with 31% of its
population migrating from the EU. Over the last 20 years, the shops in the town centre have changed
to cater to this influx of migrants, which has caused some of the locals to become annoyed over the
lack of integration. A 2016 survey found that Boston had the lowest levels of integration across UK
towns. 75% of residents also voted to leave the EU in 2016, which suggests that residents experience
high levels of tension.

In other areas, there is less tension between long-term residents and in-migrants as the long-term
residents may be first, second or third-generation migrants. Tensions experienced by these long-term
residents may be different from white British (perhaps due to racism and prejudice). In Southall (West
London), cultural diversity is high (92.5% of the population are from non-white groups), yet racial
tension is low. In the 1970s, the different ethnic groups stood together against fascism in Southall.
The largest of London’s Sikh Gurdwara temples is in Southall; it provides free meals for anyone,
regardless of their religious background. Southall is viewed as a harmonious multi-faith society where
the community celebrates the assimilation of different religions and cultures.
Changes to the Built Environment Benefits & Challenges
 Changes to the built environment can lead to new challenges and opportunities for different groups of
people in the community
o Some groups will benefit from these changes to the built environment
o Other groups can feel hostile about these changes and perceive migrants as a threat to their
culture
o For example, some groups will welcome the addition of a new building used for a particular
faith, but other groups might disapprove
o The hostility can make migrants feel a sense of social exclusion, especially if they are isolated
from friends and family in an unfamiliar place
 The feelings of social exclusion and resentment are amplified when the area suffers from acute
poverty and deprivation, e.g. Glasgow

Poverty, hostility and social exclusion in Glasgow

 In 2020, the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD) found that:

o 331 zones in Glasgow (out of a total of 746) are classed as some of the most deprived in
Scotland
o 43% of Glasgow’s citizens are living in areas classified amongst the most deprived in Scotland

IMAGE

Glasgow’s health inequalities

 In the above map of Glasgow, decile 1 shows the highest level of deprivation and decile 10 shows the
lowest level of deprivation
  In some of the most deprived areas in Glasgow (especially areas close to the city centre), there
are high concentrations of ethnic minorities, which can lead to tension:
o Stealing their jobs
o Diluting the Scottish culture
o The unemployment rate for ethnic minority groups is higher than that of white groups (11%),
with 32% of the African population unemployed
o The white British residents perceive that the immigrants are:
o The migrants feel they are being ignored and discriminated against, leading to a sense
of social exclusion
o Living in poorer neighbourhoods, where unemployment levels are already high, further restricts
migrants’ employment opportunities
 Rising numbers of immigrants and terror attacks (e.g. The Glasgow Airport attack in 2007) have
increased ethnic tensions in Glasgow
o For example, a report into racism showed that half of BAME students have been harassed at
Glasgow University (2021)

Exam Tip
Remember that the majority of people do not hold extreme views and are not involved in tension and
conflicts between different ethnic groups

6.4 Management & Stakeholders

6.4.1 Management of Cultural & Demographic Issues
Measures of Income
 Rapid demographic and cultural change can lead to various economic and social issues in urban and
rural areas, including:
o Conflict and tension
o Unwanted changes to the built environment e.g. gentrification and regeneration
o Social exclusion
o Increased pressure on services e.g. education and healthcare
o Higher levels of deprivation and unemployment
o Increased house prices
 Issues in rural and urban places need to be managed carefully to achieve a positive outcome
o A sequence of steps will be followed to enable the development of a suitable plan, which can be
monitored, evaluated, and revised if necessary

IMAGE

A change management model

 The success of management strategies used to reduce cultural and demographic issues can be
assessed using economic measures of:
o Income e.g. household income and percentage of people on minimum wage
o Employment e.g. type of employment and unemployment rate
 Different areas can then be compared by looking at the variations within each measure

Exam Tip
Both absolute and relative change can be used to measure differences in numerical data:

 Absolute change considers the difference between the original number and the new one e.g. an actual
increase or decrease in average income
  Relative change considers by what percentage the number changed from the original number e.g. the
percentage increase or decrease in average income

x 100 = Relative change

 You can compare absolute or relative changes between or within areas

Average per Capita Income in two Cities

2011 income 2021 income Absolute change Relative change

City A £49,250 £56,902 £7,652 +15.5%

City B £29,980 £37,114 £7,134 +23.8%

 There is little difference in the absolute change in income between City A and City B
 However, the relative change is 8.3% higher
 Looking at absolute and relative change for different areas gives you a better picture of how places
compare

 Economic indicators can be analysed in combination with demographic indicators, such as age and
ethnic diversity, to provide more information about a place

UK Working Age Unemployment by region and ethnicity (2016)

Region White (%) BAME (%)

North East 8.0 12.1

North West 5.3 12.4

Yorkshire and Humberside 5.7 13.6

East Midlands 4.4 9.6

West Midlands 5.1 13.2

East 4.5 6.3

London 4.5 10.2

South East 4.3 6.3

South West 4.2 8.0

Scotland 5.7 11.5

Wales 6.5 7.1

  In the majority of regions, Black and Minority Ethnic (BAME) workers are twice as likely as white
workers to be unemployed
o This suggests that there are still levels of discrimination in areas across the UK

Exam Tip
Measuring the average income of internal and international migrants may show that migrants are
economically successful, suggesting integration has been achieved. However, some migrants may
still view themselves as outsiders despite their economic success.
Reduction of Inequalities
 Social progress can be measured by:
o Reductions in inequalities between areas and within them for different groups of people e.g.
age and ethnicity
o Improvements in the Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) e.g. a reduction in health deprivation
o Improvements in demographic changes e.g. life expectancy

Comparing two wards in Liverpool

 Speke and Garston are situated next to each other in the south of Liverpool
 Despite their proximity, social progress for the two wards is significantly different:

Social Indicators for Speke and Garston

Indicator

(out of 64 wards) Speke Garston

1 = most deprived
Overall ranking 10 39

Life expectancy 19 35

Education - Persistent absence (10% or more) 23 40

Crime - domestic violence 10 39

IMD 11 32

 The data shows spatial inequalities within Liverpool

The location of Garston and Speke

  There is evidence of social progress in Garston since it became a separate ward from Speke in 2022
o Many independent shops are opening on the High Street, bringing the community together
o Councillors are funding a Youth Team to help encourage children to be proud of their local area
o Private investment (e.g. a new LIDL store) is reducing unemployment
 Speke has experienced significant challenges due to deindustrialisation and high unemployment,
however, there is some evidence of social progress:
o The charity, Speke Training and Education Centre (STEC), houses over 20 charities,
businesses and community organisations to help support the local community

Exam Tip
Remember that success can be subjective and that any social progress made may not benefit
everyone living in an area.
Political Engagement
 The success of cultural assimilation by immigrants (first, second and third generations) can be
assessed using a range of quantitative data

Potential Measures for Assessing Cultural Assimilation

Type of issue Possible measures

Economic Disparities in wage rates and salaries between immigrant and ethnic minorities, and white British
workers
Social Are the incidences of hate crime and expressions of racism increasing or decreasing?

What trends are seen in the IMD for different cultural groups?
Demographic Mapping changing residential distributions of different ethnic or immigrant groups to identify
whether segregation is becoming less marked

What is the incidence of mixed ethnic marriages?

Cultural The number of cultural features e.g. a tally of places of worship, different food cuisines and
languages on leaflets
Political The degree to which members of minority groups are engaging in the political process

What percentage of the electorate in those groups is voting at elections?

How many adults in those groups are standing in local and national elections?

The development of community groups

Exam Tip
Assessing the management of cultural issues can be more challenging due to the subjective nature of
these issues. For example, to what extent does a second-generation migrant feel they have
assimilated into the community?

A questionnaire or interview would help you gather qualitative data for this question about
assimilation.

Community engagement

 There are variations in the level of community engagement, which can be measured through:
o Local and national election turnout
 o The number of community activities
o The number of supported local community groups
 In the 2019 UK general elections, the election turnout was 67.3%
 An estimated 9.4 million eligible voters (2019) in the UK are not registered to vote
o BAME groups are some of the least likely to be on the electoral roll and therefore can’t vote
 Only 52% of ethnic minority groups chose to vote, suggesting that:
o Some of these individuals feel socially excluded from their community and have little influence
o There are possible language barriers due to lower levels of assimilation

Exam Tip
Find out what the local and general election turnouts are for your two contrasting places

 The development of community groups by minorities is a strong indicator of community engagement

as it shows they feel invested in the place
o Local charities fundraising to help vulnerable people in the local community
 For example, STEC helped a refugee family from Afghanistan integrate into Liverpool life
with English language lessons
o Residents of an estate may form a group due to growing inequalities or social issues e.g. to
reduce racism
 A low level of segregation within a community indicates that people have started to integrate with other
groups

Hate crimes and racism

 A reduction in the number of reported racist attacks towards ethnic minority groups and religions
indicates that people have assimilated into the community

Amount of Reported Hate Crimes (Race)

Data Liverpool Shetland

Population who identify as non-white (%) 16 3

Reported hate crimes (race) per 100,000 people 231 4

 The hate crime data suggests that ethnic minority groups are more likely to be victims
of racism in Liverpool than in Shetland

Worked example
Explain different ways of measuring the success of the management of cultural and demographic issues
[6 marks]

 Identify ways that issues can be managed and then include ideas on how success could be measured,
such as:
o Comparing the pay of different people from different ethnicities
o Questionnaires about perceptions of racism
o Voting statistics
 A balance between cultural and demographic issues is not necessary

To measure the success of management plans, first, the issues need to be identified and measured.
Demographic issues might include access to health and education services. Health indicators from
the Index of Multiple Deprivation could be used to assess whether there are health disparities
between different groups of people in the community (e.g. age, wealth or ethnicity). Once the plan is
implemented, the most recent IMD (published every 3-4 years) could be analysed to see whether
there has been any improvement in health and a reduction in the inequality of life expectancy
between groups. For example, after COVID-19, life expectancy dropped in Liverpool, with the poorest
areas experiencing a drop of 5.3 years, while some of the richest wards experienced a slight
increase.

The management of cultural issues can be more difficult to measure due to the subjective nature of
some of these issues, such as the degree to which migrants have assimilated into the community.
Again, a change management plan would be designed, with the identification of issues and what
strategies are needed to overcome them. Police reports could be used to identify the level of hate
crimes and racist abuse, at the time of implementation. These monthly reports could be used to
assess whether strategies, such as improving migrants’ levels of English, are effective in reducing
hate crimes and increasing assimilation.
6.4.2 Urban Stakeholders & Assessment of Success
Contrasting Views on Urban Spaces
 Urban living spaces are dynamic and constantly changing (demographically and culturally)
 Different demographic and ethnic groups view urban living spaces differently

Contrasting Views on the Urban Living Space

Groups Contrasting views

Different Younger generations are more likely to view the city as a place of social (e.g.
generations entertainment) and economic (e.g. employment) opportunity

Older generations may feel overwhelmed by the pace of change and rapid growth found in
urban living spaces

Minority ethnic Ethnic groups living in a segregated community may view other areas of the city as
groups unwelcoming

Migrants who have integrated into the community will feel secure and view the city as their
home
Deprived groups People suffering from deprivation may not be able to access social and economic
opportunities within a city, so can view urban spaces negatively

 Local and national strategies aim to resolve issues and manage change within urban living spaces
 National strategies include:
o The Northern Powerhouse initiative
 The UK government transfers funds towards northern cities to reduce the North-South
economic imbalance
 The government is investing in transport infrastructure, new business development, retail
space and tourist attractions
 The funds are boosting manufacturing, science, technology and the services sectors
o Urban Development Corporations (UDCs)
 Responsible for large-scale regeneration projects within the UK
 UDCs have the authority to implement plans for urban areas, focusing on infrastructure
development, housing and job creation
 UDCs include the London Docklands Development Corporation and the Birmingham
Heartlands Development Corporation
o Levelling Up Fund
  The UK 20 towns and cities across England receive funding from the UK government for
regeneration projects
 Derelict sites in towns and city centres will be transformed, creating new homes, jobs
and new communities
 Wolverhampton and Sheffield are the first two areas to receive this investment
o The Prevent Programme
 The programme aims to stop people from becoming terrorists or supporting terrorism
 The most common types of terrorism in the UK are Extreme Right-Wing terrorism and
Islamist terrorism
 It works to ensure that:
 People who are susceptible to radicalisation are offered appropriate
interventions
 Communities are protected against radicalising influences
 Radicalisation can happen when a person develops extreme views or beliefs that
support terrorist groups or activities
 The government has been accused of only focusing on Islam, which risks alienating the
people it is trying to engage with
 Local strategies include:
o Local community groups
 Help change how people interact with each other
 Know the issues a community faces and can help put solutions in place
 Can set up local consultations to ensure that everybody’s voice is heard
 Can lobby local authorities for change
 Can help improve lives in the community
o For example, the Muslim Council of Britain encourages mosques and Muslim groups to
engage with the wider community
 The Visit My Mosque programme allows the wider community to experience what a
mosque is like

Case study - Aik Saath, Slough

 Slough is one of the most ethnically diverse places in the UK

o 81.5% of its population noted down a religion in the 2021 census
o 6 religions were identified, including Christianity, Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism
 Slough shows that ethnic tensions can be reduced through cultural integration and assimilation
 Aik Saath (a charity) focuses on integrating people from all communities, faiths and backgrounds to
encourage conflict resolution and community cohesion
o It aims to stop gang violence and hate crime amongst young Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs
o This is achieved through training, campaigns and projects in educational settings
 Working with teachers on themes like extremism and anti-racism
 Training youth workers on conflict resolution

Exam Tip
Try to be specific when you are discussing different ethnic backgrounds. Terms like ‘Asian’ are too
generalised, instead use terms like Indian, Pakistani and Chinese.
Worked example
Explain how community groups can play an important role in managing change in urban places
[4 marks]

 One mark for each valid point, up to a maximum of 4 marks

Answer:
Community groups, especially those with connections to religion, can increase levels of community
integration. These groups can open up their place of worship to the wider community to reduce
segregation and help change how people perceive them. Local groups will be more aware of the
problems and issues a particular community faces, so they are in a stronger position to address those
issues directly. For example, the Aik Saath charity helped to reduce gang violence in Slough by
teaching young Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs about non-violent conflict resolutions.
Economic, Social, Demographic & Environmental Variables
 The success of managing change in diverse urban communities can be judged using four variables:
o Economic e.g. increasing average incomes and the levels of unemployment
o Social e.g. reducing levels of deprivation and crime rates
o Demographic changes e.g. improving life expectancy and reduced health deprivation
o Environmental e.g. reducing pollution levels and the amount of derelict land
 The economic variable:
o Economics is often the driving force behind changing urban areas
o National benefits sometimes are seen as more important than local views e.g. the
government austerity programme reducing the amount of public funding
 The social variable:
o Any change should cater to the needs of locals as well as newcomers to the area
o Locals should not be excluded or forced out of their area
 The environmental variable:
o Some residents may have to live in an area that has a poor environment, as they do not have
the money to move
o An enhanced environment will attract people to live, work or visit the place
 The variable for demographic changes:
o An increase in the proportion of younger, working-age people indicates that the area has more
economic prospects or greater opportunities for tertiary education e.g. universities
o A decrease in the overall numbers of any age group, in an area, is not a positive indicator
 The changing urban community may have caused these groups to leave the area

Urban Stakeholders & Assessment of Success

 Managing change in diverse urban communities involves a wide range of stakeholders with different
realities and objectives e.g.
o Residents
o Local government
o National government
 Migrants
 Local businesses
 All stakeholders can be divided into two groups:
o Groups that directly affect the management or handling of the issue
o Groups that are affected by the management of the issue
o These groups may exercise a positive role e.g. groups keen to develop derelict land into
commercial properties
o Groups may have a negative role e.g. the protestors who will lose out if the scheme goes
ahead, like locals who may want new housing
 Each stakeholder may view the issue and how best to manage it quite differently
o For example, the local government may want to commercially develop some derelict land for
economic purposes, while residents might want affordable housing
 Each stakeholder will have their own:
o Particular view of what represents success and failure
o Set of criteria for assessing whether an issue is managed successfully or not
 A stakeholder’s lived experience of a place can affect their judgement on whether strategies have
successfully managed the changes to the place, as well as the image of it
 For example, the regeneration of a council estate will involve various stakeholders, who will have
different criteria to judge the success of the scheme
o Stakeholders could include:
 National government
  Existing residents
 Local government
 Migrants
 Property developers
o The success criteria used by the stakeholders to judge the scheme might include:
 The number of affordable homes completed (local government)
 Improvements to the built environment e.g. the amount of open space (existing
resident)
 The profits made when selling new houses (property developer)
 Trends in deprivation e.g. IMD (local government)
 The amount of affordable homes to rent (migrants)
 Success may be measured according to the national policy e.g. number of houses
built (national government)
o Current residents may feel that their lived experience of a place is at risk from the regeneration
as there is no guarantee that they will be allowed to stay
 For example, the regeneration of Aylesbury Estate in South London will see 370 flats
demolished, but the rebuild will have fewer social rent homes and a 3-fold increase in
the number of private homes

Exam Tip
Not all stakeholders are equal in resolving issues and managing change within urban living spaces.
Generally, national or local governments will have the power and resources to implement
management plans. Local businesses and residents might be consulted about their views on the
plans, but not all these viewpoints will be considered.

When studying any issue, try to rank stakeholders according to the strength of their influence.
6.4.3 Rural Stakeholders & Assessment of Success
Contrasting Views on Rural Spaces
 Rural living is viewed differently by various demographic and ethnic groups

Contrasting Views on the Rural Living Space

Groups Contrasting views

Different Younger generations are more likely to migrate away from rural areas, where there are
generations fewer economic opportunities and lower average income levels

Older generations may view rural environments as places of peace and quiet, which can be
attractive for people entering retirement

Minority ethnic Migrants might face prejudice or racism due to the lack of diversity in rural areas and could
groups feel uncomfortable in the local community
Deprived groups Work in rural areas can be seasonal and poorly paid, making it hard for people in lower-
income groups to maintain financial security

 Rural areas will have different issues requiring management, including:

o Higher levels of deprivation due to lower incomes and the seasonal nature of jobs
o Declining rural services e.g. education, healthcare and retail
o Poorer transport and communication infrastructure e.g. superfast broadband
o Fewer affordable homes, exacerbated by lower wages
 Local and national strategies aim to resolve issues and manage change within rural living spaces
 National strategies include:
 o LEADER (Links between actions for the development of the rural economy) programme
& regeneration partnership
 Funded by the EU - the UK engaged with several LEADER programmes before BREXIT
 Example of a coordinated and integrated approach to economic and community
regeneration in a rural area
 Uses local knowledge of the value of a place to promote grassroots, community-led rural
development
o Rural enterprise zones
 In 2015, the government introduced 15 new rural enterprise zones to encourage the
development of new businesses, enabling growth in these rural areas
 The local government in each area can decide what incentives they give to businesses
in an enterprise zone, such as:
 A business rate holiday
 More streamlined planning regulations
 Superfast broadband
o National investments in mobile networks and high-speed broadband have allowed more
people to work in rural areas
 Local strategies include:
o Landowners and farmers are diversifying
 Over 60% of UK farms have diversified
 Farms may start to produce and sell speciality cheeses, farm unusual animals, or even
convert their buildings for other uses (e.g. galleries, farm shops)
 The most common forms of diversification are:
 Renewable energy (29%)
 Property letting (15%)
 Holiday lets (12%)
 This creates more economic opportunities in the area for young people in the
countryside
o Local authorities granting planning permission to particular groups can influence the future of
rural areas
 For example, granting planning permission to land developers that plan to include
affordable homes for local people and keep second-home ownership to a minimum
 Wealthier short-term residents purchasing second homes in popular rural areas,
increase high prices for local residents, creating tension

Case study - Lake District Rural Revival Partnerships

 Established in 2006, the ‘Lake District Rural Revival Partnerships’ were formed to:
o Facilitate management of the area
o Involve representatives from the public, private, community and voluntary sectors (25
organisations are involved)
o Reduce the rural economic decline in the Lake District region
 Strategies include:
o Developing land management and diversification
o Developing opportunities to create social awareness
o Investigating the ways young people can be involved and develop their skills
o Working together to create a greener environment
o Ensuring mobile coverage, superfast broadband and Wi-Fi service for communities to keep in
close contact
o Investing in flood resilience measures
o Encouraging farmers to raise local breeds of sheep
 The Partnership is a successful example of how the interests of multiple stakeholders can be
managed in a rural area
o There are many competing land users in the Lake District e.g. farmers, industry owners, visitors
and residents
o The needs of the wildlife, local heritage and tourists are all considered in the decision-making
  The Fell Futures is one of the projects addressing a nationally identified skills shortage in the Lakes
o It has helped train 12 apprentices and 30 new volunteers in skills such as dry-stone walling,
habitat conservation and forestry
o It has enabled every apprentice to gain employment, with 90% working in Cumbria

Exam Tip
Remember, rural places in the UK rarely have culturally diverse populations, apart from a few
exceptions like rural Lincolnshire. Rural areas do have demographically diverse populations with
young people, working people and retired people.
Economic, Social, Demographic & Environmental Variables
 The success of managing change in diverse rural communities can be judged using four variables:
o Economic e.g. increasing average incomes and the levels of unemployment
o Social e.g. reducing levels of deprivation and creating affordable housing
o Demographic changes e.g. improving life expectancy and reduced health deprivation
o Environmental e.g. reducing pollution levels and the extent of protected areas
 The economic variable:
o Often the driving force behind changing rural areas
o National benefits sometimes are seen as more important than local views e.g. improving the
transport infrastructure between urban areas, such as HS2
 The social variable:
o Any change should cater to the needs of locals as well as newcomers to the area
o Locals should not be excluded or forced out of their area
o Declining rural services (e.g. healthcare, banking and retail) make everyday living increasingly
difficult for pensioners
 The environmental variable:
o Most rural communities have important natural and historic heritage, which encourages tourism
but needs protecting
o An enhanced environment will attract people to live, work or visit the place
 The variable for demographic changes:
o A decrease in the overall numbers of any age group, in an area, is not a positive indicator
 The challenges of rural areas may have caused these groups to leave e.g. young people
leave in search of better-paid employment

Rural Stakeholders & Assessment of Success

 Managing change in diverse rural communities involves a wide range of stakeholders with different
realities and objectives e.g.
o Residents
o Local government
o National government
o Local businesses
 All stakeholders can be divided into two groups:
o Groups that directly affect the management or handling of the issue
o Groups that are affected by the management of the issue
o These groups may exercise a positive role e.g. groups keen to develop derelict land into
commercial properties
o Groups may have a negative role e.g. the protestors who will lose out if the scheme goes
ahead, like locals who may want new affordable housing
 Each stakeholder may view the issue and how best to manage it quite differently
o For example, the local government may want to commercially develop some derelict land for
economic purposes, while residents might want affordable housing
 Each stakeholder will have their own:
o Particular view of what represents success and failure
 o Set of criteria for assessing whether an issue is managed successfully or not
 A stakeholder’s lived experience of a place can affect their judgement on whether strategies have
successfully managed the changes to the place, as well as the image of it

Stakeholders’ Views on Rural Living Spaces

Stakeholder Viewpoint Possible success measures

National More likely to have a perceived sense of a rural place The number of deprived
governments and rather than a lived experience, so the needs of the local households
planners community might not be met
The unemployment rate
Development plans will be carefully considered due to the
government’s responsibility to protect rural areas for future Levels of internal and
generations (e.g. National Parks) international migration to fill
job vacancies
They will be focused on their aspirations for the place and
what they identify as particular challenges associated with
a brighter future
Local governments The long-term health of the local economy and the The number of deprived
traditions and heritage of the area are more likely to be households
considered by members of the local government
The unemployment rate
These members are more likely to have a lived experience
of the place they work in Visitor numbers

Job creation numbers

Census data

IMD data trends

Local residents Residents may have a lengthy lived experience of a place, Improvements to the built
with multiple generations having lived there environment e.g. the amount
of open space
Some residents will welcome change, especially if they
will benefit from it The amount of affordable
homes to rent
Some residents will not want the area to change, especially
if it is not sympathetic to the character of the area The number of new job
openings
Some long-term residents may seek continuity and may not
appreciate in-migrants, who seek change The price of housing relative
to earnings

Rising incomes

Improved health and life

expectancy

Increased access to services

Local businesses Will encourage a scheme that will expand their market and Visitor numbers
customer base
The extent of protected areas
A new development will be viewed more positively if it
involves the local business community in the decision- The profitability of farms
making process
Changes in profit
Local businesses may view a development project
negatively if it increases competition in the area Hiring rates of new employees

Increased population,
especially the young
Migrants Immigrants are willing to work for low wages in the The amount of affordable
agricultural sector and occupy poor quality housing, which homes to rent
does little to relieve rural areas suffering from deprivation
The number of new job
openings
Exam Tip
Not all stakeholders are equal at resolving issues and managing change within rural living spaces.
Generally, national or local governments will have the power and resources to implement
management plans. Local businesses and residents might be consulted about their views on the
plans, but not all these viewpoints will be considered.

When studying any issue, try to rank stakeholders according to the strength of their influence.
Worked example
Assess why conflicts may occur between stakeholders involved in demographic and cultural change
[12 marks]

 Points to include:
o Ideas about stakeholders involved in demographic and cultural changes
o Consider reasons for conflict between the stakeholders
o Consider why the levels of power or influence vary between stakeholders, or why some are
‘winners’ and some ‘losers’
o Frequent use of examples
 There are different ways of approaching this question; answers could focus on:
o Rural
o Urban
o Both

Answer:
Conflicts between stakeholders involved in demographic and cultural change can arise due to various
reasons. Conflicts can occur due to a lack of political engagement and representation, ethnic
tensions, inequality, and a lack of economic opportunity. For instance, not all people welcome a
change in the diversity of communities, leading to ethnic tensions between long-term residents and
recent in-migrants; this has been evident in Luton. Luton has experienced a rapid increase in
immigration since 2011. At present, nearly 40% of Luton’s residents were born outside of the UK,
which is one of the highest proportions of non-UK born residents (except for London). In 2016, news
reports linked Luton to Islamic extremism by claiming the town had the second largest source of
jihadists travelling to Syria in support of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). This led to
increased incidents of Islamophobia by the English Defence League (EDL), a far-right Islamophobic
organisation, based in Luton. The EDL has been accused of creating ethnic tension between the
Muslim and non-Muslim communities.
Conflicts can also arise due to the different criteria used by stakeholders to assess the success of
management plans. For example, the regeneration of a run-down council estate, like the Aylesbury
Estate in South London, will involve various stakeholders (e.g. existing residents, local and national
government, and property developers) with different success criteria. Current residents feel that their
lived experience of a place is at risk from the regeneration as there is no guarantee that they will be
allowed to stay, especially if the scheme attracts wealthier migrants. Residents of the 370 existing
flats will be temporarily rehomed, but the rebuild will have fewer social rent homes and a 3-fold
increase in the number of private homes. The property developer will be concerned with the amount
of profit made when selling the new houses, whilst existing residents will care about the cost of the
new housing and whether it is still affordable. The local government will be interested in the trends of
deprivation, for example, a reduction in unemployment and crime. Overall, the current residents are
the stakeholders more likely to lose out as they don’t have the financial means or power to affect the
decisions of the local government or property developers.

Rural areas also experience conflicts between stakeholders, mainly due to the demographically
diverse population. Rural areas can experience high levels of deprivation, leading to local
governments promoting the area to tourists for economic purposes e.g. Ambleside in the Lake
District. This can create a reduction in unemployment for the locals, however, these tourist-related
jobs are often low-paid and seasonal. The conflict occurs when tourists begin to buy second homes in
the area, increasing the average house prices and pricing out the locals. In 2022, the average house
price in Ambleside was £512,733. The majority of sales in Ambleside were flats, selling for an
average price of £372,120. Long-term residents (mainly young people) are more likely to leave the
area and be replaced with short-term residents, changing the demographics of the population. The
influence of stakeholders varies due to the inequality of power, for example, if locals object to the
numbers of second homes in an area, there is little they can do.

7. The Water Cycle & Water Insecurity7.1 Hydrological Cycle\

7.1.1 The Global Hydrological Cycle
Hydrological Cycle as a Closed System
 The global hydrological cycle is a system.
 There are open and closed systems:
o Open systems have external inputs and outputs of energy and matter exchange at its
boundaries
o Closed systems only have energy as its input and output, matter is contained within the system
boundary
o Energy is from the sun which is irradiated back from Earth to space

 Within global systems there are usually numbers of smaller subsystems e.g. drainage basin of a river
 The global hydrological system is a closed system meaning there are no external inputs or outputs,
water is not lost or gained from space
  It is defined as :

'the continuous movement of water on, above and below the Earth's surface'

 The cycle is a series of processes in which water is constantly recycled through the system
o Evaporation - the sun evaporates surface water into vapour
o Condensation - water vapour condenses and precipitates
o Flows - water runs off the surface into streams and reservoirs or beneath the surface as ground
flow
 The hydrological cycle is powered by the sun.
o The sun heats water in the oceans or on land and evaporation occurs
o Water vapour then rises into the atmosphere and condenses to form clouds and this drives the
atmospheric circulation
o Cloud droplets then fall back to earth as precipitation

 The hydrological cycle involves energy exchange, leading to local temperature fluctuations
o As water evaporates, it uses energy from its surrounding to perform this process
o This effectively cools the environment
o The reverse happens when water condenses (heat is released)
o This heat exchange influences the local climate
 When a water droplet falls on a mountain or slope, high above sea level, it has a high amount
of gravitational potential energy (GPE)

Gravitational potential energy of a raindrop

 As the water droplet is in motion, the GPE turns to kinetic energy

Kinetic energy of a raindrop on a hill slope

 This allows the water to move over the surface

Exam Tip
You could be asked to explain what a closed system is or how it operates. Try to give a definition of a
closed system and then go on to describe how the flows and stores of water change despite the
amount of water in the system staying the same. Then explain the reasons for those changes.
Water Stores
 Water is defined as:
A colourless, tasteless, transparent, odourless liquid that forms the seas, rivers and
precipitation

 Freshwater makes up just 2.5% of all Earth's water

 Approximately 1.6% of the freshwater is locked away:
o 68.7% as ice within the cryosphere
o The remaining 30.1% is groundwater
 In total, just 0.9% of the Earth's total freshwater, is accessible to humans

The main stores of water in the global hydrological cycle

Major stores of water

 Stores or reservoirs
o The term refers to a body of water that acts as a holding point – not just a man-made lake
 Water is stored within the major systems
 Most water is stored as saline water in oceans and freshwater as ice or within aquifers (groundwater
stores)
 Frozen water in the cryosphere = 68.7%
 Liquid water in the hydrosphere = 1%
 Water vapour in the atmosphere = 0.2%
 Groundwater in the lithosphere = 30.1%
 Water is stored unevenly around the globe because of the uneven spread of land to sea and permeable
or porous rock which enable aquifers to form

 The hydrological cycle transfers water, the flows which enable this are known as fluxes
  Annual flux are the variations in flows due to temperature, seasons and location
o Flows such as evaporation will be greatest in warmer areas due to increased heating from the
sun e.g. at the equator
o This then leads to high rates of precipitation at the equator too
 Stores such as ice caps will be getting smaller as a result of climate change whereas ocean stores will
be increasing for the same reason

Global Water Budget

 The global water budget is the difference between the inputs and outputs from the different stores
 Water is stored for varying amounts of time

Residence times

 The time water is held in a store is called the residence time

 The size of the stores of water along with water residence time is dictated by:
o Flows/transfers such as evaporation
o Global factors such as climate change
o Local factors such as human activity on a hillslope

Flows/transfers

 Any change in the flow/transfer of water impacts the size of the water store and residence time of water
o More precipitation generally increases the availability of water for storage
o If the rainfall is too intense and surface flow increases, the opportunity for infiltration and water
storage less

Climate change

 During the last Ice Age (approx. 18,000 yrs ago), roughly a third of Earth's surface was covered in ice
sheets and glaciers
 This increased the magnitude (size) of the cryosphere's stores
 But, it lowered the hydrosphere's store (no flow of liquid water) and sea levels were over 100 m lower
than present day

Clouds and Precipitation

 The global atmospheric circulation drives the formation of clouds and types of precipitation
  The Equator receives more insolation, resulting in higher temperatures which cause high rates of
evaporation
 As the warm, moist air rises, it cools, condenses and forms banks of towering clouds with heavy
rainfall
 This area is a low-pressure zone known as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
 The ITCZ (also called the 'thermal equator') tracks with the seasonal movement of the Sun, north and
south of the equator bringing intense low-pressure rain/monsoon conditions with the movement
 This shows temporal and spatial changes in stores and transfers on a global basis

Global atmospheric circulation determines cloud and

precipitation on a global scale

Cryospheric processes

 The second largest store of water is ice and 95% is locked as the ice sheets of Antarctica and
Greenland
 Any changes to the size (magnitude) of these sheets impact globally
 The total melting of the ice sheets could result in a 60 m sea level rise, which is a lot of stored water
 Melting of the ice sheets adds water to the hydrosphere store of the oceans
 Ice shelves are further destabilised, which triggers ice calving, these icebergs subsequently melt;
adding to the hydrosphere store and rising sea levels
 This is a positive feedback loop

7.1.2 The Drainage Basin

Hydrological Cycle Processes
 Drainage basins are subsystems of the global hydrological cycle, they drain all the water which lands
on the Earth's surface
 Drainage basins can cover many square miles/km over a number of countries e.g. the Nile River basin
drainage area is more than 3 million km2 over 12 countries with 73 % of the drainage basin in Sudan
and Egypt
 An individual drainage basin is the area drained by a river and its tributaries, this is also known as
the catchment area
 The boundary of the drainage basin is the watershed
 As a subsystem of the hydrological cycle, drainage basins are open systems this means that they
have inputs and outputs
Drainage basin features

 All drainage basins have some features in common:

o Watershed
o Source
o Confluence
o Tributary
o Mouth

 The drainage basin as an open system: note that the atmosphere can be both a store and a transfer –
clouds store but also move water around the planet

 As an open system, drainage basins have inputs, outputs, stores and flows
 Inputs are the addition of water to a drainage basin through precipitation
o Inputs vary throughout the year (rain, sleet, snow, location etc) and intensities (flood, drought,
temperature etc) and frequency (seasonal, monsoon etc)
 The three main types of rainfall in the UK are:
o Orographic (relief) rainfall where warm, moist air is forced to rise over high ground

Orographic (relief) rainfall

 o Frontal rainfall occurs when warm and cold air masses meet and the warm air rises over the
cold air

Frontal rainfall

 Convectional rainfall occurs when the ground heats the air above it

Convectional rainfall

 Flows in a drainage basin can be either above or below ground

o Above:
 Throughfall is precipitation that makes it to the ground without interception by the plant canopy
 Drip flow is water that flows off leaves and drips to the ground. Some leaves have developed drip
tips and waxy surfaces
 Trunk and stem is the flow of water down the stems of plants or trunks of trees
 Overland surface flow is when water flows over the land surface. Two types, channel and sheet
flow
 Channel flow is where water flows in small channels or rills (<30cm width/depth)
in a defined stream pattern
 Sheet flow is a layer of water on the surface, either due to excess surface flow
from increased precipitation or water cannot infiltrate quickly enough
 Interception by vegetation and buildings can prevent as much as 40% of precipitation
from reaching the ground

 It slows the passage of water to the surface and reduces the amount that
reaches the ground – some or all will evaporate and the rest will take a
longer route over leaves, trees etc.
 This is important, as it reduces the amount available for overland/surface
flow and therefore, there is a reduction in soil erosion and flooding
 o Below:
 Infiltration is where water enters small openings and pores in the ground from the
surface.
 Throughflow is the lateral (sideways) movement of water through the upper soil, along
lines of seepage called percaline
 Percolation is where water flows down through the soil layers and underlying rock is
pulled down through gravity. The rate of travel is determined through porosity (soil) and
permeability (rock)
 Baseflow / Groundwater flow water that has infiltrated and percolated into the bedrock
and below the water, table to feed springs, river channels and recharge aquifers
(recharge will only occur when there is an excess of water)

 Outputs are the losses of water from a drainage basin in various forms
o River discharge is the volume of water passing a point in the river channel at a given unit of
time and expressed as cubic metres per second or ‘cumecs’ (m3/sec)

Exam Tip
Do not get confused between throughfall and throughflow.

Throughfall is above ground and is where water transfers through the canopy of trees etc. to the
ground without any interception.

Throughflow occurs below ground and is the transfer of water laterally below the surface after
infiltration.
Physical Factors and Drainage Basins
 There are a range of physical factors which influence drainage basins including:
o Climate
o Soils
o Vegetation
o Geology
o Relief

Climate

 The climate of an area in which a drainage basin is located affects:

o The type and amount of precipitation
o Extent of evaporation
o Amount and type of vegetation

Soils

 The structure and type of soil can have a significant impact on:
o Infiltration and through flow - the pores and openings in the soil affect how much infiltration
occurs and the rate of throughfllow
o Where soil is impermeable, saturated, compacted or frozen there will be low infiltration rates
and high surface run off

Vegetation

 The amount and type of vegetation affects:

o Interception, infiltration, drip flow and trunk and stem flow
o The more vegetation the greater the amounts of those flows
o Where there is less or no vegetation these are all reduced and surface run off increases
Geology

 The type of rock below the surface affects:

o Whether water is able to percolate and also affects the amount of groundwater flow
o The geology also affects the type of soil which then impacts on the flows in the drainage basin

Relief

 The steepness of slopes impacts on:

o Surface run off - on flatter slopes the water is able to infiltrate more easily, reducing surface run
off, on steeper slopes infiltration is reduced and surface run off is increased
o Upland areas also experience more precipitation which affects the flows through the drainage
basin

Human Impacts on the Drainage Basin

 Human activities impact on drainage basins in a variety of ways
 These may be due to accelerating processes through:
o Deforestation
o Changing land use
 Creating new water storage reservoirs and abstracting water also have impacts

Activity Impact

 The felling and clearance of trees reduces interception and infiltration rates
Deforestation  It increases surface run off
 It reduces evapotranspiration which reduces precipitation

 Urban surfaces of tarmac and concrete are impermeable so reduce infiltration and
increase surface run off
 Drainage systems move water to rivers more rapidly increasing the risk of flooding
Changing land use  Agriculture reduces the amount of large vegetation decreasing interception and
increasing surface run off
 Livestock farming can leading to compaction of the soil reducing infiltration

 Over-abstraction leads to reduced flow in rivers and reduces the amount of

Abstraction groundwater

 The construction of dams and reservoirs reduce water flow downstream

Reservoirs  Increases evaporation as there is greater surface area of water

7.1.3 Water Budgets & River Systems

Water Budgets
 Drainage basins are self-adjusting systems to create balance
 If one part is 'out', then one or all the others will compensate
 The balance between inputs and outputs is known as the water balance
 The water balance helps to understand the behaviour of individual drainage basins
 The water balance can be shown using the formula:
o precipitation (P) = total runoff (streamflow) (O) + evapotranspiration (E) +/- changes in storage
(S)
  The water balance shows how much water is stored in a system
 The general water balance in the UK shows seasonal patterns
 In wet seasons, precipitation is greater than evapotranspiration which creates a water surplus
 Ground stores fill with water which results in increased surface runoff, higher discharge and higher river
levels
 This means there is a positive water balance
 In drier seasons evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, as plants absorb water, ground stores are
depleted
 This produces a water deficit at the end of a dry season generating a negative water balance

Soil water budget

 Shows the balance between inputs and outputs of a soil store over a year
 The budget depends on soil depth, type, texture and permeability
 The following is based on a typical UK soil budget

 Graph
showing changes in soil moisture stores, on a local scale, over a year

River Regimes
 The volume of water moving past a point in a river per given time is called the discharge – m³ /sec
or cumecs
 Discharge is calculated as Q = A x V
o Q is discharged in cumecs
o A is a cross-sectional area in m²
o V is the velocity in m/s
 There is a discharge relationship within drainage basins
 The level of discharge is influenced by:
o Rate of precipitation
o The speed at which water transfers to the river across the drainage basin
 Rivers act as the main conduit within a drainage basin to transfer water within the system
 Knowing a drainage basin's input (precipitation) and calculating a river's discharge (output) shows how
much water is stored within a drainage basin at any given time

Hydrographs

 Hydrographs are used to measure discharge

 There are two types of hydrographs:
 o Annual
o Storm
 Annual hydrographs, also known as a river's regime, show the pattern of seasonal variation that takes
place through a drainage basin to river discharge over a year
 Hydrographs are measured in cumecs
 Different conditions in different locations produce different levels of discharge over the course of a year
 They may show marked seasonal peaks and low flows, greatly influenced by changes in precipitation,
temperature, vegetation or geology
o E.g. big swings in discharge in tropical rivers relate to the wet and dry seasons; spring increases
often suggest melting snow; and permeable rocks reduce discharge most of the year

Storm Hydrographs
 Storm hydrographs show changes in a river’s discharge during and after a storm
 Usually, they are drawn to show how a river reacts to an individual storm
 They compare two variables - rainfall received during an event in mm and river discharge m3/sec
 Each storm hydrograph has a series of parts

Image showing the terminology of a flood/storm

hydrograph. Note that rainfall is always in mm and a bar chart and discharge in cumecs
m³/sec as a line graph measured over time (usually hours, but can be days)

 There are 3 ways that water from a drainage basin is transferred:

o Directly into the channel – not much
o Surface flow – most often
o Infiltration - through and baseflow
 The typical shape of a flood/storm hydrograph can be referred to as either 'flashy' or 'flat'

Flashy' hydrograph showing short lag time with high peak ‘Flat’ hydrograph with low peak discharge
discharge
Factors affecting the shape of the hydrograph
'Flashy' hydrograph 'Flat' hydrograph
Factor
Short lag time, high peak Long lag time, low peak discharge, gentle
discharge, steep rising limb rising limb
Impermeable rock - decreases
Permeable rock - allow percolation leading to
Rock type percolation and increases surface run
lower surface run off
off

Clay soils have a low infiltration rate Sandy soils have a high infiltration rate,
Soils
increasing surface run off decreasing surface run off

Heavy or prolonged rainfall and

rapid snowmelt can exceed the Steady rainfall and slow thaw of snow don't
capacity of the soil leading to exceed the infiltration capacity of the soil
Weather/climate increased surface run off
High evaporation rates lead to lower surface
Low evaporation rates increases run off
surface run off
Antecedent Saturated soil so infiltration is low and Unsaturated soils so infiltration is high and
conditions surface run off greater surface run off low

Deciduous plants/trees mean

Deciduous plants/trees mean there are high
interception levels are lower in
levels of interception
Vegetation winter
Greater levels of vegetation leads to higher
Lack of vegetation leads to less
interception
interception
Smaller basins have steep rising limbs Large basins have longer lag times and gentler
Drainage basin size and short lag times as water reaches rising limbs as the water takes longer to flow
the rivers more quickly through the drainage basin

Deforestation reduces interception

Urbanisation increases impermeable

Human activity surfaces
Afforestation increases interception
Agriculture can increase compaction
of the soil and ploughing can
increase surface run off
Exam Tip

 You may be asked to compare graphs of the same river on different occasions or different rivers
responding to the same storm
 Key points to mention when describing hydrographs:
o Steepness of the rising and falling limb
o The value of the peak discharge
o The lag time (period of time between peak rainfall and peak discharge)
o Time is taken to return to normal

7.2 Factors Influencing the Hydrological System

7.2.1 Deficits in the Hydrological Cycle
Causes of Droughts
 Droughts are an extended period of time when there is below average rainfall
 There are three types of droughts:
o Meteorological
o Hydrological
o Agricultural
 Meteorological drought occurs when there is rainfall deficit and the length of the dry period, it is
caused by:
o Changes in atmospheric circulation leading to:
 A lack of precipitation as a result of short-term changes or longer-term trends
 The lack of rainfall is often combined with high temperatures which increases
evaporation
 Agricultural drought is when there is a water deficiency in the soil, which leads to:
o Crop failure
o Reduced biomass
 Hydrological drought occurs when there is a lack of water stored on the surface and underground in
lakes, rivers, reservoirs and aquifers

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

 The ENSO cycle is the movement of a warm water mass in the equatorial Pacific Ocean
 It occurs due to the changes in the trade winds, atmospheric circulation and ocean currents
 There are two phases:
o El Niño
o La Niña
 El Niño phases occur more frequently than La Niña

El Niño

 An El Niño occurs when the sea temperatures are 0.5°C above average
 This leads to warmer than average weather in the eastern Pacific
  The peak is usually in December
 It occurs every 2-7 years
 The temperature of the ocean off the coast of Peru rises an average of 6-8°C, causing thermal
expansion and sea level rise
 Water off the coast of Australia and Indonesia is cooler and precipitation is reduced leading to droughts
in Australia

Causes of El Niño

 In a non-El Niño year there is descending air over the eastern Pacific and rising warm moist air over the
western Pacific
 In an El Niño year the trade winds are reduced or reverse (going west to east) leading to a reversal of
the conditions and rising air over the eastern Pacific and descending air over the western Pacific

El Niño

La Niña

 La Niña occurs when sea temperatures fall below average

 This brings cooler and drier than average weather in the eastern Pacific
 La Niña occurs every 3-5 years

Causes of La Niña

 Stronger than usual eastward trade winds and ocean currents

 These bring cold water to the surface through upwelling

 Both El Niño and La Niña impact the global climate due to the changes they cause in the jet stream
 El Niño has the most significant impacts with:
o Increased rainfall and flooding in South America, Africa and the south of the US
o Drought in Australia and Southeast Asia
o Has been linked to a higher risk of colder winters in the UK
 La Niña leads to:
o Increased rainfall in Australia and Southeast Asia
o Drought conditions in the south of the US
 o Increases the risk of tropical storms in the Atlantic

Human Activity & Drought

 Human activity alone does not cause drought
 The activities enhance the climate conditions increasing the risk of drought
 Human activity increases the risk of drought in a number of ways, the main way is over-abstraction of:
o Surface water resources
o Ground water aquifers
 Deforestation also increases the risk of drought because it reduces the ability of soil to retain water
 Over-abstraction occurs due to:
o Population growth - this increases the demand for both food and water
o Overcultivation

Australia droughts

 In Australia droughts are a regular occurrence

 In 2006 the country experienced a 1 in 1000 year drought event - also known as the Millennium drought

Causes

 It started with low rainfall through 1996/7 followed by dry years in 2001, 2002 and 2003
 Between 2001 and 2003 El Niño exacerbated the drought conditions

Human activity

 Human activity in Australia increased the risk of drought through:

o Climate change as a result of increased greenhouse gas emissions
o Widespread deforestation
o Overgrazing of sheep and cattle has led to vegetation loss
o Over-abstraction by farmers - until recently farmers could take as much water as they wanted
o High water consumption - 340 litres per person per day

Effects

 The Murray-darling river system was 54% below the record minimum
 Crop yield was reduced to 10 million tonnes from the 25 million tonnes average due to less irrigation
 Reservoirs were at 40% of their capacity

 Drinking water shortages were experienced in cities such as Adelaide

 It was ended by the occurrence of a La Niña phase in 2010 which led to floods

Impacts of Droughts on Ecosystems

 Drought has significant impacts on ecosystems
 The resilience of ecosystems varies
 Drought reduces the amount of water available for plants and animals

Forest ecosystems

 Forests cover approximately 30% of the Earth's surface

 They provide vital goods and services including:
 o The release of oxygen
o High levels of biodiversity
o Storage of carbon
 Trees can draw up to 68-680 litres of water a day
 On a hot day trees transpire between 500 - 1000 litres
 Drought conditions leads to forest stress
o Younger trees die and this reduces the tree cover
o Transpiration is reduced and this decreases precipitation and humdity
o This leads more trees to die
 The forest becomes less resilient
o Trees become more susceptible to pests and diseases
o Wildfire is more common as dry vegetation and litter covers the forest floor

Wetlands

 Covering about 6% of the Earth's surface wetlands:

o They provide protection from flooding
o Reduce air temperatures
o They improve water quality and have high biodiversity (40% of the world's species)
 Although wetlands rely on occasional droughts to expose sediments and release nutrients too much
drought is damaging
 Human activity is intensifying and increasing the frequency of drought
 Wetlands do not have sufficient time to recover
 The lack of precipitation causes vegetation to die, which reduces:
o Infiltration
o Percolation
o Interception
o Transpiration which in turn reduces precipitation
 In Australia the droughts led to acidification of the wetlands soils and water
 The drying out of wetlands soils may contribute to climate change due to increased rate of
decomposition which release carbon dioxide

7.2.2 Flooding
Meteorological Causes of Flooding
 Flooding is the result of surplus water within the hydrological system
 Causes of flooding can be physical (meteorological) or human

Intense storms

 These lead to flash flooding (short-lag time)

 The precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate increasing surface runoff
 Rivers capacity is rapidly exceeded
 Common in mountainous and semi-arid areas

Prolonged rainfall

 Can occur during monsoon conditions such as in south-east Asia

o In parts of India 75% of the annual rainfall occurs during the monsoon
o In 2019 severe monsoon rainfall in India led to flooding and over 1,600 deaths
o There was 10% more rain than the 50 year average
 Leads to the saturation of the soil
 This means that rainfall cannot infiltrate
  Increases surface run off which means the water reaches the rivers more rapidly increasing the risk of
flood
 May also occur during depression (low pressure system) conditions over the UK
o In 2014 the flooding of the Somerset levels was the result of several depressions passing over
south-west England
o There was 350mm in January and February which was 100mm more than the average

Snowmelt

 Rapid snowmelt can lead to flooding

 If the snow melts faster than the water can infiltrate then surface runoff increases
o This may be due to soil which remains frozen
 In March 2018 following heavy snowfall 'Beast from the east' there was significant flooding in areas of
Cumbria, Lancashire and Yorkshire

Other physical causes

 Geology of the underlying rock - impermeable clay and granite

 Tectonic activity results in dam failure or landslides which block river flows
 Volcanic activity releases meltwater beneath ice sheets
 Ice dams melt releasing glacial lake water
 Impervious surfaces in urban areas

Human Actions & Increased Flooding Risk

 Human activity can exacerbate flood risk as a result of:
o Changing land use in the drainage basin
o Mismanagement of the river using hard engineering

Changing land use

 Humans have made numerous changes to the natural landscape for agricultural, industrial and urban
uses
 Some of these changes include:
o Deforestation
o Agricultural practices
o Urbanisation
 The changes made increase surface run off which reduces the lag time, creates a steep rising limb and
increases the peak discharge
 Deforestation reduces the amount of interception and infiltration
 Overgrazing removes the vegetation and so increases bare soil, which animals compact under hoof,
reducing infiltration rates and increasing runoff
 Ploughing compacts the soil reducing soil porosity and less storage capacity
 Drainage ditches increase overland flow and change a river's annual regime
 Streams are channelled into culverts to aid rapid drainage of farmland
 Farming often reduces vegetation cover and increase soil compaction from tractors and machinery,
this reduces the amount of water infiltration and increases surface runoff
 Interception is greatly reduced on harvested bare fields, meaning any subsequent precipitation will
exceed soil infiltration capacity, resulting in increased overland flow
 Urbanisation increases impermeable surfaces
 Bridge supports are built into the river beds and ramps built on floodplains
 Dams are built to supply towns with water
 Sewers feed into river channels
Mismanagement of a river channel

 Hard engineered intervention is designed to 'push back' against nature

 Channelisation adds a liner to a straightened river channel (usually concrete) to reduce friction which
aims to improve flow rate and therefore, reduce silting
o However, the method displaces the river flow downstream (increased silting or flooding)
overwhelming locations during peak discharge
 Dams, floodwalls and reservoirs are built to prevent flooding and ensure a regular supply of water
o Unfortunately, the flow of sediment is halted and the reservoir gradually fills with silt
o Downstream, erosion is increased in the river bed
 Embankments and levees can be built or increased in height to improve bankfull capacity, using
concrete or sustainable materials (usually dredged from the channel)
o However, if these are breached, then the scale of the flooding is much greater
 River straightening increases the flow of water by increasing the gradient of a river's channel and
removing natural meanders (bends)
o Increasing flow velocity, increases risks of flooding downstream if blockages occur or narrowing
of the channel through an urban area
 Floodplains are natural natural stores of flood water and self-regulating defences
o Building on these increase the risks of flooding and damage to homes and livelihoods

Damage from Flooding

 There are environmental and socio-economic impacts as a result of flooding and the damage it causes

Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts

Environmental Socio-Economic

 Loss of crops
 Loss of habitats  Loss of life, property and
 Pollution of waterways infrastructure
 Soil and bank erosion  Road closure and loss of
 Eutrophication communications
 Siltation but also soil  Long-term rehoming of people
replenishment  Cost of house insurance increases
 Recharge groundwater stores  Loss of income from employment,
 Flooding can be a trigger event for agriculture and/or tourism
breeding, migration and dispersal  Health risks from water
 Recharge of wetlands contamination
 Increase the connectivity between  Trauma and loss of possessions
aquatic habitats  Psychological impacts can be long
 Move sediment and nutrients lasting
around the landscape

 Natural systems have built-in ecological resilience and can accommodate moderate flooding
 However, when human activities degrade the environment, the negative impacts are more pronounced

UK flooding

 The risk of floods are increasing in the UK

 In 2020, England received 141% of its average February rainfall in less than 2 weeks during a series of
storms
  Flood defences were overrun in many places (i.e. Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire, and Derbyshire)
 Heavy rain led to drains quickly over filling and back spilling water onto streets
 Extreme weather events are four times more likely than in 1970
 Since 2000 there have 9 record breaking months of rainfall, twice the amount in the previous 80 years

UK Flooding of 2007 and 2012

UK 2007 UK 2012

Wettest summer since records began in 1766, The 2012 floods were a series of weather events
with 414mm of rainfall across England and Wales during the course of the year and on through the
from May to July winter into 2014

In late July, Gloucestershire and Worcestershire At the start of 2012, the UK experienced drought
flooding, left 48,000 homes without power for and a March heatwave
two days, and 10,000 motorists were stranded on
the M5 overnight By April, a series of low pressure systems
brought by the jet stream, the wettest month in a
The RAF and Army were called in to help when 100 years
Tewkesbury became cut off
It continued through May and led to the wettest
Surface water and river flooding affected more start to June in 150 years, with flooding and
than 55,000 homes and businesses across the extreme events throughout the UK and parts of
country Europe

7,000 people were rescued By end of June and again early July, heavy
thunderstorms gathered strength across mainland
17,000 families had to leave their homes UK; a product of two fronts colliding over the
UK - warm air from the Azores meeting water
13 people died laden cold air from the west

Estimates put the total losses at about £4bn, of Afternoon of 6 July saw the Met Office issue its
which insurable losses were reported to be about highest alert of Take Action
£3bn
Intense low pressure systems in September,
November and December brought heavy rains,
which overwhelmed the already saturated ground,
causing widespread flooding
Exam Tip
Remember that impacts can be positive and negative. With the case of flooding, although we
consider that floods are all negative, it is only due to human interference in the first place, that floods
become an issue. Left alone and nature will accommodate a flood event, storing flood water until it
naturally discharges. After all, aquifers will only recharge IF, there is excess water available.
7.2.3 Impacts of Climate Change
Impact of Climate Change on Inputs & Outputs
 The impact of climate change on the hydrological system could lead to several different impacts

Summary of Climate Change Impacts on Inputs and Outputs

 Impact on Result

Warmer air holds more water, therefore, there would be an increase in rainfall
frequency and intensity; areas most affected would be the tropics and high latitudes

Decreases in precipitation would most likely lie between 10° and 30° north and south of
Precipitation the Equator

Increased frequency and length of heatwaves, increasing occurrences of drought and

water scarcity

Snowfall is replaced with rain in northern regions, reducing glacier mass

Where areas see an increase in precipitation then it would follow that soil moisture will
increase also and vice versa
Soil Moisture
Overall impact of climate change is uncertain as many factors contribute soil moisture
levels and climate is just one factor

Increased evaporation over large land masses such as North America and Asia
Evapo-transpiration
Transpiration levels would alter inline with vegetation changes (increase or decrease),
this would further link to changes in soil moisture and precipitation

Impact of Climate Change on Stores & Flows

 It is expected that climate change will reduce stores, and increase flows
 However, there is uncertainty surrounding this as more research is needed to establish a definite link
between climate change and the hydrological cycle

Store Impact

Higher temperatures lead to negative mass balance

Ice Shrinking of glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets

Reduction of glacial water for human use

Possible increase in evaporation

Rise in sea levels as warmer waters expand

Oceans
Rise in frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones

Storage capacity increased by meltwater

Decreased length of snow cover seasons - economic impact on tourism revenue
Snow
Spring melt starts earlier
 Melting of permafrost and release of methane to the atmosphere, increase of greenhouse
Permafrost effect (positive feedback)

Changes to the ecosystems and tundra reducing stores of water

Surface Runoff Increased low and high flow events (drought and floods)
and Stream
Flow Reduced infiltration with increased surface runoff
Groundwater Abstraction of water makes impact uncertain
Flow and
Aquifers Aquifers depleted through over abstraction but also low flow events not recharging store
Soil Moisture Little change

Reservoir, Lake
Human activity changing wetlands cannot be linked to climate change, however, there does
and Wetland
appear to be a link with decreasing stores and temperature rises
Storage

Climate Change & Water Security

 It is necessary to distinguish between long term climate change impacts and the short term oscillations
of ENSO cycles
 ENSO cycles result in both extreme flooding and drought in different parts of world at the same time
 However, if land and sea surface temperatures continue to rise, then it is possible ENSO cycles could
become more frequent rather than every 2-3 years
 This would lead to more periodic unusual climates for both South America and Australia
 It would also lead to unreliable patterns of rainfall and failure of monsoons impacting many tropical
monsoon climates (India etc.)
 Increased intensity and frequency of drought impacts agriculture raising water insecurity
 Loss of snow and glacier melt threatens many communities particularly in mountainous areas
 Greater rates of evapotranspiration and desiccation of forest stores
 Increased temperatures lead to greater evaporation from surface water and reservoirs, reducing levels
of water and increasing risk of water borne disease and mosquitos
 Depleted aquifers leads to water insecurities and lowering of water table

Exam Tip
It is important to note that drainage basins and the water cycle depend on ENSO cycles and climate,
both are unpredictable and not that well understood. That makes managing the future of our water
challenging.

7.3 Water Insecurity

7.3.1 Physical & Human Causes of Water Insecurity
Global Pattern of Water Stress
There is an increasing mismatch between water supply and demand leading to:

 Water stress (below 1,700m3 per person)

 Water scarcity (below 1000m3 per person)
 Global water scarcity

 Water scarcity can be economic or physical:

o Economic scarcity occurs when there is water available but the infrastructure is not available
to access the water
 About 1.6 billion people face economic water scarcity
o Physical scarcity occurs when there is greater demand for water than there is supply
 An estimated four billion people face severe water scarcity for at least one month a year
 It is estimated by the UN that by 2025 over 65% of the world's population could be living with water
stress
 The World Economic Forum rates water crises as one of the greatest global threats
 An estimated 30% of groundwater systems are being depleted

Water withdrawals as a share of available water

Causes of Water Insecurity

 The causes of water scarcity are both physical and human:
o Physical - variation in climate, salt water encroachment
o Human - over-abstraction, water contamination, industrial pollution
Physical

 Climate variation can lead to drought this reduces the amount of water available
 Salt water encroachment occurs due to sea level rise when freshwater sources are contaminated by
seawater and so become saline

Saltwater encroachment

 Saltwater encroachment is an issue for coastal communities, particular island communities

o Tuvalu has experienced damaged crops and a loss of income, further encroachment could
affect deep-rooted crops such as coconut and taro
o Saltwater encroachment in the Maldives threatens drinking water supplies and has also
damaged crops

Human

 Over-abstraction occurs when more water is taken than is naturally replaced by precipitation
 Many countries around the world are affected by over-abstraction:
o Jakarta and Beijing are sinking as a result of past over-abstraction of groundwater which is
causing subsidence

World's largest aquifers

 Over-abstraction from lakes and rivers is also an issue

 o Increased abstraction of water from the Nile by Ethiopia is decreasing the availability of water
for Sudan and Egypt

Water contamination

 Over 2.4 billion people live without sanitation

o A lack of sanitation is one of the leading causes of water contamination
o In developing countries 90% of sewage flows untreated into water sources
 Agriculture discharges large quantities of agrochemicals, organic matter, drug residues and sediment
into water sources
 As the world population increases so does the amount of agriculture, further increasing the agricultural
pollution
o In the EU almost 40% of water sources are impacted by agricultural pollution
o Increased nitrates from fertiliser use leads to eutrophication
o Cattle meat production has doubled since 1961 this leads to increased manure
o Increased use of antibiotics and growth hormones move through animals into waste and then
water systems

Industrial pollution

 Every year 300-400 megatonnes of waste is discharged by industry into the water system
 In many countries factory waste is discharged into water sources untreated due to a lack of regulations
and a failure to challenge industries
o It is estimated that 80% of China's groundwater is polluted
o This has led 70% of rivers and lakes to be unsafe for human use
o In India the Upper Doab region has been severely affected by industrial pollution
 Heavy metals such as arsenic, mercury, lead, zinc, phosphate, sulfide, cadmium, iron,
nickel and manganese were found in the water. These are linked with cancer, bone
deformity, and stomach-related diseases
o Oil refineries along the Gulf Coast in California have been found to be releasing pollutants
which are contaminating nearby water sources

Pressure on Water Resources

 The finite water resource faces increasing pressure

Global freshwater use

 Water use increases more rapidly than population - it is estimated that water demand will increase
between 20-30% by 2050
 Population growth: there are now over 8 billion people
o Each person requires about 2 litres of clean drinking water a day to remain in good health
o In addition 18 litres per person is needed for things like sanitation and cooking
o As well as an increase in domestic water demand, population growth also increases the use of
water for:
 Energy production
 Agriculture
Industry
 Economic development: as countries develop the demand for water increases because:
o People have more items which use water such as dishwashers, toilets and showers
o Industry increases and factories use large quantities of water
o Intensive agriculture is needed as people eat more food, and irrigation systems use large
quantities of water
o As more people move to urban areas the demand for water for drinking and sanitation increases

The future and water stress

 The UN predicts that 5 billion people or two thirds of the world population will face at least one month a
year of water shortages
 The future shortages will be the result of:
o Climate change
o Increased demand
o Pollution
 By 2040 Chile, Estonia, Namibia, and Botswana could face a significant increase in water stress
o In Chile the decrease in water availability is the result of rising temperatures and changing
patterns in precipitation
 Almost half of the most likely water stressed countries are in the Middle East
 In the southwestern US water stress could increase between 40-70% by 2040
 The UN report expresses concerns regarding conflicts resulting from water shortages

7.3.2 Consequences of Water Insecurity

Global Pattern of Water Scarcity & Causes
 Accessible freshwater is a dwindling resource
 Population growth and economic development places an increasing pressure on freshwater
resource

Categories of Water Scarcity

Type of Scarcity Definition Example

Middle East and North Africa

Regions in southeast Australia, China
>75% of a country's blue water flows are and western USA
Physical
used
Applies to approx. 25% of global
population
In areas with economic water scarcity, there
Approximately 1 billion people are
usually is sufficient blue water sources to
restricted from accessing blue water due
meet human and environmental needs, but to high levels of poverty
Economic
access is limited, mismanaged or
underdeveloped and many people cannot South Asia and Africa have the highest
afford safe, adequate water supplies rates of economic water scarcity

 Causes of water scarcity:

 o Lack of annual or seasonal precipitation
o Lack of investment and management of water infrastructure to meet demand
o Scarcity may also be a social construct due to wealth, expectation and usual behaviour

 Although access to safe, potable water is regarded as a human right, it is treated as a commodity to
be paid for
 The majority of water supplies are privately controlled and costs vary greatly not only between
countries but between regions
 In HDEs, people expect to pay for their water supply, its removal, and subsequent treatment
 In some areas of LDEs however, water is free but not usually clean and people often have to spend
many hours a day walking up to 10km to the supplies, carrying heavy containers
 This usually falls to women and girls to do on a daily basis
 If they do have access to safe water, then the cost can be beyond most people
o In the UK the average cost of a litre of tap water is 0.01p or 5p for 50 litres and 99% of
households have mains water piped directly to their homes (some people do not have mains
water from choice)
o In Ghana, only 41% have access to a safely managed water source, while only 18% have
access to very basic sanitation
o Within the capital of Accra, only 45% of households have a supply of water - for those that can
afford it - and is an intermittent supply
o The majority rely on water vendors for their water and come in 'packets' and depending on the
vendor costs vary

Cost of Water for Ghana

Water Tariff @ 1/9/22 Tariff @ 1/2/23

GHp/m³ £/m³ GHp/m³ £/m³

0-5m³ 400.16 0.03 433.38 0.035

5m³ 680.94 0.051 737.47 0.055

Non Residential 1121.97 0.084 1215.11 0.091

Sachet Water Producers 1504.45 0.11 1800.00 0.13

Public Stand Pipes 449.07 0.034 486.35 0.036

Adapted from the Ghana Water Company Ltd April 2023

 Whilst the cost in UK£ may not appear much, for many Ghanaians, it represents 20-25% of their daily
income and for the very poor, unaffordable
 Furthermore, if a resource is scarce, then it becomes more expensive
 Any rise in demand will also rise costs as water companies invest in production, treatment and
infrastructure
 Many private companies have share holders to answer to, and profits are a requirement for future
investments
 In some countries there is only one water company, which amounts to a monopoly on supplying water,
and therefore, can charge what they want - a profit over people approach
 TNC French based Veolia is one of the largest water corporations globally and has been accused of
environmental, labour and human rights abuses across the world
 Importance of Water Supply
Agriculture
 Economic development is one of the drivers for the increased demand of safe water supplies
 Agriculture dominates water usage
 20% of the Earth's land is fully irrigated, of which 30% comes from dams and their respective irrigation
channels
 The majority though, is pumped from aquifers which is leading to irreversible groundwater depletion
 Areas of greatest groundwater depletion are in India, Pakistan, the United States and China
 These are areas where food production and water use are unsustainable
 Groundwater irrigation eventually discharges into the world's oceans, and contributes to sea level rise
 IPCC scientists estimate this to be 0.8 mm per year, which is just less than a quarter of the current sea
level rise of 3.3 mm

Almost half of the current sea level rise can be explained by the expansion of warming sea water, just
over one quarter by the melting of glaciers and ice caps and slightly less than one quarter by
groundwater depletion - International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre 2021

Industry and energy

 20% of global freshwater abstraction is for industrial and or energy production

 Of that, over 50% is used for generating energy either as hydroelectric power (HEP) or for cooling for
thermal and nuclear power stations
 The majority of this water is returned to source virtually unchanged
 Chemical, clothing, paper, electronic, steel, and petroleum industries are also major consumers of
water
 Furthermore, water pollution is a significant consequence of these industries particularly in LDEs and
EMEs, where water governance and protection policies are limited, ignored or non existent
 Growing crops for the production of biodiesel and bioethanol requires a lot of water and there is
growing concern over their use

Domestic use

 Rising standards of living, due to economic development, increases per capita use of water
 Access to safe, potable water is fundamental to human health
 Water that is polluted through lack of sanitation, is a breeding ground for mosquitoes, snails and
parasitic worms and their vector disease of malaria, dengue fever and bilharzia
 Other diseases such as typhoid, cholera and dysentery, are transmitted through polluted water
 Water that is safe for washing and food preparation is particularly necessary
 Inadequate supplies will disrupt water-dependent aspects of further economic development, raising
costs both economically and socially
 Environmentally, there is a risk of over-exploitation of what little supplies there are, prolonging periods
of drought and possibly initiating the steps towards desertification

Potential for Conflicts

 As the demand for water overtakes supplies there is potential for conflict or 'water wars'
 Conflict for water arises between competing demands of irrigation, energy, industrial, domestic and
recreation uses
 The bulk of internal conflicts are usually agriculture-related
o The semi-arid region of Sahel, Africa, sees regular clashes of herdsmen and crop farmers over
scarce supplies of water needed for both animals and crops
  In many parts of the world, ownership is done through owning the river banks in what is called 'riparian
rights'
 Yet water is a moving object, and it crosses borders easily
 It is this 'shared' river, aquifer or drainage basin that raises transboundary tensions to a level of
international and even open conflict

Waters of the Nile

 The Nile River is the longest river in the world stretching 4,132 miles (6,650 km) while crossing 11
countries in northern Africa
 The sources of the Nile are high in the mountains of Burundi, Rwanda and Kenya, where the rivers feed
into Lake Victoria, which was considered the source of the White Nile by John Speke in 1862
 Called the White Nile because the water is coloured by whitish clay particles suspended in it
 The other main tributary, the Blue Nile, has its origins high in the highlands of Ethiopia which flow into
Lake Tana
 These two great rivers meet at Khartoum in Sudan and flow northwards through Egypt to the
Mediterranean
 The river has huge seasonal variation due to the rain in Ethiopia
 These feed the Blue Nile in the summer but in winter there is almost nothing, and the river can become
a trickle
 The lower Nile is fed by the more constant flow of the White Nile
 This seasonal flooding on top of steady flow is what made settlement and agriculture in the lower Nile
Valley of Egypt possible
 The waters of the Nile have provided the essential life-support system for human development and
civilisation in the region for 1000’s of years

Water rights

 In 1929, the Nile Water Agreement was made which granted Egypt the rights to most of the river water
apart from a tiny bit in the Sudan
 The people of the upper courses, were effectively forbidden to use the water
 In 1959 Egypt and Sudan signed an agreement increasing the allocations of water in both Egypt and
Sudan
 The problem is that Egypt is 90% dependent on the waters of the Nile for its survival
 Egypt's military power and political instability in other countries has been its ally
 This has essentially stopped the other countries from interfering with the water, as they were rather
busy elsewhere
 But, in the 1990’s things began to change. The need for cooperation was becoming obvious and by
2006 a Nile River Basin Commission was established to ensure equal and fair usage of the River Nile

Dams on the Nile

 Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia all depend on inflow from the Blue Nile and have long exchanged political
blows over the upstream Great Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) project – a dam built at $5bn
(£3.6bn), and three times the size of the country's Lake Tana
 The dam is the largest hydropower project in Africa and will create a reservoir containing 74 billion
cubic meters of water
 When the Ethiopian government announced plans to press ahead filling the dam, Egypt and Sudan
held a joint war exercise in May 2021, called "Guardians of the Nile"
 The filling of the giant dam at the headwaters of the Nile River, will reduce water supplies to
downstream Egypt by more than one-third and reduce arable land in Egypt by up to 72% and take
years to fully fill
 The economic losses to Egyptian agriculture could be up to US$51 billion
 GDP loss would push unemployment to 24% and potentially displace people and disrupt other
economies
  Water rights along the Nile have been in dispute since 1959; however, the conflict now threatens to
escalate into a war

7.3.3 Managing Water Supply

Hard Engineering to Increase Water Supply
 There are conflicting views over what is the best approach to managing water supplies
 Economic stakeholders prefer hard-engineered schemes, and environmental stakeholders a more
natural and sustainable approach

Hard-engineered schemes

 These need capital, technology and long-term maintenance to be successful

 Schemes include:
o Water transfer schemes
o Mega dams
o Desalination plants

Water transfer schemes

 These attempt to make up for water deficits through constructing systems of canals, pipes, and
dredging over long distances to transfer water from a drainage basin of surplus supplies to areas of
deficit
 The Kielder reservoir in Northumberland supplies water to the cities of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
Sunderland, Durham, Darlington and Middlesbrough via a water transfer

Source Destination

Less water - reduced amounts of water for local More water — solves existing demand and may lead to
consumption which may lead to water poverty increased usage

Development demands — increase supplies may increase

Ecosystem changes - ecosystems may be degraded,
urban, along with tourist sites such as golf courses. It will
destroyed, have lower functioning and productivity as a
contribute to improved human health due to better
result of the decreased water supplies
sanitation

Agricultural demands — the increased availability of water

means that famers may use it unsustainably e.g. flood
Pollution - increased pollution due to less opportunity for irrigation. Pollution from fertilisers cause eutrophication
dilution, so pollutants are more concentrated and salination of water courses, which is then transferred
in the water transfer project causing ecosystem
degradation elsewhere

China’s south-north water transfer

 One of the largest water transfer projects in the world

  Planning began in 1952, with work starting in 2002, and is expected to be completed by 2050
 It aims im is to divert 45bnm³ of water a year from surplus river basins in the south and east to the north
where there is frequent water deficits in places such as Beijing and Tianjin
 The project will cost US$62 billion to complete and will involve the resettlement of people which is not
popular
 The 3 main diverting routes:
o Western route - started in 2010, through difficult, high-altitude terrain. As the route will pass
high industrial activity, it is feared that water will become polluted on transfer, as well as reduce
the volumes in the Yangtze, causing issues with sediment and the ecosystem
o Central route - this is a 1267km diversion with some of the water from the Three Gorges Dam
being used in order help
o Eastern route - this route is 1,155km long diversion from the Yangtze river next to Shanghai to
Beijing and Tianjin in the north
 The main stakeholders are the government sponsored ‘South to North’ Water Transfer Project
Company and corporate civil engineering companies building 3 major canals, pipelines, tunnels and
pumping stations

Mega dams

 Dams block rivers so that reservoirs of water build up behind, rather than drain away
 Dams provide large, reliable supplies of drinking water and reduces water insecurity, especially in areas
of seasonal precipitation
 Dams and reservoirs can also prevent flooding, as the flow of the river is controlled, and can generate
electricity through hydroelectric power (HEP)
 Nearly 60% of the world's major rivers have large dams of which the Aswan, Hoover and 3 Gorges are
amongst the largest
 Although thought of as environmentally friendly, mega dams have issues aside of the huge economical
costs of construction
o Dams alter ecosystems - downstream ecosystems rely on water and sediment, both of which
are held back by big dams, making downstream land less fertile
o Dams displace people, communities and destroy cultural heritage
o Flooding of the reservoir submerges land and destroys plants and animals
o Dams reduce water quality and waste water - large surface areas of reservoirs increase rates of
evapotranspiration and trap sediment and agricultural runoff, increasing rates of eutrophication
and vector diseases

Desalination plants

 Extracts the salt from seawater to enable it to be used for drinking and irrigation
 Expensive, salt waste can damage marine ecosystems and the process uses large amounts of energy
 As the price of freshwater increases, some countries will look to the sea for water supplies
 Dubai has already done this, as has Kuwait and Saudi Arabia
 Alicante II Seawater plant in Spain and Tampa Bay Water plant, USA
 Although it is a sustainable process, it is considered a hard engineered process due to the inputs of
technology and energy and it has an ecological impact on marine life

Sustainable Schemes of Water Supply & Water Conservation

 Sustainable water management aims to:
o Minimise wastage and pollution
o Provide access to safe, potable water at an affordable price to all
o Consider the views of all stakeholders
o Guarantee equitable distribution of water between and within countries
 Action includes:
 o Smart irrigation - replace traditional irrigation methods of sprinklers and surface flows with
automated spray technology and drip irrigation systems
o Rainwater harvesting - precipitation is collected from roofs and stored in water butts for
repurposing in toilets and watering gardens
o Restoration of damaged lakes, rivers and wetlands to return them to their part in the natural
water system
o Filtration - sophisticated systems are used to remove even the finest particulates from dirty
water, rendering it safe to drink again
o Recycle - grey water is a low cost option for use domestically and in agriculture (irrigation,
flushing toilets etc.) not drinking
o Hydroponics - crops are grown in shallow trays that are drip fed nutrients and water, there is no
soil involved

Singapore

 Singapore has very little natural water resources and have made water management one of its priorities
for its 6 million residents
 Based on 3 key ideas:
o Collect all water - government educates its citizens on using water carefully and since 2003,
domestic water consumption has fallen by 24 litres per person per day (24 x 6 = 144 million
litres per day is a lot of water)
o Re-use water - Singapore has cutting edge technology to re-use its grey-water called NEWater
o Desalinate - Singapore now has 5 desalination plants meeting up to 25% of demand

Integrated Drainage Basin Management

 According to Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), Global Water Partnership Technical
Advisory Committee 2000

Integrated river basin management (IRBM) is the process of coordinating conservation, management
and development of water, land and related resources across sectors within a given river basin, in
order to maximise the economic and social benefits derived from water resources in an equitable
manner while preserving and, where necessary, restoring freshwater ecosystems.

 It aims to treat a river basin holistically to ensure 3 things:

o Water is used to maximum efficiency
o Equitable distribution
o Conserve the environmental quality of rivers and its catchments
 IWRM is successful at a local, community level, but not at national or international levels

Water sharing treaties and frameworks

 UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) - the convention promotes joint management and
conservation of all shared freshwater ecosystems
 UN Water Courses Convention - offers guidelines for protection and use of transboundary rivers like the
Nile
 EU Water Framework Directive (2000) - committed all members to ensure their 'status' of water bodies,
which included marine waters up to 1 nautical mile offshore
 Helsinki (1966) and Berlin (2004) Rules - ensure that all have an 'equitable use' and 'equitable shares'
concept
 The Water Convention and the Protocol on Water and Health - jointly serviced by UNECE and WHO-
Europe, it is a unique legally binding framework that aims to protect human health through improved
water management and reduction of water-related diseases. The Protocol provides a practical advice
on how to provide the human rights to water and sanitation
  With the increasing risks of climate change, there is the potential for water wars to be global, despite
the degrees of international cooperation at present
 Proper management of current water supplies are crucial and binding international agreements need to
be in place for a sustainable water supply for future generations

7.3.3 Managing Water Supply

Hard Engineering to Increase Water Supply
 There are conflicting views over what is the best approach to managing water supplies
 Economic stakeholders prefer hard-engineered schemes, and environmental stakeholders a more
natural and sustainable approach

Hard-engineered schemes

 These need capital, technology and long-term maintenance to be successful

 Schemes include:
o Water transfer schemes
o Mega dams
o Desalination plants

Water transfer schemes

 These attempt to make up for water deficits through constructing systems of canals, pipes, and
dredging over long distances to transfer water from a drainage basin of surplus supplies to areas of
deficit
 The Kielder reservoir in Northumberland supplies water to the cities of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
Sunderland, Durham, Darlington and Middlesbrough via a water transfer

Source Destination

Less water - reduced amounts of water for local More water — solves existing demand and may lead
consumption which may lead to water poverty to increased usage

Development demands — increase supplies may

Ecosystem changes - ecosystems may be degraded,
increase urban, along with tourist sites such as golf
destroyed, have lower functioning and productivity as
courses. It will contribute to improved human health
a result of the decreased water supplies
due to better sanitation

Agricultural demands — the increased availability of

water means that famers may use it unsustainably e.g.
Pollution - increased pollution due to less opportunity flood irrigation. Pollution from fertilisers cause
for dilution, so pollutants are more concentrated eutrophication and salination of water courses, which
is then transferred in the water transfer project
causing ecosystem degradation elsewhere

China’s south-north water transfer

 One of the largest water transfer projects in the world

  Planning began in 1952, with work starting in 2002, and is expected to be completed by 2050
 It aims im is to divert 45bnm³ of water a year from surplus river basins in the south and east to the north
where there is frequent water deficits in places such as Beijing and Tianjin
 The project will cost US$62 billion to complete and will involve the resettlement of people which is not
popular
 The 3 main diverting routes:
o Western route - started in 2010, through difficult, high-altitude terrain. As the route will pass
high industrial activity, it is feared that water will become polluted on transfer, as well as reduce
the volumes in the Yangtze, causing issues with sediment and the ecosystem
o Central route - this is a 1267km diversion with some of the water from the Three Gorges Dam
being used in order help
o Eastern route - this route is 1,155km long diversion from the Yangtze river next to Shanghai to
Beijing and Tianjin in the north
 The main stakeholders are the government sponsored ‘South to North’ Water Transfer Project
Company and corporate civil engineering companies building 3 major canals, pipelines, tunnels and
pumping stations

Mega dams

 Dams block rivers so that reservoirs of water build up behind, rather than drain away
 Dams provide large, reliable supplies of drinking water and reduces water insecurity, especially in areas
of seasonal precipitation
 Dams and reservoirs can also prevent flooding, as the flow of the river is controlled, and can generate
electricity through hydroelectric power (HEP)
 Nearly 60% of the world's major rivers have large dams of which the Aswan, Hoover and 3 Gorges are
amongst the largest
 Although thought of as environmentally friendly, mega dams have issues aside of the huge economical
costs of construction
o Dams alter ecosystems - downstream ecosystems rely on water and sediment, both of which
are held back by big dams, making downstream land less fertile
o Dams displace people, communities and destroy cultural heritage
o Flooding of the reservoir submerges land and destroys plants and animals
o Dams reduce water quality and waste water - large surface areas of reservoirs increase rates of
evapotranspiration and trap sediment and agricultural runoff, increasing rates of eutrophication
and vector diseases

Desalination plants

 Extracts the salt from seawater to enable it to be used for drinking and irrigation
 Expensive, salt waste can damage marine ecosystems and the process uses large amounts of energy
 As the price of freshwater increases, some countries will look to the sea for water supplies
 Dubai has already done this, as has Kuwait and Saudi Arabia
 Alicante II Seawater plant in Spain and Tampa Bay Water plant, USA
 Although it is a sustainable process, it is considered a hard engineered process due to the inputs of
technology and energy and it has an ecological impact on marine life

Sustainable Schemes of Water Supply & Water Conservation

 Sustainable water management aims to:
o Minimise wastage and pollution
o Provide access to safe, potable water at an affordable price to all
o Consider the views of all stakeholders
o Guarantee equitable distribution of water between and within countries
 Action includes:
 o Smart irrigation - replace traditional irrigation methods of sprinklers and surface flows with
automated spray technology and drip irrigation systems
o Rainwater harvesting - precipitation is collected from roofs and stored in water butts for
repurposing in toilets and watering gardens
o Restoration of damaged lakes, rivers and wetlands to return them to their part in the natural
water system
o Filtration - sophisticated systems are used to remove even the finest particulates from dirty
water, rendering it safe to drink again
o Recycle - grey water is a low cost option for use domestically and in agriculture (irrigation,
flushing toilets etc.) not drinking
o Hydroponics - crops are grown in shallow trays that are drip fed nutrients and water, there is no
soil involved

Singapore

 Singapore has very little natural water resources and have made water management one of its priorities
for its 6 million residents
 Based on 3 key ideas:
o Collect all water - government educates its citizens on using water carefully and since 2003,
domestic water consumption has fallen by 24 litres per person per day (24 x 6 = 144 million
litres per day is a lot of water)
o Re-use water - Singapore has cutting edge technology to re-use its grey-water called NEWater
o Desalinate - Singapore now has 5 desalination plants meeting up to 25% of demand

Integrated Drainage Basin Management

 According to Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), Global Water Partnership Technical
Advisory Committee 2000

Integrated river basin management (IRBM) is the process of coordinating conservation, management
and development of water, land and related resources across sectors within a given river basin, in
order to maximise the economic and social benefits derived from water resources in an equitable
manner while preserving and, where necessary, restoring freshwater ecosystems.

 It aims to treat a river basin holistically to ensure 3 things:

o Water is used to maximum efficiency
o Equitable distribution
o Conserve the environmental quality of rivers and its catchments
 IWRM is successful at a local, community level, but not at national or international levels

Water sharing treaties and frameworks

 UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) - the convention promotes joint management and
conservation of all shared freshwater ecosystems
 UN Water Courses Convention - offers guidelines for protection and use of transboundary rivers like the
Nile
 EU Water Framework Directive (2000) - committed all members to ensure their 'status' of water bodies,
which included marine waters up to 1 nautical mile offshore
 Helsinki (1966) and Berlin (2004) Rules - ensure that all have an 'equitable use' and 'equitable shares'
concept
 The Water Convention and the Protocol on Water and Health - jointly serviced by UNECE and WHO-
Europe, it is a unique legally binding framework that aims to protect human health through improved
water management and reduction of water-related diseases. The Protocol provides a practical advice
on how to provide the human rights to water and sanitation
  With the increasing risks of climate change, there is the potential for water wars to be global, despite
the degrees of international cooperation at present
 Proper management of current water supplies are crucial and binding international agreements need to
be in place for a sustainable water supply for future generations

8. The Carbon Cycle & Energy Insecurity

8.1 Carbon Cycle
8.1.1 Carbon Cycle
Carbon Stores and Fluxes
Carbon Stores & Fluxes

 Carbon is considered to the the ‘building block of life’ as it can be found in all of the earth’s spheres
 It plays a major role in regulating global climate, particularly temperature and the acidity of rain, rivers
and oceans

o Atmosphere - as carbon dioxide and compounds such as methane
o Hydrosphere - as dissolved carbon dioxide
o Lithosphere - as carbonates in limestone and fossil fuels (e.g. coal, oil and gas)
o Biosphere - in living and dead organisms
o Cryosphere - biological carbon is stored in permafrost, which prevents bacterial decay

The carbon cycle

 Carbon moves between these spheres as part of the biogeochemical carbon cycle
 The carbon cycle is a closed system so the amount of carbon is constant and finite and it has three
components:
o Stores - where carbon is held
o Fluxes (transfers) - the flows which move carbon between stores (from one sphere to another)
measured in petagrams or gigatonnes of carbon per year
o Processes - the physical mechanisms which drive the fluxes between stores e.g.
photosynthesis and diffusion

o
  Carbon stores operate as sources (adding carbon to the atmosphere) and sinks (removing carbon
from the atmosphere)
 The carbon cycle is balanced (or in equilibrium) when the sources equal the sinks
o When plants and animals die, the carbon they were storing is released back into the
atmosphere and the cycle continues
o An undisturbed carbon cycle maintains carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and keeps
global temperatures steady so Earth can sustain life
o However, when huge amounts of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere in a short
period of time, the whole cycle can become unbalanced

Geological Carbon Cycle

 This slow part of the cycle is focused on the huge carbon stores in rocks and sediments with reservoir
turnover rates of at least 100,000 years
 Organic matter buried deep in sediments are protected from decay which means it takes millions of
years to turn into fossil fuels
 Carbon flows through volcanic eruptions, chemical weathering, erosion and sediment formation on the
ocean floor

Bio-geochemical Carbon Cycle

 This fast part of the carbon cycle has large fluxes and rapid reservoir turnovers of a few years up to a
thousand years
 Carbon is sequestered in and flows between the atmosphere, oceans, ocean sediments, vegetation,
soils and freshwater

Exam Tip
Make sure you know the four earth spheres and how they store carbon
Earth’s spheres:

 Atmosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Lithosphere
 Biosphere
 Geological Stores of Carbon
Geological Stores of Carbon

 The majority of the earth’s carbon is geological, originating from:

o The formation of sedimentary carbonate rocks (limestone) in the ocean
o Biologically derived carbon in shale, coal and other rocks
 Carbon is released into the atmosphere by slow geological processes

Geological Processes in the Carbon Cycle

Processes Results
1. Weathering of rocks Mechanical, chemical and biological weathering results in the breakdown of
rocks

2. Decomposition Plant and animal particles from decomposition after death store carbon

3. Transportation Rivers can carry particles to the ocean, where they will be deposited

4. Sedimentation Over time, sediments build up, burying older sediments below e.g. shale and
limestone
5. Metamorphosis Pressure builds over time in the layers of sediment which eventually leads to
deeper sediment changing to rock e.g. limestone becomes marble, shale
becomes slate

 Carbon can take between 100 and 200 million years to move between rocks, the soil, the ocean and
the atmosphere

Carbon in Limestone & Shale

 80% of carbon containing rocks in the ocean is from shell-building organisms (corals) and plankton
 When corals and plankton fall to the ocean floor, they form layers and cement together eventually
turning into limestone (lithified)
 The remaining 20% of rocks contain organic carbon originating from organisms that have been
embedded in layers of mud
 Heat and pressure compress the mud and carbon over millions of years to form sedimentary rock e.g.
shale

Carbon in Fossil Fuels

 Coal, oil and natural gas are known as fossil fuels because they have been formed from the remains of
organic material over 300 million years ago from the remain
 When organic matter builds up faster than it can decay, the layers of organic carbon develop into coal,
oil or natural gas instead of shale
 The Formation of Fossil Fuels

Exam Tip
Make sure you read the question carefully and your answer focuses on geological processes such as
outgassing and weathering. Do not confuse these with biological processes such as photosynthesis
or the carbon pumps that exist in the ocean as you will not gain any marks for these

Chemical Weathering & Release of Carbon

Chemical Weathering

 The geological part of the carbon cycle interacts with the rock cycle in a series of constant processes
which can be broken down into five stages:

Geological interactions with the Rock Cycle

Volcanic Outgassing

 The Earth’s crust contains pockets of carbon dioxide which can be disturbed by volcanic eruptions or
seismic activity
 This release of gas that has been dissolved, trapped, frozen or absorbed in rock is called outgassing
 Outgassing happens at:
o Volcanic zones associated with plate boundaries (including subduction zones and spreading
ridges)
o Areas with no current volcanic activity, e.g., the geysers in Yellowstone National Park, USA
o Direct emissions from fractures in the Earth’s crust
 The gas released by volcanic eruptions is relatively insignificant in comparison to human activity
o Volcanoes currently emit 0-15 - 0.26 Gt carbon dioxide annually
o Fossil Fuel use emits about 35 Gt

8.1.2 Biological Processes & the Carbon Cycle

Phytoplankton & Sequesteration of Carbon
Sequestration of Carbon
  Sequestering is the movement of carbon into carbon stores which can lower the amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere
 Photosynthesis (by land based plants and phytoplankton) is the main process responsible for
sequestering carbon from the atmosphere

Ocean Sequestration

 93% of carbon dioxide is stored in undersea algae, plants, coral and dissolved form, making oceans the
largest carbon store on Earth
 The movement of carbon within oceans is controlled:
o Vertically by carbon cycle pumps
o Horizontally by thermohaline circulation
 There are three carbon cycle pumps which move carbon dioxide to the sea floor and to the ocean
surface to be released into the atmosphere
o Biological pump
 The biological cycle sequesters carbon in the ocean through photosynthesis by
phytoplankton and other marine animals which converts CO2 into organic matter (10GtC
per year)
 This acts as a biological pump transporting carbon from the oceans' surface to the
intermediate and deep ocean stores (10 GtC per year)
 As the biological organisms die, their dead cells, shells and other parts sink into the mid
and deep water
 Also, the decay of these organisms releases carbon dioxide into the intermediate and
deep water stores
 Oceans regulate the composition of the atmosphere by moving carbon from the ocean’s
surface (where it may vent back into the atmosphere) and storing it in the mid and deep
ocean store, along with the dissolved carbon store, which regulates the carbon cycle
o Carbonate pump
 Relies on inorganic carbon sedimentation
 When organisms die and starts to sink, many shells dissolve before they reach the
ocean floor entering the deep ocean currents
 The solubility cycle occurs when CO2, absorbed by the oceans from the atmosphere,
forms carbonic acid which in turn reacts with hydrogen ions to form bicarbonates and
then further reactions form carbonates which are stored in the upper ocean
 Some organisms use these carbonates to make their shells or skeletons
 When these organisms die some material sinks to the ocean floor and forms the sea bed
sediment store (1750 GtC)
 Over time, through chemical and physical processes, the carbon is transformed into
rocks such as limestone
 This process locks up carbon in the long-term carbon cycle and does not allow an easy
return to the ocean surface and so prevents possible venting into the atmosphere as the
physical pump does
o Physical pump
 Considered the most important transfer
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by the ocean's surface through diffusion
 Dissolved CO2 is then taken from the surface down to the intermediate and deep ocean
stores through downwelling currents (96 GtC per year)
 The thermohaline circulation then distributes the carbon around the planet
 Cold water absorbs more CO2, therefore, as the equatorial waters move toward the
poles, more CO2 is absorbed
 Salinity increases at the same time, making the water denser, therefore, the water sinks
(downwelling) taking CO2 from the ocean's surface to the deep ocean stores
 Allowing more diffusion to occur at the surface and helping to regulate the carbon stored
in the atmosphere
 However, there is also the upwelling of carbon from intermediate and deep oceans to the
surface oceans (105.6 GtC yr-1)
  Through upwelling currents and turbulence created by surface winds, previously stored
carbon in the intermediate and deep ocean stores, return to the ocean’s surface and
then back into the atmosphere

 The thermohaline circulation is a global system of surface and deep ocean currents driven by
differences in temperature and salinity
 These ocean currents are responsible for circulating carbon
 Warm surface waters are depleted of nutrients and carbon dioxide through evaporation but they
become enriched again through the circulation of currents
 Also, the circulation helps move carbon in the carbonate pump from the surface to deeper waters

Thermohaline Circulation

Exam Tip
Ocean Sequestering is a particularly difficult concept to understand. Be sure to revise the three
carbon cycle pumps (biological, physical and carbonate) and the thermohaline circulation
Terrestrial Primary Producers & Sequestration of Carbon
Terrestrial Sequestration

 Terrestrial sequestration has the shortest time scale of seconds, minutes or years

Plant scale carbon cycling shown

through a tree
  Decomposition is fastest in tropical climates with high temperatures, rainfall and oxygen levels
 It is much slower in cold, dry conditions where there is a lack of oxygen
 The most productive biomes are tropical rainforests, savannah and grasslands where storage is mainly
in vegetation
 Carbon fluxes (flows) within biomes vary with time
o Diurnally - most active during the day
o Seasonally - most active during the spring and summer months

Biological Carbon
Biological Carbon

 20 - 30% of global carbon is stored as dead organic matter in soils for years, decades or even centuries
in colder climates or wetland environments
 Any carbon that is not stored is returned to the atmosphere by biological weathering over several years
 As all plants are made of carbon, any plant loss to the ground (litter fall) means a transfer of carbon to
the soil
 The capacity of the soil to store organic carbon depends on:
o Climate influences plant growth and microbial and detritivore activity e.g., rapid decomposition
happens at higher temperatures and areas with high rainfall have an increased potential carbon
storage than the same soil in areas with lower rainfall
o Soil type - clay-rich soils have a higher carbon content than sandy soil as clay protects carbon
from decomposition
o The use and management of soils - globally, soils have lost 40-90 billion tonnes (Gt) of
carbon since 1850, through cultivation and disturbance

Exam Tip
Remember that carbon stores in the atmosphere, ecosystems and soils are in constant exchange
8.1.3 A Balanced Carbon Cycle
Atmospheric Carbon & the Greenhouse Effect
Human Interference

 A balanced carbon cycle is vital in sustaining other systems on earth

 The carbon cycle plays an important role in regulating global temperatures and climate by controlling
the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which in turn affects the hydrological cycle

The Greenhouse Effect

 The natural greenhouse effect is influenced by the concentration of atmospheric carbon (carbon
dioxide and methane)
 The Earth’s climate is driven by incoming shortwave solar radiation
o Around 31% is reflected by clouds, aerosols and gases in the atmosphere and by the land
surface
o The remaining 69% is absorbed with half being absorbed at the surface (e.g., oceans) and the
other half is re-radiated into space as long-wave radiation
o However, much of this long-wave radiation is deflected back to the Earth’s surface by clouds
and greenhouse gases
o This ‘trapping’ of long-wave radiation creates the natural greenhouse effect allowing life to be
supported on Earth
 If the amount of carbon dioxide and methane increases then more long-wave radiation will be trapped
causing global temperatures to rise
 The Greenhouse Effect

Exam Tip
It is important to remember that the natural greenhouse effect is essential in maintaining the
temperature of the Earth as a result supporting life on the planet.
Ocean & Terrestrial Photosynthesis
Ocean & Terrestrial Photosynthesis

 The carbon cycle is dependent on ocean and terrestrial photosynthesis in regulating the composition
of the atmosphere
 Plants photosynthesising play a vital role in helping to keep carbon dioxide levels relatively constant
thus helping to regulate average global temperatures
 As a result, patterns in plant productivity and carbon density are evident
 Highest productivity NPP occurs either in warm and wet regions such as the tropical rainforest or in
shallow ocean waters

Soil Health

 Soil health relies on the amount of organic carbon stored in the soil which is dependent on:
o The inputs - plant and animal residues and nutrients
o The outputs - decomposition, erosion and use in plant and animal productivity

Nutrient Cycle
  Carbon, within soil organic matter, helps provide soil with its water retention capacity, its structure and
fertility
 Soil erosion is a major threat to carbon storage and soil health as organic carbon is mainly found in
the surface soil layer

Fossil Fuel Combustion & Changes in the Carbon Cycle

Fossil Fuel Combustion

 Fossil fuels have been burnt at an increasing rate since the Industrial Revolution and remain the main
energy source

Global Fossil Fuel Use

 Without human activity, the carbon in fossil fuels would flow into the atmosphere very slowly through
volcanic activity
 However, the burning of fossil fuels has increased this flow from slow to fast carbon cycling
 The balance of the carbon cycle has been altered by the burning of fossil fuels which has various
impacts on:
o Global climate
o Ecosystems
o The hydrological cycle

Implications for the Climate

 The IPCC report in 2014, explicitly linked gas concentrations to fossil fuel emissions, rising global
temperatures and sea levels
 Changing temperatures and salinity levels of the oceans, as a result of global warming, could affect
the thermohaline current
o The North Atlantic Drift (NAD), also known as the Gulf Stream could slow or reverse
o The NAD keeps the UK temperatures 5°C higher than they would be otherwise during the winter

Implications for Ecosystems

 Ecosystems help regulate carbon and hydrological cycles as well as providing goods and services for
humans and the planet
 Already, species with low population numbers, limited climatic ranges or restricted habitats are at
risk
 Marine ecosystems are threatened by lower oxygen levels, higher rates of ocean
acidification and food chain changes (resulting from rising temperatures)
 Coastal ecosystems are at risk from sea level rise
 Although most species will be impacted negatively, there are some that may benefit
o Cool, moist regions (e.g., UK) could provide habitats for more species

Implications for the Hydrological Cycle

  The hydrological cycle’s flows and stores are vulnerable to global warming

Changes to the Hydrological Cycle

Exam Tip
Make sure you are aware of the impacts of climate change on different biomes, especially marine
ecosystems such as coral and tropical rainforests

8.2 Increasing Energy Demand

8.2.1 Energy Security
Consumption of Energy & Energy Mix
Energy Security

 Energy security is the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at affordable prices

Aspects of Energy Supply in Achieving Energy Security

 Energy secure countries are those that will be able to meet all or most of their energy demands from
within their country

Global Energy Security Index

Energy Consumption

 Energy is essential to the functioning of a country especially for the economy and the well-being of
people

Energy Use

 The consumption of energy (demand) is increasing as a result of:

o Global population growth
o Development and rising standard of living
o The essential nature of energy to our everyday life
 Energy consumption is usually expressed in per capita terms using one of the following measures:
o Kilograms of oil equivalent per year (kgoe/yr)
o Gigajoules per year (GJ/yr) or exajoules per year (EJ/yr)
o Megawatt hours per year (MWh/yr)

World Energy Consumption

 Measuring how efficiently energy is being used in a country is important too

 Energy intensity is a measure of how efficiently a country is using its energy
 Global Energy Intensity

Energy Mix

 The term energy mix is used to describe the combination of different energy sources that are used to
meet a country’s total energy demand

Comparison of Three Country’s Energy Mix

 One vital part is the mix of primary energy sources that are used to generate electricity which include:
o Non-renewable fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas
o Renewable energy such as wind, geothermal, hydroelectricity and solar
o Recyclable fuels such as nuclear energy, biomass and general waste
 Countries have their own individual energy mix, for example:
o Developing countries usually use natural resources such as firewood for cooking
o Emerging countries will see a rise of oil use as transport and car ownership increases
o As countries develop they tend to start using more gas and nuclear power as technology
advances
 It is important for countries to ensure a good balance between domestic energy sources and imported
energy sources
 Energy security increases as dependence on imported energy sources decreases
 A country that depends massively on imported energy are at risk from sudden threats such as:
o Artificial and abrupt changes in energy prices
o Energy supplies being cut off by civil unrest or military campaigns

Worked example
Explain why the level of economic development affects the energy mix of countries.
[6 marks]
 This is a levelled answer so your answer will be marked against level descriptors
  You will need to include at least two different reasons that are well developed

Possible ideas to include in your answer:

 The energy mix for developing countries is mostly made up of biomass and waste (wood, dung) which
is cheap and often free
 Developing countries tend to use natural resources such as firewood directly for cooking
 Transport and car ownership in emerging countries will grow rapidly so oil use will rise.
 As technology develops, there tends to be a shift towards gas and eventually industrialising countries
develop nuclear power
 Some emerging countries may start to increase their use of renewables whilst others may not as
economic development is more important
 In developed countries oil remains high as it is vital for transport but the use of coal declines due to
pollution concerns and is replaced with cheaper gas
 Some developed countries have access to advanced technology so nuclear power is an option
 Many countries will see an increase in renewable energy sources due to concerns over the
environment and sustainability

Factors Affecting Access to & Consumption of Energy

Factors Affecting Access to and Consumption of Energy

 There are many factors that affect a country’s access to and consumption of energy including:
o Physical availability
o Cost
o Technology
o Public perception
o Level of economic development
o Climate
o Environmental priorities

Factors Affecting Access to and Consumption of Energy

Factor Description
Domestic energy sources may be available, but they may not be easily accessible

Physical Availability
If energy sources are not available within the country, the energy will have to be
imported (adding to the overall cost of energy to the consumer)
There are a range of costs involved in the access and consumption of energy

Cost 1. The cost of the physical exploitation

2. The cost of processing (converting a primary energy into a secondary energy)

3. The cost of delivery to the consumer

Modern technology is very useful in the exploitation of energy e.g., oil that requires
Technology deep drilling into the earth
 As a result of modern technology making energy sources more accessible, increasing
energy consumption usually follows
Energy costs can be perceived differently in different countries, for example what may
be perceived as expensive in one country may seem reasonable in another

Public Perception

Public perception will usually depend on the level of economic development of a

country and the standard of living
The higher the level of development and standard of living in a country, the less
sensitive they are to energy costs

Level of Economic
Development
Developed countries tend to have relatively high levels of energy consumption as people
have more domestic appliances that make everyday living comfortable and use more
forms of transport
Regions such as North America, the Middle East and Australia have high levels of
Climate consumption as a result of the extra energy required to make the extremes of heat and
cold more comfortable
Environmental Governments may opt for more expensive methods to meet their energy needs out of
Priorities concern for the environment and the need to reduce carbon emissions

Comparison of Energy Use in France and the USA

 The USA (2nd) and France (10th) are ranked within the world’s top ten largest energy consumers
 However, there are significant differences between the two countries as the total energy consumption
for France is 243 mtoe compared to the USA at 2,224 mtoe
 These differences can be explained by the following:
o The USA has a significantly higher population of 334 million compared to 65.6 million living in
France
o The size of the USA results in the country experiencing extremes of heat and cold which
requires huge amounts of energy (for heating and lighting) to counteract them
 The energy mix of the USA is also significantly different from France
o The USA only has 10% coming from renewable energy and 8% from nuclear
o France has 10% from renewables and 41% coming from nuclear energy

Energy Mix for the USA and France

 The energy security of the USA and France differ too, with the USA being considered more energy
secure than France because:
 o France relies on 46% of its energy supplies being imported as all of its natural gas and oil are
imported along with the uranium required for its nuclear power
o The USA only imports around 15%

Role of Energy Players

Energy Players
 Meeting the demand for energy involves energy pathways from producer to consumer
 These energy pathways involve different forms of transport, including tanker ships, pipelines and
electricity transmission grids

Energy Pathways

 There are five major players in the world of energy:

o TNCs
o Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
o Energy companies
o Consumers
o Governments

The Role of Major Players in the World of Energy

Player Their Role

An estimated 50% of the big players in oil and gas (e.g., BP, ExxonMobil) are
state owned and so under government control which means technically they
are not TNCs
Transnational Corporations
(TNCs)
The majority of these companies are involved in a variety of operations
including exploring, extracting, transporting, refining and producing
petrochemicals
OPEC currently has 13 member countries owning around two-thirds of the
world’s oil reserves between them

Organisation of the As a result, OPEC is able to control the amount of gas and oil in the global
Petroleum Exporting market along with their prices
Countries (OPEC)

OPEC have been accused of forcing up the price of oil and gas by
withholding/slowing production
 Most companies are involved in the distribution of both primary energy (e.g.,
Energy Companies gas) and secondary energy (electricity) which means they have a strong
influence over consumer prices and tariffs
Governments can play various different roles, for example, they look after
Governments
energy security and can have an impact on how energy is sourced
The most important consumers are in transport, industry and domestic sectors
Consumer
Consumers tend to have little impact on energy prices

8.2.2 Reliance on Fossil Fuels

Mismatch Between Demand & Supply
Reliance on Fossil Fuels

 The majority of countries still continue to rely on fossil fuels for most of their energy needs
 In the twentieth century, oil took over from coal as the most used fossil fuel
 Today, oil is now being challenged by gas as the number one fossil fuel

Electricity Production from Fossil Fuels (2022)

Mismatch Between Supply and Demand

 Coal
o Whilst the consumption of coal is decreasing in comparison to oil and gas, production is
increasing
 China and the USA remain the two largest consumers of coal and are also the largest
producers of coal
o There is a small mismatch as the main producers of coal are usually the main consumers e.g.,
China and the USA
 Oil
o There is a significant mismatch as the main suppliers of oil are members of OPEC and the
consumers are in Europe
 Gas
o Gas supply is dominated by the USA and Russia and the major importers are Western
European countries and Japan
Exam Tip
Do not assume and write in the exam that the increasing use of oil and gas has been because of the
exhaustion of coal reserves
Energy Pathways
Energy Pathways

 Mismatches in fossil fuel supply and demand can be resolved by the creation of pathways that allow
transfers to happen between producers and consumers
 These mismatches have occurred largely due to differences in physical and human geography
o Physical geography has determined the location of energy sources
o Human geography has conditioned where those energy sources are needed
 There is still a significant global trade of coal
o Three of the largest producers of coal (the USA, China and India) also import coal e.g., some
coal-burning plants in the USA still import coal from abroad as it is cheaper than buying USA
produced coal
o Australia and Indonesia export large amounts of coal to Japan, South Korea and Taiwan as well
as China and India
 There are significant energy pathways for oil
o The Middle East is the number one producer of oil in the world
o Even though the USA produces oil, it imports oil from South America, West Africa and Europe to
help meet the high demands
 The USA is the world’s largest oil consumer using more than 19 million barrels of oil a
day
o There is only one pathway from Russia which is to Europe
 The energy pathways of gas are very similar to oil
o Gas flows either directly through pipelines or in liquid form by tanker ships
o There is a major pathway from Russia to Europe which is experiencing disruption
 In 2021, around 50% of Russia’s crude oil was exported to European Countries
 Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, many countries have pledged
to stop or restrict oil and gas imports from Russia to hinder its war effort

Unconventional Fossil Fuel Energy Sources

Unconventional Sources of Fossil Fuel

 There are four main unconventional sources of fossil fuel which have the potential to help meet future
energy demands
o Tar sands
o Oil shale
o Shale gas
o Deepwater oil

Unconventional Fossil Fuel Sources

Resource Nature Extraction Example

 Biggest deposits are in Canada
Have to be mined and then and Venezuela.
Mixture of clay, sand,
injected with steam to reduce the
Tar sands water and bitumen (a
viscosity of the tar so it can be
heavy, viscous oil)
pumped out Tar sands produce about 40% of
Canada’s oil output

Oil-bearing rocks that are Mined or shale is ignited so that

Oil shale permeable enough to allow the light oil fractions can be Little exploration has taken place
oil to be pumped out pumped out

The USA is the leading producer

and exporter
Natural gas that is trapped
Fracking - pumping in water and
Shale gas in fine-grained sedimentary
chemicals forces out the gas
rocks
In 2015, shale gas provided 25%
of the USA’s gas supply

Oil and gas found offshore Huge oil deposits were discovered
Deepwater Drilling takes place from ocean
and at considerable oceanic off the coast of Brazil in 2006 and
oil rigs
depths Brazil are leading the way in this

 These unconventional sources of fossil fuels provide countries that currently rely on imported energy,
the possibility of greater energy security
 However, there are negatives associated with these unconventional sources
o The exploitation of these sources will continue to threaten the carbon cycle and contribute to
global warming
o Extraction is expensive and requires lots of complex technology, energy and water
o Extraction can cause environmental damage
 Scars of opencast mines and possible ground subsidence
 Contamination of groundwater sources and oil spills

8.2.3 Alternatives to Fossil Fuels

Renewable & Recyclable Energy
Alternatives to Fossil Fuels

 In order to reduce carbon emissions and to decouple fossil fuels from economic growth, the world must
look to increase its use of alternative sources of ‘clean’ energy
 Alternative sources of ‘clean’ energy can be categorised into:
o Renewable sources such as hydro, wind, solar, geothermal and tidal energy
o Recyclable sources such as nuclear power and biofuels

Renewable Energy
 Currently, the main sources of renewable energy are hydro, wind, solar (mainly via photovoltaic
cells), geothermal and tidal
 The contributions of renewable energy sources to the energy mix vary from country to country
 Energy Consumption per capita, 2021

 The physical geography of a country will determine whether they have renewable energies to exploit
o Not all countries will have coasts or ‘hot rocks’ heated by magma for use in geothermal energy
o Not all countries have warm climate with long sunshine hours
o Not all countries have permanently flowing rivers or strong winds
 Whilst, it is often claimed that renewable sources are the answer to our global energy challenge
however, there are some factors to consider

Evaluation of Renewable Energy

Benefits of Renewable Energy Challenges of Renewable Energy

Renewable energy will not run out and provides Few countries where renewables will be able to replace fossil
many environmental benefits e.g., reduction in fuels completely due to the intermittency of renewable energy
greenhouse gases and limitations associated with the physical geography of the
country

Will save money in the long term as operation

and maintenance costs are lower As a result of oil prices falling during 2015, renewable energy
became less attractive due to its higher costs

Can have negative impacts on the environment e.g., flooding

Reduces a country’s reliance on importing more valleys for HEP dams
energy sources from abroad
Many people will protest when there is a proposal made for a
wind or solar farm close to their home
Creates employment e.g., in the USA, the
renewable energy sector employs three times the
amount of people that the fossil fuel sector

Recyclable Energy

 Countries with high levels of energy consumption will often have no choice but to consider nuclear
energy to generate electricity (with low carbon emissions)
 An additional benefit to this is that nuclear waste can be reprocessed and reused making it recyclable
 However, there are issues associated with using nuclear energy:
 o Safety - nuclear incidents such as Chernobyl (Ukraine) and Fukushima (Japan)
o Disposal of highly toxic radioactive waste (which has a long decay life)
o Technology used means that nuclear energy is only really open to the most developed
countries
o Costs - despite operational costs being relatively low, the cost of building and decommissioning
are high
o Security of nuclear powered stations at a time when international terrorism is a concern

Exam Tip
Make sure you do not make the mistake of saying that renewable sources of energy will completely
replace fossil fuels. This is not the reality, the hope is that renewable energy sources will reduce our
use of fossil fuels producing lower carbon emissions
Biofuels
Biofuels

 Biofuels are derived immediately from living matter, such as agricultural crops, forestry or fishing
products and various forms of waste
 There are two types of biofuels:
o Primary biofuels which include fuelwood, wood chips and pellets that are used unprocessed
for heating, cooking or electricity
o Secondary biofuels are derived from the processing of crops (e.g., sugar cane, soybeans and
maize) where two type of fuel are extracted (bio-alcohol and biodiesel) which are used to fuel
vehicles and generate electricity
 More attention is now being given to the growing of biofuel crops as a way of reducing the use of fossil
fuels
 Biofuel crops that can be used include wheat, maize, grasses, soybeans and sugar cane
 In the UK, the two main crops that are used are oilseed rape and sugar beet
 Most of these biofuels are converted into ethanol or biodiesel and used mostly as vehicle fuel
 Whilst , biofuels can be considered a ‘green’ source of energy, there are disadvantages, for example,
the implications this can have on food supply
o For example, a hectare of space used to grow energy crops is a hectare less for growing much
needed food

Biofuels in Brazil

 Brazil began to diversify its energy sources in the 1970s in order to improve its energy security
 Brazil is now the largest producer of sugar cane and has become the leading exporter of sugar and
ethanol
 Since 2003, the area used for sugar cane has increased massively and is likely to continue which has
led to the displacement of other types of agriculture e.g., cattle pasture

Consequences of Sugar Cane Production in Brazil

Exam Tip
When an exam question asks you to study a resource make sure you reference that resource in your
answer as there are usually marks reserved for this.
Radical Technologies
Carbon Capture and Storage

 It is accepted that coal will always be part of the global energy mix due to its abundance and its cheap
cost
 Carbon capture and storage involves ‘capturing’ the carbon dioxide released and burying it deep
underground
 However, carbon capture and storage has significant challenges
o It is expensive because of the advanced technology required
o No one can be sure that the carbon dioxide will stay underground and that it will not leak to the
surface and enter the atmosphere

Carbon Capture and Storage

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

 Hydrogen is a chemically simple and abundant element but it does not occur naturally as a gas, it is
always combined with other elements e.g., oxygen in water
 Currently, most hydrogen is extracted from other forms of fuel e.g., oil and natural gas
 Hydrogen is high in energy and an engine that burns pure hydrogen produces next to no pollution

A Hydrogen-powered Car

 A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water
 A fuel cell will provide electricity as long as hydrogen is supplied and it will never lose its charge
  Fuel cells are a promising technology for use as:
o A source of heat and electricity for buildings
o A power source for electric vehicles
 Hydrogen fuel cells are considered to be one of the best strategies for reducing carbon emissions that
has very little impact on the carbon cycle

8.3 Global Climate System Links to Carbon & Water Cycles

8.3.1 Human Activity on Carbon & Water Cycles
Impact of Increasing Demand for Food, Fuel & Other Resources
Growing Resource Demands
 The biosphere sequesters about one quarter of fossil fuel carbon emissions every year, slowing down
the rate of global warming
 However, the biosphere’s capacity to sequester carbon dioxide is being reduced due to land
conversion
 Land conversion is being driven by an increasing demand for food, fuel and other resources

Deforestation

 Forests cover 30% of the Earth’s land area and absorb rainfall and increase groundwater storage
 Deforestation occurs for either the timber or the space they occupy and is driven by the increasing
demand for commodity production

 An estimated 10 million hectares are deforested every year

 Deforestation has impacts on the water cycle:
o Reduced interception by vegetation so infiltration to soil and groundwater changes
o Increased erosion and surface run-off, increasing sediment eroded and transported into rivers
 Deforestation has impacts on the carbon cycle:
o Reduced storage in soil and biomass
o Reduced carbon dioxide intake during photosynthesis
o Increased carbon influx to atmosphere by burning and decomposing vegetation

Afforestation
 Afforestation and reforestation are beneficial for carbon dioxide sequestration but can be
controversial in its impacts:
o Commercial trees such as palm oil often store less carbon, use more water and are prone to
disease
Grassland Conversion

 There are two main types of grassland which cover 26% of the Earth’s land area
o Temperate grassland - no trees and a seasonal growth pattern linked to a large annual
temperature range e.g. North America
o Tropical grassland or Savannah- scattered trees with a wet and dry season e.g. Africa’s
serengeti
 When grasslands are used too intensively for animals or agriculture it disrupts the carbon and water
cycles
o Rapid increase in population and changes from nomadic to sedentary farming along with the
impacts of climate change and poor land management
o Soil and ecosystem degradation is now becoming a worldwide issue which is leading to a loss in
carbon storage

Exam Tip
Make sure you are able to explain how land conversion affects global warming. Remember land
conversion is the clearing of land (ecosystems) to use the land for a different purpose
Ocean Acidification
Ocean Acidification

 Oceans are important carbon sinks but due to their increasing uptake of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, their overall pH is decreasing leading to ocean acidification
o The acidity of the ocean today is estimated to be on average about 25% greater than it was
during pre-industrial times
 Ocean acidification increases the risk of marine ecosystems reaching a critical threshold of
permanent damage
 Ocean acidification will be exacerbated by other factors including warming temperatures, tropical
storms and pollution
 Ecosystem resilience is important - if the rate of acidification is slow enough, the organisms may be
able to adapt to the changes and be more resilient
 The Arctic Ocean is likely to be affected first due to its low pH threatening its ‘cold’ corals
 Globally, coral reefs are already experiencing bleaching from increasing temperatures
 Coral reefs are also affected by ocean acidification

The impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs

 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
Climate Change
 There is clear evidence that human activity is causing the enhanced greenhouse effect which is
leading to climate changes
 Climate change may increase the frequency of drought due as a result of shifting climate belts, which
will have an impact of the role of forests as carbon stores
 There are around 30 different climate zones which can be simplified as:
o Equatorial
o Tropical
o Temperate
o Polar
 These climate zones are not static and the increasing of earth’s temperatures could lead to 5% of the
Earth’s land area shifting to a new climate zone
o There is already evidence of the expansion of subtropical deserts and poleward movement of
stormy wet weather in mid-latitudes.

The Amazon's Changing Climate

 The Amazon acts as a global and regional regulator, pumping 20 billion metric tonnes of water into the
atmosphere every day
 Since 1990, a more extreme cycle of drought and flood has developed in Amazonia, which can be
linked to shifts in the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
 Rainfall has noticeably decreased downwind of deforested areas leading to São Paulo suffering a water
crisis
 The Amazon rainforest which is already affected by deforestation is now being hugely impacted by
droughts in 2005 and 2010

8.3.2 Implications of Degradation of Water & Carbon Cycles

Changes in Global Forest Coverage
Deforestation

 An estimated 1.6 billion people depend on forests and more than 90% of these are in developing
countries
 Forests are essential for human well-being through their services as well as being the source of 80%
of global biodiveristy

The Forest Ecosystem Services

Type of Service Description

 Nutrient cycling
 Soil formation
Supporting Functions
 Primary production

 Food
 Freshwater
Provision of Goods  Wood and Fibre
 Fuel
  ‘Green lungs’, regulating climate, floods and disease
Regulation of Earth’s Systems  Water purification

 Aesthetic
 Spiritual
Cultural Value  Educational
 Recreational (inc. tourism)

 An estimated 13 million hectares of forests between 2000 and 2010 were affected by deforestation

Annual Deforestation in 2016

 However, the net loss was reduced because of afforestation

 The environmental Kuznets curve suggests that communities reach a tipping point where exploitation
of forests changes to more protection
 The changes in attitudes are usually dependent on:
o The wealth of a country
o Increasing knowledge of the role that the environment plays in our well-being
o Aid given to developing countries to help reduce exploitation
o Political systems and introduction and enforcement of environmental laws
o The involvement of locals
o The power and influence of TNCs

The Environmental Kuznets Curve

 It is hoped that the sustainable management of forests will reduce deforestation and as a result
reduce carbon emissions from forests
 Currently, 18% of forests are classed as conserved
 o Brazil and the USA have the largest National Parks and Forest Reserves
 Successful reduction of forest loss in the long term requires:
o Protective legislation
o Community involvement in planning and developing policies

Exam Tip
Make sure you are able to provide examples of the services that ecosystems (especially forests)
provide that are essential for human well-being
Effects of Increased Temperature
Effects of Increasing Temperatures

 Global warming is increasing global temperatures which affects evaporation rates and increases the
amount of water in the atmosphere
 These changes can have impacts on the hydrological cycle, for example:
o Precipitation patterns
o River Regimes
o Water Stores (cryosphere and drainage basin)

The Arctic

 The Arctic plays an important role in global climate, as its sea ice regulates evaporation and
precipitation
 The Earth’s cryosphere has already been affected by rising temperatures, for example:
o Antarctica and Greenland ice sheets have lost mass and glaciers are shrinking
o Arctic sea ice and spring snow cover in the northern hemisphere continue to decrease in extent
and thickness
 The Arctic acts as a barometer or early warning system for the environmental impacts resulting from
the burning of fossil fuels
o Arctic temperatures have risen twice as fast as the global average in the past few decades
o Significant loss of sea ice e.g., the North-west Passage can now be navigated in the summer
o Permafrost is melting
o Carbon uptake by plants is increasing because of the lengthening of their growing season
o A loss of albedo as the ice that once covered the land is replaced by tundra and tundra is
replaced by taiga (further encouraging global warming)

Threats to Ocean Health & Implications for Humans

Ocean Health and Impacts on Huma Well-being

 Global warming is affecting ocean temperatures and currents as well as the supply of nutrients and
marine food chains
 These changes can be categorised under the following:
o Bleaching
o Acidification
o Rising sea levels
o Loss of sea ice
 These changes then have an impact on distribution, abundance, breeding cycles and migration of
marine plants and animals which millions of people depend on either directly or indirectly for food and
income
 Research suggests that marine organisms may be responding faster to climate change than terrestrial
organisms
 Importance of Ocean Health

8.3.3 Future Large Scale Release of Carbon

Future Emissions
Future Uncertainties

 There are many uncertainties about future global warming and contributing natural and human factors
 Uncertainty about natural factors include:
o The role of carbon sinks and their capacity to cope with changes
o Possible feedback mechanisms such as carbon release from peatlands and permafrost
o Tipping points associated with forest dieback and the reversal of thermohaline circulation
 Uncertainty about human factors include:
o Future rates of global economic and population growth
o Planned reduction in global carbon emissions
o Exploitation of renewable energy sources

Natural Factors

 Research has been conducted to see what the future changes to carbon stores may be with increasing
carbon emissions

Future Changes to Carbon Stores

Terrestrial Carbon Sinks Oceanic Carbon Sinks

Modelled to increase until 2050 Increased store in sea grasses and algae, but overall reduction
as sink because:
When saturation is reached, they begin to act as
sources:

 Tropical oceans have decreased carbon dioxide solubility

as they are becoming warmer so absorb less
 Thawing of permafrost (tundra) in the Arctic  Decreased efficiency and slowing down of the biological
 Shift of boreal forests to the north (as pump
tundra thaws)
 Tropical rainforests (currently at carbon
capacity) may reduce their storage
Human Factors

 The IPCC has identified key factors driving anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions

Drivers of Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas Emissions

 The top five countries that emit carbon dioxide are China, the USA, India, Japan and Russia

Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Country

 China overtook the USA as a result of rapid urbanisation and industrialisation which indicates a positive
relationship between economic growth and carbon emissions

Adaptation Strategies
Adaptation Strategies

 Even if all carbon emissions stopped today, we would still have enhanced global warming due to past
emissions and the length of time it takes for greenhouse gases to disperse from the atmosphere
 There are two types of climate change adaptation strategies:
o Hard strategies which require technology e.g., wind farms
o Soft strategies which involve legislation e.g., land use zoning
 All adaptation strategies have benefits and risks associated with them

Evaluation of Adaptation Strategies

Adaptation
Benefits Risks
Strategy
Less resources used Efficiency and management cannot match
Water any increases in demand for water
conservation and
management
 Less groundwater abstraction Promotion and enforcement of strategies
by the government needed to change
habits e.g., smart meters
Changing attitudes e.g., use of more grey water
High-tech, drought-tolerant species help resistance Expensive technology, seeds and breeds
to climate change and increased diseases unavailable to subsistence farmers in
developing countries

Low-tech methods and better practices lead to

healthier soils which may help carbon Indoor and intensive farming has high
sequestration and water storage e.g., selective energy costs
Resilient irrigation, crop rotation, agroforestry
agricultural
systems
Genetic modification is still controversial
More ‘indoor’ intensive farming but still used to create resistant strains of
rich and soya

Increasing food insecurity leads to

countries looking for quick fixes
Land-use zoning, building restrictions in areas Public dislike
vulnerable to flooding

Abandoning high-risk areas is often

Land-use
Enforcing strict run-off controls and soakaways impossible as they are often megacities
planning

Would need strong governance,

enforcement and compensation
Hard management often used e.g., river dredging, Funding sources are often debated
flood defences

Land owners will often demand

Simple changes can reduce flood risk e.g., compensation
Flood-risk
permeable tarmac
management

Constant maintenance is required for hard

Reducing deforestation and increasing management e.g., dredging
afforestation upstream to absorb water and reduce
flood risk downstream
Geoengineering involves ideas and plans to These are untried and untested
Solar radiation intervene to counteract global warming
management
 Idea to use orbiting satellites to reflect some Would not eliminate the worst effects of
radiation back into space like a giant sunshade greenhouse gases such as acidification
which would cool the Earth within months and be
relatively cheap compared to mitigation strategies
Involves messing with a very complex
system which could have unintended
consequences

Would need to continue geoengineering

for decades or centuries as there would be
a rapid adjustment in the climate system
if it just stopped suddenly
Mitigation Strategies
Mitigation Strategies

 Mitigation strategies can help rebalance the carbon cycle

 Rebalancing the carbon cycle is seen as vital in preserving the Earth’s life systems
 The IPCC stated in 2014 that it was possible to keep within the target of no more than a 2°C increase in
average global temperatures if:
o Fossil fuel use was significantly reduced
o Fossil fuel use was totally eliminated by 2100
 Mitigation strategies are considered vital to staying within the 2°C increase
 Mitigation strategies usually operate through five specific methods:
o Carbon taxation
o Renewable switching
o Energy efficiency
o Afforestation
o Carbon capture and storage (CCS)
 The UK has led the way with many of these strategies but politics and austerity measures since 2011
has had an impact

Mitigation Strategies Used in the UK

Mitigation Strategy Examples of Policies in the UK

Carbon price floor tax sets a minimum prices companies will have to pay to emit
carbon dioxide which was unpopular and the policy was frozen in 2015

Carbon taxation Lower road taxes for low-carbon cars were scrapped in 2015

In 2015, oil and gas exploration tax relief was expanded to support fossil fuels which
led to the fracking debate
Renewable energy (solar, wind and wave) provide intermittent electricity, while fossil
Renewable switching fuels provide continuous power which is vital for our current demands
 The Climate Change Levy, designed in 2001 to encourage investment in renewable
energy was cut in 2015
The Green Deal scheme encouraged energy-saving improvements in homes e.g.,
energy efficient boilers and lights, improved insulation which was scrapped in 2015

Energy efficiency

Energy suppliers must comply with the Energy Company Obligation scheme to deliver
energy efficient methods to households
Tree planting in the UK is increasing which helps carbon sequestration

Tree planting involves the Forestry Commission, charities (e.g., the National Trust and
Afforestation Woodland Trust), landowners and local authorities,

The Big Tree Plant campaign encourages communities to plant 1 million new trees
(mostly in urban areas)
Few actual geologic carbon capture and storage projects exist in the world, despite its
potential

Carbon capture and

Canada’s Boundary Dam is the only large-scale working scheme
storage (CCS)

In 2015, the UK cancelled its investment into full-scale projects at gas and coal
powered plants in Scotland and Yorkshire

9. Superpowers
9.1 Superpowers
9.1.1 Geopolitical Power
Definition of Superpowers
 A superpower is a nation which is able to project its influence and be dominant on a global scale
 The patterns of power across the world change over time
o Uni-polar world means there is only one superpower
o Bi-polar world exists when there are two superpowers
o Multi-polar world means there are multiple superpowers
 The USA and USSR became superpowers after World War II. Before this, the superpowers were the
British Empire and the USA
 Currently the USA is the only superpower therefore the world is uni-polar
 The USA is also referred to as a hyperpower or hegemon meaning that it is dominant in all aspects of
power
Emerging superpowers

 The EU is a group of nations which qualifies as an emerging superpower

 There are a number of nations which are regarded as emerging superpowers including
the BRIC nations:
o Brazil
o Russia
o India
o China

Exam Tip
Remember the BRIC group of countries are not a trading bloc, they are simply countries which have
been identified as emerging powers and economies. Each one has separate strengths and
weaknesses. Recent years have also seen the emergence of the MINT group of countries - Mexico,
Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey.
Regional powers

 These are nations which exert power and influence over other countries in the region including:
o South Africa in Africa
o France, Germany and the UK in Europe

Factors affecting superpower status

 There are a number of factors which affect whether a nation has superpower status
 Several of the factors are listed below but there are many characteristics within these and they are all
linked

Factors affecting superpower status

Resources

 Access to resources such as minerals and metals

 Control of resources
 These can be sold and exported which supports economic growth
o Discovery of oil and gas in the Middle East has given OPEC countries economic power

Size and geographical position

 This links to resources, the larger a country the more resources it may have
o Russia has significant reserves of coal, oil and gas
 The geographical position of a country impacts its links and influence over other countries
Economic factors

 The economic status of a country is what many of the other factors are based on as it influences areas
such as
o Military strength
o Ability to exploit resources
o Cultural influence
o Political strength
 Economic strength is measured in terms of
o Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
 US GDP per capita in 2022 is US$68,615 compared to China US$21,804
o High levels of international trade
o The currency is used as a reserve currency and is regarded as 'safe' for investment
 Over 60% of international trade transactions are in US$
o Influence on global economics through membership of International Governmental
Organisations (IGOs) and trading blocs such as European Union (EU)
o High levels of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
 The USA has the highest global inflow of FDI at US$86 billion

Demographic factors

 The size and structure of the population

 Large populations provide a large workforce which can support economic growth
o China and India's large populations have been key to their economic growth
o Large diaspora and more workers in large companies increases the country's influence around
the world
 Populations with a large working age population supports economic growth
 A large dependent population (e.g. ageing population of Japan) may have a negative impact on
economic growth
 Population size also impacts on the military strength of a country

Political power

 A country's ability to affect the decisions of other countries, this could be:
o As part of international organisations
o Through negotiations between different country's politicians and heads of state
 This can be the result of economic (e.g OPEC countries) or military power which gives countries more
influence over other countries
 Superpowers and emerging superpowers have key roles in international organisations such as NATO,
UN, The World Bank and IMF
o Some organisations have weighted votes so some countries have more votes than others

Military strength

 The reach of a country's military is key to the level of power they have:
o A global reach means that the military can be used to achieve geopolitical goals

 The size and power of the military is dependent on a number of factors:

o The size and age of the population to maintain the size of the military
o Defence spending on the military - personnel, technology and weapons
 Superpowers and emerging powers have:
o Large military forces
o Nuclear weapons
o Export arms
o Influential roles in international military organisations such as NATO
Cultural influence

 The ability of a country to influence the beliefs, values, customs, lifestyle and ideologies of other
countries
 Influence can be achieved through:
o The media - films, tv, music, radio, internet, art
o Transnational companies introducing foods
o Migrant populations who bring food, dress, religious beliefs, music

Maintenance of Power
 Maintenance of power is achieved utilising hard and soft powers
o These sit on a spectrum, meaning that the methods are somewhere on a scale between two
extremes

The Spectrum of Hard and Soft Powers

Hard powers

 Use economic and military power to try and force countries to behave in a certain way. These include:
o Economic - trade deals, sanctions
 Sanctions have been imposed on Russia to try and deter them from their invasion of
Ukraine
 US sanctions imposed on Iran in an attempt to stop the development of nuclear
weapons, the sanctions have caused the cost of living to increase and inflation rates to
reach 50%
o Military - use of force, threats of force or military action, the forming of military alliances
 The invasion of Iraq in 1991 in response to the invasion of Kuwait
 The invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 following the bombing of the Twin Towers in the
USA

Soft powers

 Use political and cultural influence to try and persuade countries to behave in a certain way: These
include:
o Political (diplomacy) - use of persuasion through ambassadors, high ranking politicians, heads
of state
o Cultural - makes policies and way of life attractive and appealing, promotes the beliefs and
ideologies of the superpower(s)

Top Ten Global Soft Powers

2023 Ranking Country

1 United States
 2 UK

3 Germany

4 Japan

5 China

6 France

7 Canada

8 Switzerland

9 Italy

10 UAE

 The UK has consistently ranked as one of the top soft power nations in the world, (in 2022 ranking 2nd)
this is due to:
o Diplomacy
 The UK has 281 diplomatic posts in 178 countries and territories
 Relationships have been built over many years through the existence of the
Commonwealth and the former countries of the British Empire
 The popularity of the royal family and their role in diplomacy and maintaining
international relations
o Culture - British culture is world renown including:
 British literature - Shakespeare, Dickens, Austen
 Music - Elgar through the Beatles to Adele,
 Art - from Constable to Barbara Hepworth
 The BBC is one of the world's most trusted broadcasters
 Television - Downtown Abbey and The Crown have worldwide popularity (73 million
people watched The Crown and Downtown Abbey is viewed in 250 countries)
 Over 500,000 overseas students study in the UK each year - 1 in 4 countries around the
world have a head of state or government who was educated in the UK
 The British Council reaches over 100 million people in 100 countries

Smart power

 In 2003 Joesph Nye used the term 'Smart power' to demonstrate that effective foreign policy and
maintenance of power needs the use of both hard and soft powers

Importance of Mechanisms for Maintaining Power

 Over time the importance of the mechanisms for maintaining power have changed
 The overall shift has been from the use of hard power to the use of soft power
 Historically military force and power were frequently used to gain and maintain power over other
nations
 Power was strongly linked to military dominance.

Mackinder's 'Heartland Theory'

 In 1904 Halford Mackinder proposed the 'Heartland theory'

 Based on the premise that most of the world's natural resources are to be found in Asia and Europe
  The 'heartland' is an area bordered by mountains on three sides and the Arctic to the north
o This makes it difficult to invade

 The 'heartland' is surrounded by the inner crescent area which includes China, India and the rest of
Europe
 Mackinder argued that the nation controlling the heartland would gain control over the rest of the world
 This influenced world policy as the USA and many European countries believed that Russia needed to
be controlled to prevent it achieving dominance
 Mackinder stated that the position of the 'heartland' could change
 There have been a number of changes over the last 150 years
 The theory is based on geo-locational importance
 Geo-locational importance has declined as technology and transportation have increased

9.1.3 Emerging Powers

Increasing Importance of Emerging Powers
BRIC countries

 There are a number of emerging superpowers including the BRIC countries:

o Brazil
o Russia
o India
o China
 China is seen as the greatest rival to the dominance of USA as outlined previously

Other G20 members

 There are other members of the G20 who are increasingly powerful
o The EU is the largest trading bloc in the world
o Other emerging powers in the G20 include Asian economies of Indonesia, Japan and South
Korea

Strengths & Weaknesses of Emerging Powers

Characteristics of Three Emerging Superpowers

India Brazil Russia

Political  Poor relations with  Significant corruption  Reduced global

some neighbours throughout Brazil influence
 including China and  Politically unstable - far right  Role in
Pakistan Bolsonaro has recently been supporting President
 Member of the G20 voted out and previously Bashar al-Assad's regime
and UN impeached president re- in Syria
 Largest democracy in elected  Invasion of Ukraine in
the world 2022
 Has diplomatic
relations with 201
nations

 The 5th largest

 11th largest GDP in the
economy in the
world
world
 Decreasing influence
 Increasing influence  Produces over 50% of South
over global financial
over global financial America's GDP
decision making
Economic decision making  Large amounts of natural
 Lack of investment by
 Attracts many TNCs resources
TNCs and FDIs
and FDI
 Significant levels of
 Many people remain
inequality
in poverty

 Third largest military  Fifth largest military

expenditure in the  Largest military force in South force in the world
world America  Wide scale corruption
Military  Second largest  Limited role in international  Ageing weapons and
armed force conflicts vehicles
 A nuclear power  A nuclear power

 Second largest  Seventh most populated

population in the country in the world  Population is
world  Population distribution is very experiencing slow
Demographic
 Large English uneven - most people live by decline
speaking population the coast

 Bollywood now
produces more films
a year than  Football team - World Cup  Known for literature,
Hollywood winners five times classical music, art and
Cultural
 Indian food popular  Rio Carnival ballet
in many areas of the
world

Global environmental governance

 Climate change is an increasing concern

 Any superpower will need to engage with other countries to lead the way on tackling climate change
 This will include a leading role in the UN Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention
on Climate Change (COP)
o COP27 was held in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt

Development Theory
  There are a number of theories to explain the changing patterns of power

World systems theory

 Developed by Wallerstein in 1974

 Whole world is one unit divided into:
o Core
o Periphery
o Semi-peripheries

World systems theory

 The World Systems Theory fits the pattern of developed, emerging and developing countries
 It highlights the inequality in trading patterns

Criticisms of world systems theory

 Too focussed on the economy

 Insufficient focus on culture

Modernisation theory

 The Rostow model of the Stages of Economic Growth was developed in 1960
 Based on the study of 15 European countries
 Rostow suggested that all countries have the potential to break the cycle of poverty and develop
through 5 linear stages:
o Stage 1: Traditional society: economy based on bartering, subsidence farming and little
investment
o Stage 2: Pre-conditions for take off (transitional stage): surpluses are traded through improved
infrastructure and shift to manufacturing
o Stage 3: Take off: industrial and regional growth, investment and political change
o Stage 4: Drive to maturity: growth is supported through technological innovation, diversification
and investment
o Stage 5 - High mass consumption: consumer orientated society, durable goods production,
dominant service sector, higher disposable incomes
Criticisms

 Model is outdated and too simple

 Model assumes all countries start at the same point (same resources, population, climate etc.)
 Capital is needed to advance from Stage 1
o The model does not show how that capital is obtained: usually a development aid loan.
o The debt repayments can delay or even prevent a country from reaching Stage 3 and take off
 Colonialism, and the impact this had on the development of some countries, are not taken into account
or are underestimated

Dependency theory

 The theory was developed by Andre Gunder Frank in the 1960s

 It argues that the:
o Persistent poverty of developing countries is the result of their dependency on developed
countries
o There is an unequal relationship between the developed and developing countries
o The ex-colonies were still in a state of dependency when they became independent
 Dependency theory is linked to neo-colonialism as it outlines how:
o Primary resources are exported from developing countries to developed countries
o The profits from these goods are low
o Developing countries do not have the funds to process primary resources which would add
value
o Developed countries often apply tariffs on processed goods which means that developing
countries struggle to export processed goods

Dependency theory

Criticisms

 Developed countries have lost their power to control developing countries

 Countries are emerging and becoming more developed semi-periphery countries such as Mexico and
India
 The global system is now controlled by TNCs and the World Trade Organisation
 Underdevelopment may be due to internal not external factors

9.2 Impacts of Superpowers

9.2.1 Influence of Superpowers
Influence of Superpowers Over the Global Economy
  Much of the influence of superpowers and emerging superpowers is through International
Governmental Organisations (IGOs)
 These promote:
o Free trade
o Capitalism

World Bank

 The World Bank is the sister to the IMF and both were set up during the Bretton Woods
Conference in 1944
 It is an international organisation that provides finance, advice, and research to developing nations to
aid their economic advancement
 Funded from wealthy nations and interest from loans
 It acts to reduce poverty by increasing economic growth
 It deals mostly with internal investment (development assistance) projects such as building dams, and
infrastructure and promoting health and education in developing and emerging countries
 Usually works with other nations, organisations and institutions as a sponsor of the project
 The World Bank issues low-interest loans, grants and/or zero interest credits to qualifying countries to
support the development of their economies
 The World Bank funds projects that otherwise wouldn't happen because the cost is too high for
developing countries or they cannot raise sufficient funds elsewhere because it is for social and not
economic purposes

World Trade Organisation

 Trade is important to keep the global economy working effectively and any barriers to trade will limit
growth
 In 1947 the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was set up to aid economic recovery
after World War II by reconstructing and liberalising global trade
 Initially it was a multilateral treaty between 23 countries to remove cross-country trade barriers
 GATT was superseded by the WTO in 1995 as an international global trading organisation with the
power to mediate and settle trade disputes
 164 countries, at present, have signed the agreement to ensure that producers of goods and services,
along with exporters and importers, are protected and help manage their businesses
 It aims to reduce barriers and promote free trade between countries whilst ensuring that trading
nations keep to the agreed international trade rules through sanctions
 The WTO has been a force for globalization, with both positive and negative effects
 Powerful TNCs support the WTO for its positive impact on international economic growth
 Others see it as increasing the wealth gap and hurting local workers and communities
 Overall, the WTO has lowered trade barriers and increased trade among the member countries with
average tariffs being a tenth of what they were in 1947 when GATT was founded

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

 Created in 1944 at the United Nations, Bretton Woods Conference

 Along with the World Bank, its purpose was to bring financial stability to the world after World War II
and avoid repeating the currency devaluation that contributed to the 1930s Great Depression
 Its main aim is to allow the currency to be exchanged freely and easily between 190 global member
countries
 The IMF is funded by quota subscriptions
 Member states pay according to the size of their economy; with voting rights based on quotas
 These quotas ensure that member countries always have enough foreign exchange to continue to do
business with the rest of the world
 If member countries run into trouble, they can turn to the IMF for advice and financial assistance
  The IMF has been criticised for lending with imposed conditions on how a country runs its economy
along with making payback a priority on the loan; often forcing financial concerns ahead of any social
care
 Countries under IMF programs are usually developing, emerging or countries that have faced financial
crises
 Set up Structural Attachment Programs (SAPs) which promotes capitalism through the conditions
attached to loans

World Economic Forum (WEF)

 Founded in 1971
 A Swiss non-for-profit organisation
 It promotes free trade and is in favour of TNCs
 It aims to bring businesses and governments together, encouraging public and private co-operation
 Meetings of the WEF take place each year in Davos bringing together politicians, businesses,
economists, religious groups, media groups and many others
 The aim is to discuss global issues such as ongoing conflicts, climate change and economic systems
 It is intended that this will promote global links and provide ambitious solutions to global issues

Dominance of Transnational Corporations

 Most Transnational Corporations (TNCs) are publicly owned corporations owned by private
shareholders
o Nike, Shell, Nestle, Amazon are all examples of publicly owned TNCs
o These are driven by profits and pay dividends to share holders
 Some TNCs are state owned, these are owned by the government and are often related to energy or
communications
o Gazprom (Russia), Aramco (Saudi Arabia) and EDF (France) is due to become state owned in
2023
o Profits are reinvested into the TNCs
o These are increasingly important and now make up 5 of the top 10 companies by revenue

Top Ten TNCs by Revenue 2022

TNC Industry Headquarters State owned

Walmart Retail USA No

Amazon Retail USA No

State Grid Electricity China Yes

China National
Oil and Gas China Yes
Petroleum

Sinopec Group Oil and Gas China Yes

Saudi Aramco Oil and Gas Saudi Arabia Yes

Apple Electronics USA No

Volkswagen Automotive Germany No

China State
Construction China Yes
Construction

CVS Health Healthcare USA No

 TNCs operate in foreign countries individually

 The 500 largest TNCs account for 70% of world trade
 Many of the world's TNCs are based in the USA or in an emerging superpower
 Although TNCs have existed for hundreds of years, they have become increasingly important in recent
years
 Governments and global institutions set the rules for the global economy but the main investment is
through TNCs
 TNCs involve themselves in all economic sectors and impact the global economy
o The largest TNCs representing the biggest percentage of total global production
 TNCs directly invest in one country and later expand to other nations (usually developing countries) to
take advantage of lower labour costs and incentives
 It is the process of moving manufacturing around the globe that has resulted in the development of
emerging countries such as China, India and Brazil
 The increased importance of TNCs have led to economic power shifting to emerging countries such as
China
 The huge profits of TNCs mean that they can exert political pressure and influence

Location of Walmart around the globe

 Walmart is the top TNC by revenue

 Walmart's supply chain involves 30,000 factories in China
 It has 10,500 stores around the world and directly employs 2.3 million people

Patents

 Patents are used by TNCs to protect their technology and innovations

o These are intellectual property systems which are used to prevent technologies and medicines
being copied
o They protect the wealth of the developed countries where the TNCs usually originate
 They favour developed countries and mean that many new technologies and medicines are unavailable
to developing nations
o The patents on new HIV treatments have made these drugs unaffordable in many developing
countries where the disease is most prevalent

Trade patterns

 Developed countries have greater participation in international trade than developing countries as a
result of TNCs
 Much global trade today is intra-company trade within the same company
 Global Cultural Influence
 Western TNCs were globally dominant until recently
 Of the ten best known global brands seven are from the USA
 This increased the spread of Western culture - the ideas, customs, and social behaviour of western
society
 This 'westernisation' is important in the dominance of western powers, it is linked to:
o Economic influence
o Technology
 This is a soft power and has led to countries around the world adopting western culture and values
including:
o Freedom of speech
o Dress and music
o Food - the spread of fast food outlets McDonalds, Starbucks and KFC
o Use and importance of technology
o Democracy

9.2.2 Superpowers & International Decision Making

Superpowers & Global Action
 Superpowers and emerging nations play a key role in global actions including:
o Crisis response
o Conflict response
o Climate change

Crisis response

 During times of crisis such as floods or earthquakes countries provide help to other countries
o Superpowers and emerging nations pay a leading role in this
o The aid can be in the form of finance, building materials and other resources
 Aid is provided through International Governmental Organisations (IGOs) and Non-governmental
Organisations (NGOs)
 At least 105 countries and 16 international organisations pledged help to Turkey and Syria following the
2023 earthquake, including significant resources from the USA and emerging superpowers
o USA sent a disaster response team of 200 people and pledged $185 million in aid
o China offered $10.3 million in aid to Syria and Turkey as well as sending three rescue teams
totalling almost 600 people
o The EU sent 31 rescue teams and 5 medical teams as well as committing €6.5 million
o NATO deployed temporary housing to accommodate 4,000 people
o UN released $25 million from its emergency funds
o The World Bank agreed to provide $1.78 billion in aid for relief and recovery
 The countries have also taken a leading role during the Covid pandemic

Conflict response

 In 1942 President Roosevelt proposed the concept of 'four policemen'

o USA, UK, China and the former USSR would be the only ones to have arms
o They would work together to maintain global peace
 Although this did not come to fruition the USA and emerging superpowers do often act as 'global
police'
 Interventions have occurred in many incidences of growing tensions and conflicts around the world
o NATO and UN intervention in the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina starting with the
deployment of UN peacekeepers in 1992
o NATO military intervention in Libya in 2011
 o The USA led military intervention by a coalition of 35 countries when Iraq invaded Kuwait in
1990
o In 2001 the USA with support from the UK, Australia, Canada, France and Germany led military
intervention in Afghanistan to remove the Taliban from control

Climate change response

 Global warming and climate change require an international response because it affects the entire
globe
 Superpowers and emerging nations have a significant role to play in the response
 In 1988 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up to assess the 'risks of
human-induced climate change
 This was followed by several international agreements:
o Earth Summit 1992
o Kyoto Protocol 1997
o Paris Agreement 2015
 President Trump's decision to withdraw the USA from the Paris Agreement in 2020 was seen to be
detrimental to their superpower status - the USA rejoined in 2021 after the election of President Biden

Superpower & Emerging Nation Alliances

 In 1942 President Roosevelt proposed the global strategy of 'Four policeman'
o The strategy involved the USA, UK, China and Russia being the only armed nations
o The four would work together to maintain global peace
 Although this did not happen the four nations would become the the permanent members of the UN
along with France
 The concept of alliances was not new and various alliances exist across the globe
 The alliances are focussed on:
o Military
o Economic
o Environmental
o Justice and peacekeeping

Military alliances

 The existence of military alliances throughout much of human history has been important to ensure
mutual protection
 If one nation is attacked, the allied nations agree to defend them
 The earliest, which is still in force, is the Anglo-Portuguese alliance of 1388

Awaiting image

US current military alliances

 The USA's military alliances support its military strength across the globe and enable it to have:
o A leading role in deciding on military operations
o Military bases in countries around the world - approximately 600 in total
o Global reach

 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was formed in 1949

o The purpose is to safeguard the freedom and security of member nations
o Collective defence means that an attack on one nation is an attack on all NATO nations
 Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty (ANZUS) formed in 1951
o Original focus on co-operation on military matters in the Pacific Ocean region
 o Now relates to worldwide conflicts
 Rio Treaty or Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance with Latin American countries
 Mutual Defence Treaty with South Korea
 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security with Japan
 Thanat-Rusk Communique with Thailand

Economic and political alliances

 These are agreements between nations which promote trade through the removal of trade barriers
such as:
o Taxes
o Tariffs
o Quotas
 Economic alliances tend to be regional rather than global
 They are also political alliances

European Union (EU)

 There are 27 member states


 Members of the European Union

 The EU aims to promote peace, its values and well-being of its citizens
 The Euro currency is used by 19 of the members
 A united Europe has far greater economic and political power than the individual nations, enabling
o More power in trade negotiations
o Greater access to markets
o Greater protection for EU businesses and industry
 Allows for freedom of movement for people (within the Schengen Area) and goods
 It is also a political alliance with supranational and intergovernmental decision making
 The UK left the EU in 2021; as one of the largest trading nations in the EU, this has impacted both the
UK and the remaining EU nations

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

 Established in 1994 creating a free trade zone between Canada, USA and Mexico
 In 2008 all tariffs and quotas were abolished on US exports to Canada and Mexico
 Has now been replaced by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)
 One of the largest trading blocs in the world

The Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN)

 Established in 1967 by the nations of Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand,
ASEAN aims to:
o Accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development
o Promote regional peace and stability
o Promote collaboration between nations
 It now has ten member states
Environmental alliances

 Increasing global environmental challenges have led to the creation of environmental alliances to tackle
the global issues including:
o Climate change
o Deforestation

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

 Established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP)
 Created to provide members with regular reports on knowledge and understanding of climate change,
impacts, future risks and possible options for mitigation and adaptation
 The IPCC currently has 195 members

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

 Established an international environmental treaty to tackle the impact of human activity on climate
 Signed by 154 states in Rio de Janerio at the Earth Summit 1992
 Conference of the Parties (COP) meetings take place each year at locations around the world

United Nations
 The United Nations is a complex organisation
 Founded by 51 countries following the end of WWII, it aims to:
o Maintain international peace and security
o Develop relations between countries
o Promote social progress, living standards and human rights
 The UN is made of six principle divisions
o General Assembly
o Security council
o Economic and social council
o Secretariat
o International Court of Justice
o Trusteeship council

 There are 193 member nations of the UN

  The UN includes many of the world's most powerful and influential intergovernmental organisations
(IGOs):
o United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
o World Trade Organisation (WTO)
o Counter-terrorism committees
o International Law Commission
o Human Rights Council
o United Nations Educational and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
o World Health Organisation (WHO)
o World Bank
o International Labour Organisation (ILO)
o Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations (FAO)
o UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

Security council

 There are five permanent members of the UN Security Council which is the most powerful part of the
UN
o China
o France
o Russia
o UK
o US
 The western countries (UK, USA and France) have an advantage as they are able to outvote Russia
and China who frequently vote together
 The five members have power of veto and can reject any proposal
 The security council is responsible for maintaining peace and preventing conflict. one way this is
achieved is peacekeeping missions

Peacekeeping missions

 The UN is frequently involved in peacekeeping missions to try and promote sustainable peace such as
in:
o Sudan and the war in Dafur (2007-2020) and the second Sudanese civil war (2005-2011)
o Ethiopia and Eriteria due to the conflict between the two countries (2000-2008)
o The former Yugoslavia due to the Yugoslav wars (1992-1995)
o Lebanon as a result of the Israeli invasion (1978)

International Court of Justice

 International law is upheld by the International Law Commission and the International Court of Justice
 o The seat of the court is in The Hague
o There are 15 judges who represent the global regions
o Its role is to settle legal disputes and disputes between countries, as well as giving advisory
opinions on legal questions
o Its work includes international criminal tribunals for war crimes

Climate change conference

 Every year a Conference of the Parties (COP) is held

 This is the decision making body for the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
o It includes representatives of all signatory countries
 In Paris 2015 every country agreed to:
o Limit global warming to below 2oC and aim for 1.5oC
o To make money available to adapt to the impacts of global warming
o Make national plans which set out how they will reduce their emissions - these are known
as Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
o Review the progress every 5 years
 This is known as the Paris Agreement

 COP has two main purposes:

o To assess the effects of the past measures that have been introduced to limit climate change
o To reach agreement and set out plans for future ways to limit climate change

9.2.3 Influence of Superpowers on Global Concerns

Superpower Resource Demands
 As the world population increases so does the demand on resources
 Superpowers and emerging superpowers place the greatest demands on resources and have the
largest environmental footprint

Water

 Over 2.7 billion people suffer water scarcity for at least one month each year
 Both India and China are suffering increasing water scarcity due to:
o Increasing industry and agricultural demand
o Increasing population
o Pollution of fresh water sources by industry, agricultural and domestic waste water
o Uneven water supply, the highest demand in China is in the north-east whereas the highest
supply is in the south
o Increasing drought

Food

 The demand for food increases as a result of:

o Population increase
o Increased calorie intake

Awaiting image

Annual worldwide demand for plant and animal based food

Fossil fuels

 As countries develop, their energy requirements increase as:

o More energy is used in factories and industry
o Domestic demand increases as people have more technology - washing machines, TVs, fridges
etc...
 Many emerging countries rely on fossil fuels as they are cheaper and they may have their own reserves
of fossil fuels
o In Indonesia 81% of electricity is generated by fossil fuels
o Since 2011 China has used more coal than the rest of the world combined - 57% of China's
energy is produced using coal

Minerals

 Minerals are used in many different ways:

o Energy - fossil fuels used to produce energy, components for renewable energy (solar panels,
turbines)
o Industry - all products from mobile phones to cars use minerals in their manufacture from oil to
copper
o Construction - materials to make concrete, bricks
o Metals
 The use of minerals is projected to continue to increase, with particularly demand for minerals such as
graphite and lithium which are used in batteries and renewable energy

Projected demand for minerals for energy

technologies

Environmental degradation

 The increased demand for resources is leading to significant environmental degradation including:
o Water pollution from industry, agriculture and domestic waste
 An estimated 80% of groundwater in China is unfit for human consumption
 o Severe air pollution
 About 90% of the global population experienced unhealthy air quality
 In 2019 7 of the 10 most polluted cities were in India
o Soil degradation is an increasing issue around the world
 The UN estimates 40% of the world's land is degraded
 Growing food becomes more difficult as soils become infertile, leading to food shortages
and reducing food production by up to 12% by 2050
 The regeneration of 2.5cm of topsoil can take hundreds of years
 The Environmental Performance Index ranks countries based on a wide range of environmental factors
including water and air pollution, and soil degradation

Environmental Performance Index 2022

Carbon emissions

 Superpowers or emerging superpowers are the largest emitters of CO2

 China emits over 30% of all global greenhouse emissions, followed by the USA (13%) and the EU
(8%)and India (8%)
 The UN reported in 2019 that the group of 20 major economies (G20) are responsible for 78% of
greenhouse gas emissions

Share of global greenhouse gas

emissions
Exam Tip
It is important to remember that developed countries are making greater progress within the country
at reducing emissions, improving air quality and reducing soil degradation. However, it is often their
demands for resources and products that is leading to decreasing environmental quality in emerging
and developing countries.
Variation in Willingness to Act on Environmental Issues
 There are significant differences between nations in their willingness to act to reduce carbon emissions
and reach global agreements
 As the largest emitter in the world it is essential that China participates in any international agreement
o In 2016 China's NDC pledged to reach a peak of CO2 emissions in 2030 and to be carbon
neutral in 2060
 Russia and the EU also signed the Paris Agreement of 2015
o Russia agreed to reduce emissions to 70% relative to the 1990 level by 2030
o The EU has pledged to achieve Net Zero by 2050 and reduce emissions by 55% by 2030 from
1990 levels
 The USA initially signed up to the Paris Agreement under President Obama
o President Trump took the decision to withdraw the US from the agreement in 2017 and this took
effect in 2020
o President Biden took office in 2021 and his first act was to rejoin the agreement
o The target for the US is now a 50-52% reduction from 2005 emission levels by 2030

Future Growth in Emerging Superpowers

 Global consumption has increased due to growing wealth particularly in emerging countries which leads
to increased disposable income
 It is estimated that by 2050 global demand for:
o Water will be 1.6 times greater
o Energy will be 1.8 times greater
o Mineral resources will be more than 2 times greater
 The global middle class is increasing and is predicted to reach 5.3 billion by 2030
o The population in Asia will account for almost 90% of this increase
o Over 43% of the global middle class will live in either India or China

Share of the global middle class by region

 Middle class spending is predicted to almost double by in the 13 years between 2017-2030
o In 2017 it was $37 trillion by 2030 it may reach $64 trillion

 The increased wealth will be spent on products such as washing machines, phones, cars, wider variety
of food. In turn this will increase the demand for:
 o Energy for industry and domestic use
o Water for agriculture
o Rare minerals for making the products
 Increased demand will cause:
o
 Rising prices
 Reduced availability as supplies of non-renewable supplies are used up
 Impacts of increased consumption and resource include:
o Water pollution
o Air pollution
o Soil contamination
o Visual pollution
o Deforestation

9.3 Superpowers & Spheres of Influence

9.3.1 Contesting Global Influence
Disputes Over Ownership
 There are some areas of the world where ownership of the resources is disputed
 This can lead to disagreements over the exploitation of resources and ultimately conflict
 As the resources already available are depleted the pressure to exploit other areas increases

Arctic

 The area within the Arctic Circle is mostly ocean, this means there is no international treaty to protect
the environment
 The United Nations Convention of the Law of The Sea (UNCLOS) should provide some protection
but:
o Recent claims from Norway Canada, Denmark, USA and Russia all seek to extend their
territorial claim and allow mining
o A new code of practice set out by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) would permit
mining
 It is estimated that the Arctic contains 160 billion barrels of oil and 30% of the world's undiscovered gas
 Rare minerals are also present, with US Geological Survey (USGS) evaluating the area as the world's
largest area of undeveloped rare earth minerals
 There are a number of nations with territorial waters within the Arctic Circle

 Territorial claims in the Arctic

 Climate change is decreasing the size of the ice sheet

 This improves accessibility and makes drilling for oil and gas easier
  The Lomonosov ridge is an area of undersea mountains, Canada, Russia and Greenland all have
claimed the area but its ownership is still disputed

Resource exploitation in the Arctic

 Norway has granted licences for the exploration for oil and gas in the Barents Sea
 The first offshore oil platform in the Arctic was set up in 2013 and is operated by Gazprom the Russian
energy company
 Greenland now has two active mines and the potential for more increases as the ice which covers 80%
of Greenland melts
 The US has recently approved the Willow project in the north of Alaska
o This will allow drilling for an estimated 600 million barrels of oil

Tensions

 All five states have begun to strengthen their military presence in the Arctic Circle
 Russia has reintroduced a military presence making improvements to bases in the north of Russia
 Norway has focussed investments in the military in the north of the country
o NATO exercise Cold Response in 2022 was led by Norway and based around conflict in the
Arctic
 The Canadian Armed Forces have engaged in a number of military exercises with the US based
around defending their claim in the Arctic
o Exercise Arctic Edge and Ice Exercise in 2022

Intellectual Property Rights

 Intellectual property rights (IPR) are the rights people or companies have over their creations and fall
into two categories:
o Industrial property - inventions, trademarks, industrial designs, geographical indications of
origin
o Copyright - literary and artistic works, radio and television programmes, performances
 TNCs and governments are the main sources of new inventions and brands
o Companies and governments spend vast amounts on research and development (R & D)
o Protection of new inventions is important because without it:
 Companies/countries would not spend money on R&D if it was simply going to benefit
other companies/countries
 It would reduce trade as companies would not want to share new inventions with other
countries as it would risk the idea being stolen
 Industrial property rights falls in two main areas:
o Protection of distinctive features such as trademarks and also geographical location
 Champagne can only be produced in a specific region of France
o Protection of inventions (using patents), industrial designs and trade secrets
 The recipe of Coca Cola
 There is a worldwide trade in counterfeits and fakes of brands and products which undermines the
global system of IPR
 It is estimated that every year $300 billion is lost in the US and €43billion in the EU as a result of
intellectual property theft
 The global value of counterfeit and pirated products is estimated at $1.7 trillion
o This is crime against IPR and is illegal
o Agreement exists to protect brand names. This is known as Trade Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

Contesting Spheres of Influence

  The sphere of influence is the area over which a country feels it has influence outside its own
borders
 The country has no legal or formal authority in the area
 This can lead to tensions and conflict as countries compete to have control over land and/or resources
 There are many areas across the world that are in the midst of tensions and conflict

Eastern Europe

 In 1991 the dissolution of the USSR led to the independence of 15 nations including Ukraine, Belarus,
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Moldova
 Russia's influence over these countries has declined since then with Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania
joining the EU and NATO in 2004
 The expansion of the EU and NATO has led Russia to be concerned about its influence in the region
 Russia's concerns about Ukraine and Georgia stating their aspirations to join NATO and Ukraine and
Moldova wanting to join the EU escalated tensions in the area
 In 2014 Russia annexed Crimea an area of Ukraine
 Russia has for many years backed separatists in Ukraine, Georgia and Moldova
 Tensions culminated with the invasion of Ukraine by Russia in 2022 and the ongoing conflict

NATO expansion in Europe

South China Sea

 One of the most contested ocean regions in the world

o There are a number of islands in the South China Sea which are claimed by different nations
including China and the Philippines
 The area is essential for trade as it forms the link between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, it is
estimated that each year:
o Over 30% of global trade passes through the South China Sea - US$5.3 trillion
o Approximately 40% of the world's petroleum products pass through the area
 The area is also globally significant in terms of biodiversity supporting coral reefs and almost 3,500
species of fish
 Over 12% of the fish caught each year across the globe are caught in the region
 The two main contested areas are the :
o Spratly Islands
o Paracel Islands
 Contested areas in the South China Sea

Spratly Islands

 Contested by China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei and Vietnam

 China has embarked on building islands to increase their presence in the area
 This is concerning for the USA as it increased military presence in the region could reduce the US
Navy's ability to move freely between the Pacific and Indian Ocean, impacting on its military's global
reach
o The US has as a result increased its naval presence in the area

 At the moment all but Taiwan (non-UN state) have agreed to UNCLOS which includes the legal
framework governing claims in maritime areas
o According to UNCLOS a nation's territorial sea should not exceed 12 miles from its coast with
the exception of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) which extends to the edge of the continental
shelf
 China has used a number of strategies to increase its influence in the area
o The 'nine-dash line' in the South China Sea
 If these dashes were connected it would enclose almost all the South China Sea
o The use of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) to extend its claim on resources beyond the
UNCLOS 12 mile limit

9.3.2 Changing Relationships Between Superpowers & Developing Nations

Developing Economic Ties
 There are increasing economic ties between emerging powers such as China and developing nations
China and African nations

 Since 2008 China has been Africa's largest trading partner

 In 2021 China had US$4.99 billion of foreign direct investment (FDI) in Africa
 One third of China's construction companies business was in Africa in 2015
 China's increasing demand for resources has driven this increase with most of the investment often
being targeted at resource rich nations such as DR Congo, Zambia and Algeria
 China has made large scale investment in transport and infrastructure to improve efficiency of resource
exploitation and exports including:
o The Nairobi Expressway in Kenya
o Doraleh Multi-Purpose Port in Djibouti
o Benguela Railway in Angola
 Much of this has been part of the China proposed Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) which is aimed at
improving connectivity
 The increased economic ties have a range of environmental impacts and challenges as well as
opportunities

Environmental Impacts, Benefits and Challenges

Environmental Impacts Opportunities Challenges

Deforestation increases to build Investment is focussed on resource

roads and mines rich nations so is unequally
distributed
Increases trade for African nations
Increase in mining and drilling can which is not based on colonial ties
lead to: Focus is still on the export of raw
materials rather than manufactured
Increases jobs and incomes
 Spillages of oil and heavy products so profits are not high
metals
Transport and infrastructure
 Contamination of soil and Imports of cheap Chinese products
improvements benefit the
water has undercut local African
communities as well as exports
companies reducing their profits
Movement of steel and cement
Increases the GDP
industries to countries such as A decline in China's economy
Zimbabwe increases risk of air and would impact on the African
water pollution Nations receiving investment
Rising Economic Importance of Asian Countries
 The status of China and India as emerging superpowers and as global economic powers is clear
o China is the second largest economy in the world and India is the fifth
o They are both members of the G20 which works to address issues related to the global
economy
o Together they account for 40% of the world's population
o They have increasing global political influence and have made military expansions
 The emergence of these two countries has led to increasing tensions in the region, between the
countries themselves and with other nations

China-India

 From the 1960s to 1980s there were three border clashes between the countries
o Control of areas such as Tawang along the border are disputed
 Tensions eased from the late 1980s and China became India's largest trading partner
 2013, 2018 and 2020 saw escalation of the border conflicts along the Sino-Indian border
  Both countries maintain a military presence along their common border and are wary of the other:
o China has concerns about India's increased military presence in the South-China Sea
o India has concerns about China's political relationship with Pakistan

Taiwan

 China claims that Taiwan is a Chinese province

 Taiwan is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC) the government which was overthrown in
mainland China by the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the Chinese Civil War
 It is a constitutional republic unlike the PRC which is a communist state
 China has conducted a number of military exercises, both in the air and at sea, in the area around
Taiwan as recently as 2022
o Some of these crossed Taiwan's maritime border and into the Air Defence Zone
 Taiwan has developed a political relationship with the USA
 The 2022 Chinese military exercises were a response to a visit to Taiwan by the Speaker of the US
House of Representatives

India - Pakistan

 In 1947 the Indian subcontinent was divided into a Hindu majority India and a Muslim majority Pakistan
- known as the Partition of India
 Over 15 million people were displaced and almost 2 million were killed in the period that followed
 There have been tensions between the two nations ever since
 Conflict broke out over the region of Kashmir and in 1949 the UN backed a division of Kashmir (37%
Pakistan and 63% India)
o Both claim that Kashmir should be theirs in full
 In 1965 a second conflict broke out
 A nuclear arms race started between the two nations in 1974 - they are now the world's sixth and
seventh nuclear powers
 In 1989 there was a rebellion in Indian controlled Kashmir
 This has been followed by a number of border clashes and incursions in 1999, 2008

Tensions in the Middle East

 The Middle East is one of the most conflict prone regions in the world
 Tensions in the region are an ongoing challenge for superpowers and emerging powers, a situation
exacerbated by the fact that current estimates state that 80% of the proven oil reserves are in the
region
o With rising demands for energy it is important for superpowers and emerging powers to
maintain:
 Stability within the region as far as possible
 Relations with the nations in the Middle East
 There are complex relationships, alliances and historical events which have led to this, including:
o Religious differences both between and within religious groups
o The establishment of the state of Israel after WWII
o The rise of pockets of extremist organisations
o Kurdish organisations pursuing demands for an independent state
o Contrasting cultural ideologies
 Some of the recent events which have further increased tensions in the region include:
o The Iraqi- Kurdish conflict, tensions have increased over the issues of oil production and
territorial control
o The Arab-Israeli conflict
o Yemen civil war
o Iran-Iraq war following the Iraqi invasion of Iran
o Gulf war following the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq
 o The Iraq War following the invasion of Iraq by a USA coalition
o The Syrian civil war
 The tensions can be divided into:
o Cultural - between religious or ethnic groups
o Political - attempts to increase political influence in the region
o Economic - conflict over resources
o Environmental - the impact of conflicts and exploitation of resources on the environment
 The contrasting cultural ideologies between nations were clear in the run up and during the Qatar 2022
World Cup
 Many protests were made against the World Cup being held in a country that didn't have the same
cultural ideologies as Western countries such as the US and EU nations

9.3.3 Economic Restructuring in Superpowers

Economic Problems
 The USA and EU face ongoing economic challenges, these include:
o Debt
o Economic restructuring
o Unemployment
o Social costs

Debt

 In 2007-2008 there was a global debt crisis which started in the US

o It rapidly spread around the world as so many countries are dependent on the US as a trade
partner
 Prior to 2007 there were low interest rates and many borrowers took the opportunity to take out loans
o The banks allowed even those people with poor credit history to take loans and mortgages
(sub-prime lending)
 In 2006 house prices fell and the borrowers owed more on their homes than they were worth
 Interest rates increased and many people could no longer afford the repayments
 This meant that the banks and lenders went out of business
 In 2008 Lehman Brothers bank filed for bankruptcy this led to the stock markets and price of oil falling
 Governments around the world tried to bailout the banks and prevent the collapse of the banking
system
 In the UK Lloyds bank and RBS were given government funds to prevent their collapse, Northern
Rock and Bradford & Bingley were nationalised
o It is estimated that these interventions cost £137 billion significantly increasing the UK's debt
 The increase in debt was common in many countries around the world
 The UK debt was £2.4 trillion in 2021 and the US debt was $30 trillion
 and led to:
o Reduced spending on public services
o Increased unemployment
o Lower demand for goods and services
o Political instability
 The US increased their borrowing and national debt to avoid a reduction in consumer spending

Economic restructuring

 There are two aspects to economic restructuring:

o The global shift of manufacturing to emerging and developing countries
o The shift in employment in developed countries to tertiary and quaternary economic sectors
 This has led to deindustrialisation which causes:
o An increase in unemployment in traditional manufacturing areas such as South Wales and the
North-West of the UK
 o A spiral of decline (negative multiplier effect) where people leave the area, so services and
quality of life decrease so more people leave
o A need for investment in these areas to attract new businesses and jobs, this places increased
financial pressure on the government

Unemployment

 The USA and EU have experienced increased unemployment as a result of:

o Deindustrialisation
o Global financial crisis

Unemployment in the US and Eurozone

Social costs

 In areas where deindustrialisation has occurred the social costs have been high, many areas have
experienced:
o An increase in people with mental health problems
o A decrease in quality of life
o An increase in migration from the area
o An increase in crime and vandalism
 This has led to a need for investment, regeneration and retraining, all of which are expensive
 The US and EU also face additional social costs from:
o An ageing population
o Decreasing working age population
 This has led the UK, France and other countries to increase the state retirement age in a bid to reduce
costs

Economic Costs of Maintaining Military Power

 A key part of being a superpower or emerging power is military strength
o This is essential in the utilisation of 'hard power'
 Maintaining and expanding military resources is expensive
o The US spent $801 billion on defence in 2021
o China was second highest at estimated US$293 billion
 In the US the defence budget accounts for 10% of all government spending

Naval power

 The US currently has 296 ships in the Navy

 There is building political pressure to increase this to at least 355
 The UK has significantly decreased the Naval fleet since the 1950s but in 2020 Boris Johnson
announced the intention to
'to restore Britain’s position as the foremost naval power in Europe’

 European naval forces have decreased by approximately 32% since 1999

 The reduction in naval forces have been due to successive governments attempts to reduce costs

Nuclear weapons

 There are currently nine nuclear powers

Countries with nuclear weapons

 In 2016 the UK government voted to replace its continuous at sea deterrent (CASD) by replacing the
Vanguard submarines with new Dreadnought class submarines
 NATOs nuclear deterrence policy states that the weapons are there to:

'preserve peace, prevent coercion and deter aggression.'

Air power

 Much of the recent military focus has been on air power rather than naval power due to the speed of
response
 In 2021 the UK announced £700 million investment in new helicopters and transport aircraft
 US Air Force spending has increased from $164 billion in 2011 to $222 billion in 2022

Intelligence services

 Increasing terrorism risks have led to greater spending on the intelligence services
o In the 12 years after the September 11th attacks on the US $500 million has been spent on the
intelligence services
o In 2021 it was announced the UK intelligence services would have a £0.7 billion increase in
2024/25

Space exploration

 The US has by far the greatest expenditure on space exploration

Government expenditure on space programs in 2020 and 2022

  The cost of NASA's new Artemis mission is predicted to be $93 billion up to 2025

Questions about military spending

 In superpowers and emerging powers, such as the US and the EU, the amounts of money spent on
maintaining global military power is increasingly being questioned
 One argument is that the focus of global influence is now on 'soft powers' and the relevance of the
military is reduced
 A second argument is that the money would be better spent on reducing poverty, infrastructure and
healthcare rather than on 'hard power'

Future Balance of Global Power

 A rapid shift in global balance of power has occurred since the end of the Cold War
 The number of emerging nations have increased and hegemonic status of the US is not certain in the
future
 The US is still dominant in terms of economic and military power, its soft powers are not as influential
as in the past
 In 2030 it is predicted that China's economic status will almost have surpassed the US
o China has also announced plans to modernise China's military by 2035
o The use of soft power is also an area that China is increasingly focussed on, promoting Chinese
language, educational exchanges and the expansion of the media
o It is unlikely that China will yet have the political and cultural influence to challenge the
hegemonic status of the US
 In 2050 there may be significant changes in the balance of powers
 The world may be bi-polar with the US and China as the opposing superpowers
 Alternatively it may be a multi-polar world with other emerging powers such as India and the EU
achieving similar levels of power
 It is not possible to accurately predict the changes as world events are unpredictable - recent events
that may impact on the balance of power include;
o Russia's invasion of Ukraine and the ongoing conflict
o Brexit - the UK leaving the EU may weaken the power and influence of the union

10.1 Human Development

10.1.1 Concepts of Human Development
Relationship Between Economic & Social Development
 Development is the process of growth, or changing from one condition to another (hopefully for the
better)
 Since the 1980s, countries across the world have made progress in health, family size and life
expectancy
 However, there remains great inequality between countries e.g. Malawi and South Korea

Comparison of health indicators

Health Indicator South Korea UK Malawi

1980 2014 1980 2014 1980 2014

 Life expectancy (years) 66 82 74 81 45 63

Infant mortality per 1000 live births 12 3 12 4 152 43

Maternal mortality per 100,000 births 21 (1990) 11 10 (1990) 9 957 (1990) 460

A traditional economic development indicator

 Traditionally, the growth of Gross Domestic Product(GDP) is used to measure progress:

o GDP per capita is the monetary value of all goods and services produced by a country every
year, divided by the population
o A high GDP per capita suggests a high-earning population and productive workforce, which
aids advances in health and life expectancy
o However, it is a crude average and masks the income gap between the rich and the poor
o It doesn’t consider the informal economy e.g. 94% of Uganda’s population work in untaxed jobs

Using social development indicators

 There is more to development than economic growth

 Development should consider:
o The advancement of human well-being
o The sustainability of the planet

 Social development considers social measures, including:

o Health (life expectancy, death rate, infant mortality)
o Education (literacy rate, number of schooling years)

 Measuring human development is complex, requiring more composite measures (using more than
one indicator)

The Happy Planet Index

 Happy Planet Index (HPI) – a composite measure of sustainable well-being

 It doesn’t include economic development indicators / wealth
 Scored between 0-100. The higher the number, the better the level of sustainable human development

HPI =

 Experienced well-being – how satisfied people are with their lives (Gallup World Poll)
 Life expectancy - how long people on average live for (UN)
 Ecological footprint per capita – the amount of land needed to sustain the country’s resource
consumption (World Wildlife Fund)

A sample of national HPI values (2019)

High HPI Upper middle HPI Lower Middle HPI Low HPI

Costa Rica 62.1 UK 56.0 Haiti 38.2 Zimbabwe 28.6

Vanuatu 60.4 Peru 55.9 Guinea 38.1 Lesotho 27.3

Colombia 60.2 Nicaragua 55.2 Burundi 37.7 Central African Republic 25.2
 Switzerland 60.1 Tajikistan 55.2 USA 37.4 Mongolia 24.5

Ecuador 58.8 Netherlands 54.9 Togo 37.3 Qatar 24.3

Data: New Economics Foundation

 Costa Rica has frequently placed in 1st position, outdoing countries considered to be more developed
 USA placed 122nd in the overall list, below many poverty-stricken countries eg. Haiti
 The countries with the lowest HPI score are also considered amongst the least developed countries
globally
 Criticisms of the HPI:
o Well-being is highly subjective
o Ecological footprints of the least developed countries could be lower as its citizens can’t afford
to buy lots of material objects

Contesting the more traditional western approaches to measuring development

 There are some governments who do not wish to adopt Western approaches to measuring
development
 They adopt alternative approaches
 Sharia Law focuses on the importance of human welfare
 This is a legal system which controls aspects of life within Muslim countries, such as Qatar, the UEA
and Yemen

Sharia Law and development

 Bolivia shows the importance of intervention by the national government

Impacts of intervention by national government

  Despite significant improvements Bolivia remains one of the poorest countries in Latin America and
over 6% of the population live on less than US$3.20 a day (2020)

Importance of Social Goals of Development

 A prevailing view of development is there’s more to it than just economic indicators
 Hans Rosling (co-founder of Gapminder) felt that future goals must improve on:
o Environmental quality e.g. air and water quality
o The health and life expectancy of the poorest
o Human rights (ie. rights for women)
 He believed these goals could be achieved through economic growth, with a good and stable
government
 Through economic growth, governments can invest in healthcare and education
 Rosling also stressed that achieving the three goals empowers people to become more economically
successful, driving economic growth forward
 Improvements in environmental quality are seen as being vital to the well-being of both the physical
world and its inhabitants
 However, economic growth is frequently based on the exploitation of natural resources, which can
cause detrimental impacts on the environment

Importance of Education
Education aids development

 Investing in education creates a literate and skilled workforce, which is crucial for countries wanting to
economically develop
 If countries invest in education and health:
o It increases the value of human capital (the economic, political, cultural and social skills within
a country)
o Enables more people to participate effectively in society
 This facilitates more economic and social development:
o better job
o higher wages
o more disposable income
o increased quality of life

Education on human rights

 Human rights are the rights people are entitled to simply for being human
o These basic rights (protected by law) are based on shared values and include:
 Dignity
 Fairness
 Equality
 Respect
 Independence
 Education is the key to knowing and asserting your human rights
 Education enables a longer life as it enlightens people about:
o Personal health
o Hygiene
o Diet
 Part of the UN’s International Bill of Human Rights, signed by 163 countries, recognises the right to free
primary education
o The number of children attending school worldwide has improved
o UNESCO estimates education is inaccessible to 60 million primary aged children
 o This mainly impacts children in Sub-Saharan Africa

Enrolment ratio for Africa in primary education (2016)

(Note - Total enrolment in primary education as a percentage of the population of official primary
education age. The gross enrolment ratio may be greater than 100% due to early and late school
entrance)

 Barriers to education include:

o Gender discrimination - there are 129 million girls worldwide without access to education;
possible reasons are early marriage, pregnancy, religion
o Extremism - Extreme religious groups often prevent children, especially females, from
accessing education, such as the Taliban in Afghanistan and Pakistan
o Cultural identity - some cultures state that the sexes should be separated where possible, so a
lack of female teachers means less education for girls
o Poverty - some families prevent their children from attending school, instead sending them to
work from an early age
 The case of Nobel Prize laureate, Malala Yousafzai, illustrates the ignorance and violence that prevents
females from exercising their right to education in Pakistan
 Malala Yousafzai was shot in the head by a Taliban gunman in an assassination attempt to stop her
campaign over the right of girls to be educated
 In much of Africa and South Asia, the female literacy rate is more than a quarter below that for males

Worked example
The total number of children aged 6-17 in Madagascar was 8.9 million.
The number of children who were enrolled in school was 5.8 million.
Calculate the percentage of children who were enrolled in school to one decimal place.
You must show your working.
[2 Marks]

 Calculating and having an understanding of % of a whole and % growth and decline are fundamental to
geography, as well as working out simple % figures as seen in this exam question
 The best answers will show the working out, as well as the answer. The answer given will be to one
decimal place

Answer:
(1) for working and (1) for correct answer (to one decimal place)
 5.8 ÷ 8.9 x100 (1)
= 65.2% (1)

No working, correct answer (1)

Accept other working that leads to a correct answer (1,1)
Correct working but wrong numbers (1)
Answer must be correct to one decimal place.
Exam Tip
Before the exam, check you can do basic calculations e.g. mean, mode, range, percentages, ratios,
fractions
If you find these tricky, have a look at the question as you may be able to score 1 mark by setting out
the working

10.1.2 Variations in Human Health & Life Expectancy

Variations in Human Health & Life Expectancy in Developing
Countries
Global life expectancy

Life expectancy (2021)

 Life expectancy shows large differences in health across the world

 The population of many of the richest countries in the world have life expectancies of over 80 years
 In the countries with the worst health, life expectancy is between 50 and 60 years

Health & Life Expectancy in Developing Countries

 Levels of life expectancy and health vary considerably from place to place in the developing world
 Factors which inhibit health and life expectancy in the developing world include:
o Poor healthcare
 A lower GDP per capita means countries struggle to invest in their healthcare e.g.
vaccines, equipment, medical training
 People may have to travel a long way to access healthcare eg. to urban areas
o Food insecurity
 Malnutrition leaves a population more open to diseases
 Especially the vulnerable (young children, pregnant women)
 o Poor access to clean water
 Waterborne diseases, such as cholera, are prevalent in developing countries
 Poor water quality is exacerbated by inadequate sanitation
 Across Africa’s 54 nations, there are still big differences in:
o Life expectancy
o Levels of infant and maternal mortality
o Access to food
o A safe water supply
 The north African countries place better on the Human Development Index (HDI) than central African
countries due to:
o A longer life expectancy
o A higher GDP per capita

Variations in Human Health & Life Expectancy in Developed

Countries
 Despite higher levels of economic development, life expectancy and health still vary from nation to
nation in the developed world
o In Western European countries people can live on up to 10 years longer than their Eastern
European counterparts

Life expectancy at birth across the European

Union (2020)

 Societies in the developed world are typically polarised, showing extremes of poverty to great wealth
 A key factor for this difference is the amount of money countries spend on healthcare
 Other factors also affect life expectancy and health:
o Lifestyle choices and diet
 Smoking, alcohol consumption and excessive saturated fats limit developed nations’ life
expectancy
  In the USA and UK, obesity, type 2 diabetes and cancer affect a large proportion of the
population
 This also adds strain to their healthcare systems
o Deprivation
 When an individual or community lack the fundamental necessities required for a decent
quality of life e.g.
 Employment opportunities
 Decent housing
 Healthy diet
 People living in deprivation (poor diet, housing and healthcare) have a greater health risk
 Deprivation lowers their life expectancy and increases the death rate
o Quality and accessibility of healthcare
 Countries with national health services that are ‘free’ (funded by some form of taxation)
mean poorer people can access healthcare
 Countries where healthcare is largely in the private sector and paid for by the individual
often provides a wider range of effective services

Exam Tip
There is not time in an exam to write all that you have learnt about a topic. You need to be selective
and show the examiner your understanding of the relevant aspects only.

Descriptive answers at A level will only score low marks.

For an 8 mark question, you need to select 3-4 ideas and develop them fully to show your knowledge
and understanding.

A good way to do this is to use relevant examples.

An 8 mark question should take no more than 12 minutes to answer.

Worked example
For example:

Explain why levels of the expectance vary both in and between countries
[8 marks]
Idea 1:
Life expectancy is largely driven by infant mortality rates in the developing world. Infant mortality rates
tend to be high in remote, rural areas in the developing world where maternal health care is
underfunded and clean water unavailable. This is particularly true for countries within central Africa.

Idea 2:
Within the developed world, there are also clear differences in life expectancy due to poverty caused
by deindustrialisation. Cities, such as Sunderland, in northern parts of England have experienced
deindustrialisation. This has led to higher levels of unemployment and deprivation, which in turn
lowers life expectancy as people can’t afford a well-balanced, nutritious diet.

Idea 3:
There are significant ethnic variations that are driven by poverty. The Aboriginal Australians have a
lower life expectancy than the non-indigenous Australians due to higher levels of poverty and poorer
health. This indigenous population often fails to leave school with adequate qualifications, preventing
them from securing higher paid managerial jobs. They also face frequent discrimination, such as
being denied rental properties, which often results in them living in poor quality housing.
Variations in Human Health & Life Expectancy Within Countries
  Studies within countries suggest that life expectancy varies due to:
o Ethnicity
o Poverty and deprivation
o Lifestyle and socio-economic group
o Healthcare

Regional variation within the UK

 Current UK estimates from the Office for National Statistics (ONS) for average life expectancy are:
o 82.8 years for women
o 79.1 years for men
 Despite increases in average life expectancy across the UK, significant differences remain in life
expectancies of different groups

Life expectancy for different English regions

Average life expectancy Average life expectancy

English regions
(male) (female)
North East 77.62 81.51

North West 77.94 81.72

Yorkshire and the Humber 78.35 82.22

East Midlands 79.16 82.72

West Midlands 78.54 82.51

East 80.19 83.79

London 80.29 84.33

South East 80.59 84.13

South West 80.31 84.07

Data Source: ONS 2020

 These regional variations are linked to a range of determinants, including:

o Socio-economic status
o Income
o Lifestyle choices (smoking, obesity)
 The North East region has a lower life expectancy and a higher death rate, due to higher amounts of
smoking and alcohol consumption
 Spending on fresh, healthy foods (vegetables, fruit and fish) is lower in Northern England due to:
o More manual jobs, with lower wages
o More unemployment due to deindustrialisation
o Higher levels of deprivation
 Women in the most deprived areas in England can expect to live for 7.5 years less than women in the
least deprived areas
 The life expectancy gap between rich and poor

Ethnic variations within Australia

 Life expectancy in Australia is one of the highest across the world

o 79.7 years for men
o 83.1 years for women
 However, there is a massive difference between the indigenous aboriginal population and the non-
indigenous population

o Aboriginal life expectancy for men is around 10.6 years shorter than non-indigenous men
o 9.5 years shorter for women
 The main contributing factors are:
o Poor housing
o Dispossession of their traditional lands
o Low education level
o High unemployment
o Hidden ethnic discrimination
o Life style - use of illicit substances and alcohol abuse, heavy smoking
o Lack of transport to the medical centres
 Aboriginal Australians have faced discrimination, genocide and marginalisation within their own lands
since the British began their colonisation in 1788
 Aboriginals did not receive any acceptance from the Australian government until 1967
 This has led to poverty amongst Aboriginal Australians as they have struggled to access services
(education, healthcare, housing) and experienced discrimination

10.1.3 Role of Governments & International Government Organisations

Government Impact on the Relationship Between Economic and
Social Development
 Economic development provides the means (capital and human resources) to drive and sustain social
development
 If a country has more income, they can improve the social well-being of its population through
investment:
o In healthcare
 Improves the population’s health of its population
  Increases life expectancy
 Creates a more productive workforce
o In education
 Increases literacy rates
 Empowers women
 Creates a more skilled workforce
 It is the government that determines how much of a country’s wealth is spent on healthcare and
education, so their attitude to improving social progress is crucial
 This ranges from welfare states with high levels of social spending to totalitarian regimes run by elites
who spend little on health and education

Government characteristics and attitudes towards economic and social development

 There are many ways to characterise the different government systems.

 The following four government characteristics are based on the Democracy Index

Global Democracy Index (2017)

 Full stable democracy:

o Governments are elected
o Laws to protect human rights
o A market economy
o A welfare state to focus on citizens’ well-being
o Higher government spending on
 Education
 Health (free health service)
 Welfare
o Allows more social development
o E.g. The UK

 Flawed democracy:
o Elections are often rigged
 o Doesn’t fully protect individual rights and freedoms
o Economic development and spending on infrastructure for industries is a bigger priority than
social development
o Citizens might have to pay more for healthcare and welfare
o E.g. Romania
 Hybrid regime:
o Adopt some characteristics of democracy but the opposition is very weak and provides little
competition to the ruling party
o Little respect for basic political and civil rights
o Governments have a range of spending priorities, including people’s education and health
o However, due to a lack of funding, these social services might not be effective
o E.g. Kenya
 Authoritarian government:
o Also known as totalitarian government
o The country is run by the elite
o Requires the population to be obedient to the state
o Allocates a smaller budget to education and healthcare
o Larger budgets awarded to:
 Defense and security
 Supporting the economy
 Controlling the population

o E.g. Russia

Government spending on social development

Government spending (% of
Country Government type
GDP)
Education Healthcare
(2020) (2020)
The UK Full stable democracy 10.6 11.94

Romania Flawed democracy 8.8 6.2

Kenya Hybrid regime 4.8 4.3

Authoritarian
Russia 8.9 7.6
government

International Governmental Organisation & Development

 International Government Organisations (IGOs) provide another approach to promoting social
development
 After the effects of World War II (WWII), IGO’s played an important role in global rebuilding and
economic development
 Some of the major IGOs are:
o The World Bank
o The World Trade Organisation (WTO)
o The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
 These IGOs believe that improving economic development enables advancements in social
development
 IGOs promote neo-liberal views of development, including:
o Free trade
 o Capitalism
o Privatising state services (e.g. railways) to reduce government spending
o Deregulation of financial markets to remove barriers to investment
 More recently, IGOs have focused on social development programmes to improve:
o Environmental quality
o Health
o Education
o Human rights

World Bank

 An international organisation which provides financial and technical advice to developing nations to aid
their economic and social development
 Aims to alleviate poverty by increasing economic growth
 It support projects that developing countries would not be able to finance independently because:
o The cost is too high, so low-interest loans, grants and/or zero interest credits are issued
o The project is for social rather than economic purposes, so sufficient funds cannot easily be
raised
 More recent projects in developing and emerging countries have included:
o Promoting health and education
o Reducing the threat of climate change
 The World Bank is a founding member of the Global Partnership for Education (GPE)
o It invests in early childhood education for all
o Helps to develop literacy and numeracy
 In 2016, The World Bank launched its Climate Change Action Plan to help developing countries
develop renewable energy and achieve food security

World Trade Organisation

 Trade is important to keep the global economy working effectively; any barriers to trade will limit growth
 Currently, 164 countries have signed an agreement to ensure that producers of goods and services,
along with exporters and importers, can run their business
 It aims to:
o Reduce barriers to trade
o Promote free trade between countries
o Ensure that trading nations keep to the agreed international trade rules
o Enforce sanctions
 The WTO has been a force for globalisation; however, this has led to environmental degradation,
including:
o Rainforest clearance
o Threats to biodiversity
o Water pollution
 Most WTO trade policies now try to tackle environmental problems by:
o Restricting the international movement of products or species that are potentially harmful or
endangered
o Challenging trade agreements which may impact on climate change, such as forest clearance

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

 Along with the World Bank, its purpose was to bring financial stability to the world after WWII
 Its main aim is to allow currency to be exchanged freely and easily between member countries
 Countries under IMF programs are usually developing, emerging or countries that have faced financial
crises e.g. Greece in 2010
 It has been criticised for lending with attached conditions, including:
o How a country runs its economy
o Forced privatisation of State services
 oMaking payback a priority on the loan
oPutting financial concerns ahead of spending on health and education
 However, since 2000, the IMF has moved its attention to the poverty reduction programme; it allows:
o National governments to develop their own poverty reduction strategies
o Donor countries to choose the nations that show they have good poverty reduction policies
and a stable government

United Nations Millennium Development Goals

The United Nations (UN) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

 Another IGO, the UN, focuses on protecting:

o Human rights
o Peace
o Social development
 The UN attempted to achieve these goals by creating the MDGs
 The MDGs were a set of targets to help developing countries make social progress and fight poverty
 The overall goal was to reduce the development gap between the developed and developing nations
 The Goals ran from 2000 to 2015

The Millenium Development Goals

Data
Goal Target example Progress measure
(2015)
Eradicate extreme poverty Reduce poverty by half Extreme poverty rate (% of population) 14

Achieve universal primary Primary school enrolment rate (% of

Universal primary schooling 91
education children)

Promote gender equality Women’s equal employment in Women increased their parliamentary
90
and empower women national parliaments representation (% of countries worldwide)

Reduce mortality of under-fives The rate of children dying before their fifth
Reduce child mortality 43
by two-thirds birthday ( deaths per 1000 live births)

Reduce maternal mortality by The maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000

Improve maternal health 170
three-quarters live births)

Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria To reduce the prevalence rate of

The prevalence rate (per 100,000 people) 433.91
and other diseases malaria by a quarter

Ensure environmental The land area to be covered by

The land area covered by forest (%) 13.4
sustainability forest to increase by 20%

Develop a global partnership

Use of internet Global internet usage (% of population) 43
for development

 The MDGs made considerable progress worldwide for all eight goals
 However, the progress made was uneven across regions and countries
 The MDGs often fell short for the poorest and those disadvantaged because of gender, age, disability
or ethnicity
 This was especially true for Sub-Saharan Africa, which struggled to get anywhere near the MDGs
targets
  The graph below highlights how progress for Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty is uneven across the
different developing regions

Proportion of population living on less than $1.25 a

day in 2005 and 1990 (%)

 Global poverty (as a share of total population) fell in all regions, except in the Caucasus and Central
Asia Region, and Western Asia
 Most of the progress towards the goal is due to significant reductions in Eastern Asia
 Latin America and the Caribbean have also progressed significantly towards the goal of halving
extreme poverty
 Progress in other regions has been less impressive

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

 In 2015, seventeen SDGs replaced the MDGs

 These were to be achieved by 2030 as part of a new sustainable development agenda with the
aspiration to:
o End poverty
o Protect the planet
o Tackle climate change
o Ensure prosperity for all
o Fight inequality and injustice
 The SDGs aim to build on the successes of the MDGs by going further to end all forms of poverty
 The Goals call for action from 193 countries across the world, no matter how developed a country is

Sustainable Development Goals for 2030

Exam Tip
There are a lot of acronyms in this section e.g. IMF, WTO, IGOs, SDG, MDG, which is most
confusing! Why don’t you write down a list of acronyms from this section and get someone to test
whether you can remember what they stand for?!
10.2.1 Human Rights, International Law & International Agreements
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
 Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms to which all humans on the planet are entitled to
regardless of:
o Nationality
o Gender
o Age
o Ethnic origin
o Religion
o Language
o Or any other status
 They range from the fundamental - the right to life - to those that make life worth living, such as the
rights to food, education, work, health and liberty
 Despite there being international framework in place, human rights vary from country to country
 This may be due to different government opinions or culture/religion of a state

Human Rights Index (2022)

 The map shows the extent to which people:

o Are free from government torture, political killings and forced labour
o Have property rights
o Enjoy the freedoms of movement, religion and expression
o The variable ranges from 0 (no/few rights) to 1 (most rights)

Universal Declaration of Human Right (UDHR)

 The UDHR, created in 1948, is a:

o Statement of intent, rather than legally binding
o Framework for foreign policy to explain economic and military intervention
 The UDHR sets out 30 universal rights, including:
o Everyone is born free and equal
o Everyone has the right to an opinion and freedom to express it
o Everyone has the right to marry
o Everyone has the right to a nationality and to belong to a country
 The declaration defines the meanings of two key terms:
o Fundamental freedoms
o Human rights.
  These terms are now embedded in the UN Charter and therefore require all 193 member states to
recognise and respect the 30 universal rights
 The UDHR has been a significant factor in influencing foreign policies and international relationships,
the UDHR has:
o Been used to justify a number of military interventions
o Inspired more than 80 international human rights treaties
o Used the promise of aid, especially economic, has been used to persuade other countries to
improve their human rights record
 Despite the Declaration stating that these rights should be protected by law, not all countries agreed to
it in 1948, including:
o South Africa – to protect its system of apartheid
o Saudi Arabia – under Saudi law conversion to another religion is punishable by death, so
Muslims don’t have the right ‘to change their religion or belief’

The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)

The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)

 In 1953, the Council of Europe created the ECHR to prevent conflict and promote unity in Europe
o It was in response to the human right violations seen in WWII and the post-war spread of
Communism in Central and Eastern Europe
 The ECHR contains 59 rights, which closely follow the UDHR; these include:
o Right to marry and found a family
o Right to respect for private and family life, home and correspondence
o Right not to be punished for something which wasn’t against the law
 The European Court of Human Rights is an international court that interprets the ECHR
o The court is responsible for monitoring respect for the human rights of approximately 700 million
people across 46 member states
 Russia was expelled from the European Court of Human Rights in 2022 due to the deployment of
troops in Ukraine

The Uk's Human Rights Act (1988)

 The Human Rights Act 1998 sets out the rights and freedoms that everyone in the UK is entitled to
 It incorporates the rights set out in the ECHR into domestic British law
 In Britain, most people understand that their ‘human rights’ are protected by law; for example:
o People cannot be imprisoned without charge
o Being gay is not a crime
o An employee’s religious belief must be respected by the employer
 The Act has three main effects:
o You can seek justice in a British court if your human rights have been breached, rather than the
European Court
o Public bodies (police, hospitals, schools) must respect and protect your human rights
o Parliament makes sure that new laws are compatible with the ECHR
 However, some people believe that the UK has lost some of its sovereighty due to the Human Right
Act 1988 (and therefore the ECHR) e.g.
o Appeals related to verdicts given in UK courts can be sent to, and possibly overturned by, the
European Court
o It prevents Britain from deporting terror suspects
 The Conservative Government announced plans to replace the Human Rights Act with a ‘British Bill of
Rights and Responsibilities’ to regain some sovereignty
 This new Bill was scrapped in 2023 as opposers argued the bill was likely to reduce the protections
currently provided by the Human Rights Act and weaken people’s rights set out in the ECHR
 The Geneva Convention
 The four Geneva Conventions are a set of international rules that try to regulate war
 It aims to protect people’s rights during a conflict, including:
o Civilians
o Medical staff, hospitals and aid workers in warzones
o Wounded armed forces
o Prisoners of war
o Shipwrecked navy forces
 The Convention bans actions such as terrorism, torture, taking hostages and sexual assault
 Signed in Geneva, Switzerland, by representatives of many countries between 1864 and 1949.
 Currently 196 countries have signed the Geneva Convention (1949), including Russia, Iraq & North
Korea
 Despite signing the convention some countries or militant groups have broken the conventions:
o In 2015, Amnesty International reported that 141 countries worldwide had allegations of torture
made against them
 The International Criminal Court (ICC) holds trials for people accused of war crimes and genocide
 For example, Charles Taylor, the former Liberian president, was convicted for 50 years by the ICC for
war crimes committed in Sierra Leone’s civil war, including recruiting child soldiers under the age of 15,
rape, slavery, terrorism
 The successful prosecution of countries, organisations or individuals who commit war crimes is rare
due to little reliable evidence and few witnesses

Worked example
Explain how the Geneva Convention attempts to protect human rights
(4 marks)

 This question is about the Geneva Convention rather than the UDHR
 Show geographical understanding of the specific rules laid down or the role of the international court in
bringing charges against human rights abusers
 Aim to provide two explanations of how the Convention attempts to protect human rights, then
either extend that point or provide an example with detail
 The answer below shows where the explanation and extension/example is

Answer
The four Geneva Convention set out international law, stating how soldiers and civilians
should be treated in wartime. It has been signed by 196 countries, making it one of the most widely
supported global agreements. It includes basic rights for prisoners in wartime and says all
wounded people should be cared for, whether from the enemy or not.

10.2.2 Differences Between Countries

Priorities Relating to Human Rights
 In international meetings, some countries are vocal on the issue of human rights whilst others prioritise
economic development
o This could lead to human rights’ abuses, such as child labour
 The UK is a world leader in defending human rights and promotes their protection in international
forums e.g.
o In 2020, the UK passed a law (The Global Human Rights Sanctions Regulations 2020) to allow
it to impose sanctions on countries that are abusing the human rights of their citizens
o The UK sanctioned Russia over the war in Ukraine, including the banning of certain Russian
imports
  Some countries favour economic development over human rights e.g. Singapore
o Singapore:
 Has one of the world’s highest GDP per capita
 Is one of the most business-friendly economies in the world
o However, the government limits political and civil rights (as freedom of expression, and peaceful
assembly and association) through laws
o It still has the death penalty and has one of the world’s highest execution rates per capita

Democratic Freedoms
 Superpowers and emerging powers all have different levels of democracy

Top ten superpowers (2022)

Development Democratic
Superpower
status Freedom

USA Developed Democracy

China Emerging Authoritarian

India Emerging Democracy

Russia Emerging Authoritarian

Japan Developed Democracy

France Developed Democracy

UK Developed Democracy

Brazil Emerging Democracy

Germany Developed Democracy

Canada Developed Democracy

 Over time, some superpowers and emerging powers have favoured the democratic system, such as
India, over an authoritarian regime e.g. China
 The degree of democratic freedom allowed in each country varies, including free speech and other
human rights
 In a country which has freedom of speech, people can share ideas and information freely, without
interference from the government
 In more authoritarian countries, the government censors information, such as limiting people’s ability to
criticise the government on social media
 The State of Freedom (2017)

 The map of global freedom shows the level of political rights and civil liberties:
o Not free - basic political rights and civil liberties are absent or regularly violated (this accounts
for 30% of countries/territories globally)
o Partly free – there are some clear restrictions on political rights and civil liberties
o Free – open political competition is present and a culture of respect for civil liberties

Exam Tip
Learn some examples of countries with different degrees of democratic freedom
India and China

 India and China are set to become the new global superpowers over the coming decades but their
systems of government are very different

A country comparison of an authoritarian and a democratic system

Characteristics China India

System Authoritarian Democracy

Governing party
Chinese Communist Party Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
(2022)

Are general
No Yes - everyone over 18 can vote
elections held?

Limited internet and media freedom – hundreds of

Freedom of websites are blocked or banned in China. China has Freedom of speech and expression is written
speech been described as ‘the world’s leading jailer of into India’s Constitution; however, the
journalists’ government have the right to limit this
 freedom if there was a risk to the security of
the State

International bodies have criticised China’s record on

It has made significant progress in protecting
human rights e.g. it is estimated that China accounts
human rights; however, there are still major
Human rights for nearly three-quarters of all the world’s
concerns over sexual abuse and other
executions each year; 46 offences are eligible for the
violence against women and children
death penalty

Political Corruption
 Levels of corruption vary between countries
 One way corruption can be measured is by using the Global Corruption Index (GCI)
 It measures the state of corruption and white collar crimes around the world, using 42 internationally
recognised variables
 The GCI covers 196 countries and territories

Global Corruption Index (2022)

 Countries score on a 0-100 scale

o 0 corresponds to the lowest risk and 100 to the highest risk of corruption
 5% of global GDP is spent corruptly - bribing officials or 'lost’ money in governments e.g building lavish
homes for politicians
 Political corruption can hinder economic and social development:
 o Limits growth as funds that should be spent on improving healthcare, education or infrastructure
are instead funding government officials
o Politicians may exploit their people to remain in power or businesses bribe the government to
exploit workers or the environment
o Denying individuals their human rights - some corrupt governments disregard their duties to its
citizens, so people may live without essentials e.g. clean water, education or electricity
o Growing inequality between those the government favour (e.g. rich investors, businesses) and
the rest of the population

10.2.3 Human Rights & Social Development

Human Right Variations
 People’s access to human rights varies between countries, even though they are meant to be universal
(across all countries)
 There are also significant variations within countries, especially for minority groups (e.g. ethnic
minorities, women)
 This is especially evident post-colonial countries, such as:
o The Apartheid in South Africa
o The Aboriginal people of Australia
o Religious minorities in India, including Muslims
o Women in Pakistan
 Access to human rights in these post-colonial countries have been problematic due to:
o Post-colonial governments were often authoritarian and largely excluded indigenous people
o Post-colonial poverty led to a focus on economic growth rather than human rights
o The colonial borders did not recognise the importance of traditional ethnic and religious borders,
so post-colonial countries often contained ethnic minority groups
 E.g. the Afar people of Ethiopia were split amongst Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti

Exam Tip
Learn some examples of human rights abuses within post-colonial countries, as use of located
examples is important in essay questions.

For example:

 Women in Pakistan
o Pakistan was part of British India until independence in 1947
o Progress in improving women’s rights and lives have been slow
o Pakistan is the second most gender unequal country
o Child marriage is still common, even though it is illegal
o Forced marriage is very common
o Female literacy is only 46% compared to male literacy of 69% (2019)
o Honour killings of women are still common in areas of Pakistan; it is often ignored or lightly
punished

Human Rights, Health & Education

 A lack of human rights usually means lower levels of social development (health and education)
 Social groups with fewer human rights often have poorer levels of health and education than the
dominant, more powerful groups
 Prejudice among the wider population can mean these minority groups are denied access to key
services and opportunities (e.g. housing, employment)
 This all has a direct impact on their quality of life
Indigenous people of the USA

 In the USA, around 2% of the population is Native American

 These indigenous people have experienced discrimination since European colonisation
 Native Americans are the most impoverished ethnic group in the USA
 These indigenous populations are poorer, less well educated and live shorter lives than the wider
population of the USA

Development indicators for the indigenous and wider USA population

Development Indicator Native American USA population as a whole

Average income $38,500 $55,750

Students graduating from high school (%) 74 86

Life expectancy 73 years 79 years

Infant mortality rate per 1000 live births 7.9 5.6

Death from diabetes per 100,000 people 41.3 26.7

 Around 1 million Native Americans now live on reservations

 There reservations can be very remote with very few resources
 Schools and healthcare services in these reservations are underfunded

Indigenous population of South America

 In Latin America, the indigenous population account for 13% of the total population
 Many live in rural areas and a small number still follow a traditional lifestyle in isolated tribes around the
Amazon Basin
 They frequently lack access to services and opportunities; this can be seen in the development data
below

Indigenous versus non-indigenous development data for 3 countries in Latin America

Development Indicator Brazil Colombia Mexico

Indigenous poverty rate (% living on less than $1.90 per day) 14 17 4

Non-indigenous poverty rate 2 3 1

Indigenous access to clean water (%) 90 72 91

Non-indigenous access to clean water (%) 97 85 96

Indigenous literacy rate (%) 90 91 95

Non-indigenous literacy rate (%) 96 93 97

  This leave the indigenous people poorer and less educated, in worse health, and more likely to commit
suicide than the rest of the population
 These communities and their environments are also under threat from mining, oil extraction, dam and
road building, logging and agro-industrial projects
 They are being driven off their homelands and are ending up in urban areas, which impacts on their
quality of life even more

Human Rights & Equality

 The inequality in human rights and quality of life for the minority groups is viewed as unfair
 This has led to campaigns for equal human rights by these minority groups e.g. the Black Lives Matter
movement
 The progress for equality varies from country to country
 A demand for equality from women and ethnic minorities has been influential in the history of many
countries, including Afghanistan and Australia

Gender inequality in Afghanistan

 Afghanistan has been involved in conflict for around 40 years

 Between 1992 and 2001, the country was controlled by the Taliban

Women’s rights in Afghanistan

 Since the Taliban regained power in 2021, IGOs (e.g. the UN) strongly support women’s rights in
Afghanistan and have provided 4.3 million women with life-saving services e.g. medical care
 Women’s rights have been severely limited, including:
o All women to cover their faces in public or their male relatives will be fined/imprisoned
o Only leaving the house with a male guardian or risk interrogation from the Taliban
o All women in a governmental role have been told to leave their jobs

Ethnic inequality in Australia

 In Australia, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders (ATSI) people have campaigned for equal rights
 ATSI discrimination in Australia

 Many ATSI people still believe that they are discriminated against
 There are demands for:
o The restoration of land that was forcibly taken from ATSI people
o More cultural awareness programmes, like the cultural centre at Uluru run by aboriginal women

Worked example
Explain the relationship between human rights and levels of social development within countries
(8 marks)

 Start by outlining how variations within countries in access to human rights are often closely related to
variations in levels of health and education
 Then you could explain how minority groups can be discriminated against by the government, in terms
of funding and support for education and healthcare
 Finally, you could explain how the lack of rights, such as freedom of speech, makes it harder for
minority groups to improve their situation

Answer
A lack of human rights often means lower levels of social development (health and education). Social
groups who experience fewer human rights, like women and ethnic minorities, often have poorer
levels of health and education than the dominant, more powerful groups. These minority groups can
also experience prejudice from the wider population, who deny access to key services and
opportunities (e.g. housing, employment). Therefore the quality of life, for these minority groups,
suffers.

Minority groups can also be given fewer rights by the government. For example, under Taliban rule,
girls are banned from going to school over the age of 10. This will impact their future successes and
ability to earn a higher wage, as well as their independence. The government can also impact
minority groups by giving less funding to education and healthcare to the areas where they live. For
example, the number of Native Americans dying from diabetes is about a third higher compared to
the non-indigenous population. This could be due to a variety of reasons, including: poorer or
inaccessible medical facilities; the Native Americans not being able to afford health insurance; or an
unhealthy diet due to lower income or lack of education. Through this discrimination, the quality of life,
for these minority groups, suffers.

It is difficult for these oppressed groups to improve their situation due to a lack of human rights, such
as freedom of speech and the right to education. For example, after the military coalition ousted the
Taliban in 2001, women’s rights were gradually restored in Afghanistan. However, the Taliban took
back control in 2021 and once again women are discriminated against, abused and persecuted.
Afghan women, peacefully protesting this breach of their human rights, have been beaten,
threatened, tortured and imprisoned. This violation of women’s human rights is destroying their lives.

10.3 human rights and intervention

10.3.1 Geopolitical Intervention in Human Rights
Geopolitical Interventions in Human Rights
 Human rights violations can lead to interventions by western governments, IGOs and non-
governmental organisations (NGOs)
 Geopolitical interventions aim to address human development and human rights issues by providing:
o Development aid
o Trade embargoes
o Military aid
o Indirect and direct military action
 Some of these interventions are high risk because they involve the use of force

Types of geopolitical interventions

Geopolitical
What is it? Example
intervention
Development  Financial aid given to developing  The UK announced a £100 million 3 year
aid countries to promote human rights package of ODA in 2022
 Sometimes called official development  Designed to support the most vulnerable
assistance (ODA) parts of the Ukrainian economy and
 It has two main delivery routes reduce Ukraine’s reliance on gas imports
o bilateral aid  Ukraine is heavily reliant on energy
o multilateral aid imports such as coal and gas, which
 In 1970, the UN General Assembly asked Russia exploits
wealthy countries to voluntarily commit  ODA funds have also been directed to
0.7% of their Gross National Income those countries taking in large amounts
(GNI) each year to development aid of Ukrainian refugees eg. Moldova
 Most developed countries fail this target
- only 6 out of the top 20 donor countries
achieved it in 2015
 In 2015, the UK government made this
commitment a legal requirement,
becoming the first G7 country to do so
Trade  A trade embargo is a ban that restricts  After the Russian invasion of Ukraine in
embargo trade with a particular country 2022, the EU imposed an arms embargo
 It encourages a country to change its  The sanctions prohibited any involvement
actions as the country will find it more in the supply of arms and services to
difficult to sell its goods, resulting in a Russian military
lower GDP  It also included technology which might
 They are often used in response to contribute to Russia’s military
perceived threats to international  These sanctions aim to encourage Russia
security or for countries with a record of to cease actions against Ukraine, which
human rights abuses are threatening the territorial integrity,
 Other trade interventions include sovereignty and independence of Ukraine
increasing taxes and quotas on imported
goods from the country

Military aid  Countries provide money, weapons or  The U.S. announced several rounds of
military training to help stop human military aid to Ukraine since Russia's
rights abuses invasion in 2022
o E.g. to support a suppressed  One aid package, worth $775
group overthrow a dictator or to million, includes additional advanced
fight terrorism rocket systems, artillery systems and
 Military aid is also sometimes given to ammunition, drones, vehicles, and anti-
opposition groups fighting for democracy armour weapons
against an authoritarian government  The military aid aims to help Ukraine
defend itself over the long term

Indirect  Military equipment / advisers are  For example, in 2017, British army
military provided by one country to another personnel trained Nigerian forces to help
action country or a military group within a them improve the country’s security and
country fight the Islamist militant group, Boko
 Usually done in support of one side of a Haram
civil conflict

Direct  Armed forces from one country engage in  For example, in 2003, the USA and UK
military conflict in another country were among a coalition of countries who
action  Often done as part of a coalition – sent troops and carried out airstrikes in
several countries acting together Iraq against the government of Saddam
Hussein

Exam Tip
‘Intervention’ is a broad term. Make sure you specify the type of intervention you are writing about in
your exam answer eg. direct military action, development aid. Back these up with a range of
examples, rather than a one or two long case studies.
Interventions by International Governmental Organisations
 To protect human rights or promote development, geopolitical interventions can also come from:
o IGOs, such as the UN, EU, World Bank and WTO
o NGOs, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch
o Individual countries
 IGO interventions (political and economic) can include:
o Putting conditions on aid or withholding aid
o Imposing trade embargoes
 o Expressing disapproval of human right abuses
 Human rights NGOs aim for peaceful interventions by:
o Monitoring the status of human rights globally
o Campaigning for the protection of human rights
o Petitioning and lobbying of authoritarian governments e.g. to free protestors imprisoned unfairly
o Encouraging IGOs and governments to intervene in human rights abuses
 It can be difficult for IGOs, NGOs and nationals government to reach a consensus about the level of
intervention to use as:
o The organisations or countries involved have different aims e.g. increasing global influence or
protecting human rights
o The superpower countries could be seeking to assist and control less-powerful countries for
political and economic purposes
o The UN has no military force, relying on member states to provide and fund it
o The intervention could be for the intervening country’s self-interest e.g. oil reserves
o The risks the intervention could lead to a wider conflict
o Cutting off development aid can reduce a country’s ability to support its citizens’ basic needs
o Military action can lead to the injury or death of civilians

Condemnation of Human Rights Violations

 Western governments, such as the USA, condemn human rights violations
 They try to improve aspects of human rights in other states by:
o Offering aid with attached conditions e.g. improve the education of women and girls
o Negotiating trade agreements e.g lowering import tariffs
o Military intervention for the most serious breaches of human rights
 These interventions show a disregard for national sovereignty because one nation is interfering with
the governance of another

 When governments abuse citizens’ human rights (e.g. genocide, torture and imprisonment), it highlights
the limitations of national sovereignty
o Nations that violate the UDHR could face external interference and forfeit their sovereignty
 Human rights violations create tension between national sovereignty and the ‘Responsibility to
Protect’ (R2P) commitment, making it clear that the sovereignty of a country has limits
 This tension was apparent in in Libya from 2011

Tensions between national sovereignty and

R2P in Libya
  Despite a human rights argument being used as the reason for military intervention, other nations had
vested interests e.g. a desire for energy security - Libya is a major oil exporter

Worked example
Explain why some forms of intervention may be favoured more than others.
(8 marks)

 Start by outlining the idea that different types of intervention are favoured by different groups for
different reasons. Briefly suggest which types of intervention are usually promoted by different groups.
 Then explain why a particular group would prefer that type of intervention eg. NGOs prefer peaceful
interventions
 Finally, explain why another group might prefer a different type of intervention eg. Western
governments using economic and military interventions

Answer
Different types of intervention are favoured by different groups for different reasons. The different
types of intervention range from peaceful interventions to economic and political interventions
depending on the aims of the organisations and countries involved. Some NGOs might prefer
peaceful interventions, whilst some Western governments might use economic and military
interventions in the name of human rights.

Human rights NGOs (e.g. Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch) often seek to avoid any
human rights abuses. To avoid any unintentional impacts on civilians’ human rights, these NGOs tend
to favour peaceful interventions, such as petitions to put pressure on oppressive governments. For
example, Amnesty International campaigns with local NGOs in Afghanistan to try to improve
education for women and girls. However, since the Taliban regained control in 2021, human rights for
women have deteriorated.

Superpowers are more likely to favour military interventions in order to stop human rights abuses and
protect the interests of Western powers. For example, France and the UK, directed by the UN,
performed airstrikes on the Libyan government in 2011 to protect civilians. The government had killed
hundreds of protestors demonstrating about government corruption and the poor economic situation
in Libya. This led to the introduction of a new government, who is now in conflict with rebel groups,
meaning Libya remains unstable. It is claimed that the UK’s main reason for military intervention was
not human rights but to gain access to more oil reserves.
10.3.2 Focus of Development & Human Rights
Development Aid
 Development aid can take numerous forms, such as:
o Smaller charitable gifts from (Non-governmental organisations) NGOs to help install a village
well
o An International Governmental Organisation (IGO) offering loans to reduce the impact of a
hazard
o Short-term emergency aid (food, clean water, shelter, medical equipment)
o Long-term aid to develop a disease eradication programme
 Development aid can be provided for:
o Specific projects, such as rebuilding schools and medical facilities after an earthquake
o Broader development aims which focus on safeguarding human rights and improving human
welfare
Development aid

 Charitable gifts:
o Funded by donations from the public to NGOs (e.g. Oxfam and Christian Aid) and national
governments
o 72% of Official Development Assistance (ODA) is in the form of bilateral aid
 Bilateral aid is when governments give directly to projects in developing and emerging
countries
o Governments prefer bi-lateral aid as they can control its spending and which countries receive it
o The rest of the aid is multilateral, where governments give their money to organisations, such as
NGOs
o Multi-lateral aid is fairer as NGOs do no have political self-interest

 Loans:


o Provided by IGOs, such as the World Bank
o In 2022, the World Bank loaned $37.7 billion to poorer countries
o The loans helped poorer countries address urgent priorities (e.g. economic development, food
security, gender inequality)
o Concerns over loans include:
 The economic influence the World Bank has over the recipient countries due to the
conditions stated in the loans
 The prioritising of economic development over environmental protection e.g.
deforestation
 Human rights abuses, such as the displacement of indigenous people

Development Aid in Haiti

 Background to Haiti:
o Haiti in the Caribbean is one of the poorest countries in the world
o Its HDI ranking is 163 out of 191
o Haiti experiences a wide range of natural disasters, such as earthquakes and hurricanes
o It is known as ‘the republic of NGOs’ as it can have up to 10,000 NGOs working there at any
one time
 The need for development aid:
o In 2010, an earthquake hit Haiti leading to over 220,000 deaths
o 1.5 million people became homeless, having to live in emergency camps (tent cities)
o People in these tent cities suffered an outbreak of cholera, killing more than 9,000 people
 The aid:
o Within months, over £12 billion of aid was pledged by governments, members of the public,
IGOs (the UN) and NGOs (the Red Cross and Oxfam)
o The money raised was used in a number of ways e.g. to provide emergency shelters and
restore access to clean water
 Concerns over what happened to the aid received:
o Two years after the earthquake, 500,000 people were still living in temporary shelters without
electricity, plumbing or sewerage
o Half of the money pledged should have been spent within 18 months (a condition), but only 40%
of this had been spent
o The government and NGOs were unable to co-ordinate and use the money effectively

Impact of Development Aid

 Development aid can have both positive (dealing with life threatening conditions e.g. malaria) and
negative impacts (dependency, corruption)
  The negative impacts of aid can undermine human rights and economic development, which puts
minority groups at greater risk as there are less services e.g. health, education and justice

The fight against disease - Malaria

 Development aid targeted at healthcare, especially vaccination programmes, has almost eradicated
some diseases e.g. polio
 The improved diagnosis and treatment of other life-threatening diseases, like malaria, has also saved
lives
 Malaria is widespread and part of the natural environment in many tropical regions, which also happen
to be some of the poorest countries
 It is a major threat to children and pregnant women

Death rate from malaria (2019)

(The number of deaths from malaria per 100,000 people)

 Despite being a major global killer, malaria is preventable:

o Providing free mosquito nets
o Taking anti-malarial drugs
o Improved diagnosis
 Due to international aid programmes (e.g. Nets for Life), the global death rate from malaria fell by 25%
between 2000 and 2020, preventing 6.2 million deaths

Achieving gender equality

 Around the world, women generally have fewer rights than men
 In many developing countries, women and girls are often more affected by poverty and human rights
abuses
 The UN has championed the gender equality issue for nearly 50 years, resulting in 45% of bilateral aid
specifically funding programmes targeted at gender equality
 Notable successes include:
o Maternal mortality rates have fallen
o More girls in education
o More women elected to parliament in many countries
Worked example
Study the figure below and suggest why some countries provide more development aid than others
(6 marks)

 The answer needs to make direct reference to the information shown in the figure.
 Note that there are two types of data shown
o Total development aid for each country ($ billions)
o Development aid as a percentage of GDP
 Reasons should be offered for variations in both
 There is no need to discuss every country

Answer
A possible reason why some countries provide more development aid than others is simply that some
economies are larger than others. For example, 6 of the seven countries are part of the G7 and are
classed as world superpowers; this will probably mean they have larger economies and will be able to
donate more. Sweden is not part of the G7 or classed as one of the top 10 world superpowers, which
could be a reason why it donates approximately 4 times less than Germany.

The amount donated as a percentage of total GDP is more useful data as it shows that some
countries like Sweden (1%) and the UK (0.7%) are more generous than some of the bigger
economies like the USA (0.2%). This could be due to different ruling parties getting into power and
making cuts to the foreign budget. For example, Donald Trump preferred to spend the money within
the USA and less on helping other countries.

Finally, Sweden and the UK have increased their aid spending to at least 0.7% of GDP; this is based
on the UN’s target from the 1970s. The UN asked developed countries to voluntarily commit 0.7% of
their GDP to development aid. The majority of countries have failed to meet this target, maybe
because some countries could disagree with the percentage and others might believe the money
should be spent on issues at home.
Concerns over development aid

 Despite evidence of successful aid programmes, development aid can have unintended negative
consequences:
o Aid in the form of loans is now not recommended because:
 Of the increasing size of debts
 Technical assistance and skills training are more preferable
o Developing countries can become aid dependent and rely on the aid money to perform many
of the basic functions of government
 This could leave the receiving country at risk if the aid suddenly stops
 Donor countries often say how and where the aid money should be used
 It can become easier for governments to rely on aid money, rather than helping local
industries and systems to develop
 o Aid is sometimes used by the political elite to ensure they remain in power and repress citizens
(building a powerful army, buying votes)
o Aid can be lost to corruption - many of the countries receiving aid have more authoritarian
regimes, where corruption is more prominent
 Minority groups, such as the poor and women, pay the price for this misuse of aid, with
increasing cost and reduced access to services
 There are fewer opportunities for them and reduced access to jobs, funding and equality
 Human rights are undermined as corrupt officials, to avoid exposure, start to remove
fundamental rights e.g. freedom of speech

Exam Tip
Make sure that you can refer to at least three concerns about development aid
Economic Development & Impact on the Environment
 Some economic developments have serious environmental impacts (water pollution, loss of farmland),
causing degradation to areas inhabited by minority groups
 Big development projects run by transnational corporations (TNCs) can put traditional cultures and
livelihoods at risk
 There is little regard for the local’s human rights to their land and culture, for instance:
o After the discovery of oil in the Niger Delta
o Land grabbing in East Africa

Oil in the Niger Delta

 The Niger Delta consists of a diverse ecosystems, including mangrove forests, freshwater swamps and
tropical rainforest
 It is home to more than 31 million people and 40 different ethnic groups, such as the Ogoni people, who
believe the land and rivers are sacred
 It also has a vast supply of oil

Oil in the Niger Delta

 The production of oil is having a devastating effect on Nigeria’s largest wetland region, its wildlife and
its inhabitants

The impacts of oil exploitation in the Niger Delta

 Damage to the environment Minority groups suffer Human rights abuses

 About 40 million litres  70% of people live on less than $2 per  Conflict over the oil reserves
of oil are spilled every day in the Niger Delta led to human rights abuses
year across the Niger  Local hospitals and schools are under-  During the 1990s, the Nigerian
Delta funded military government
 Oil spills pollute  Access to clean and safe drinking water repeatedly violated the Ogoni
groundwater, surface is limited due to oil spills tribe’s human rights
water and soil  Traditional livelihoods in the Delta (e.g.  Around 1,000 Ogonis were
 Mangrove forests and fishing and agriculture) are damaged by killed
rainforests are regularly the oil spills; disrupting cultural  30,000 people were made
damaged traditions and making people poorer homeless as villages were
burnt down

Land grabbing in Kenya

 Land grabbing in Kenya became popular in the 1980s amongst its political elite, to use as a resource
for bribes
 Important government officials still continue this practice of land grabbing
 The land is used for cash crops for export, biofuel crops and the production of renewable energy
 85% of Kenya’s population relies on agriculture for its livelihood, so land grabbing puts huge pressure
on the land and creates tensions between different ethnic groups
 Land grabs increase the chance of food insecurity and puts Kenya’s population at risk

10.3.3 Direct & Indirect Military Intervention

Military Interventions & Human Rights
 Military interventions are often justified by nations claiming they are defending human rights
 In some examples the case for this is strong, such as the NATO intervention in Bosnia:
o In 1995, an attack on Bosnian Muslims by Bosnian Serbs led to 8,000 deaths
o This led to a NATO operation, involving an air and bombing campaign against the Bosnian
Serbs
o There was a strong human rights justification (genocide, torture), which led to war crimes
arrests among Bosnian Serb military leaders
 Radovan Karadžić, the former Bosnian Serb leader, was convicted of genocide and
crimes against humanity by an international criminal tribunal
 The UK intervention in Sierra Leone, in 2000, was also viewed as successful after it helped bring an
end to the civil war
o British soldiers helped disarm the rebel group trying to overthrow the government
o They trained the Sierra Leone Army
o A ceasefire was agreed and upheld
 However, these interventions can be more about wider global strategic interests, such as the need to
protect:
o Important resources e.g. the intervention in Iraq, by the US led coalition, to safeguard the oil
supply from the Middle East
o Shipping routes (e.g. The Suez and Panama Canals) from becoming controlled by hostile
countries, which could lead to global economic consequences
 After the Six Day War in 1967, Egypt closed the Suez Canal for 8 years
 This disrupted the flow of oil from the Middle East to Europe, which added to the 1970s
energy and oil crises

Military Aid & Human Rights

  Military aid, such as training and weapons sales, can support countries who have questionable human
rights records
 Donor countries argue that:
o A strong military could help enforce human rights within a nation
o Attaching conditions to the aid may force recipient countries to stop human rights abuses
o Stopping aid could threaten national interests, such as access to valuable resources
 Critics claim that:
o Further human rights abuses may be committed using the weapons provided
o Supporting a government that represses its people undermines the main principle of human
rights
o Ignoring human rights violations condones it

UK military aid to Saudi Arabia

 The UK and Saudi Arabia have been close allies since 1915
 In 1985, both parties made a military agreement which meant the UK would supply Saudi Arabia with
fighter planes
 Critics say the UK should not be selling warplanes and military equipment to an undemocratic regime,
with a poor human rights record against women e.g. fathers are the default guardians of their children
 The Saudi government has used UK supplied weapons in the military intervention in Yemen. The
intervention:
o Supports the Yemen government in the fight against rebel groups
o Started in 2015, since this date the UK has supplied Saudi Arabia with $23 billion in weapons
o Has led to serious human rights violations, such as bomb attacks on civilians
o Has led to the deaths and injuries of more than 17,500 civilians
o More than 20 million people in Yemen are experiencing food insecurity; 10 million of them are at
risk of famine
 Amnesty International have claimed that the military aid supplied by the UK has played a key role in
these human rights abuses
 It is believed that the UK government continues with this military aid to Saudi due to their trading
relationship:
o Saudi Arabia has invested over £60 billion in the UK
o Over 30,000 UK nationals live and work in Saudi Arabia

Direct Military Intervention

 Direct military intervention is becoming part of a ‘war on terror’ to help eliminate the abuse of human
rights of minority communities
 However, some of the combatant states use torture as part of this ‘war on terror’, which is in direct
conflict with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

The war on terror

 Shortly after the 2001 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York, US President George W.
Bush declared a ‘war on terror’
 It means a war against Islamic Extremism and the groups that support it, who commit human rights’
violations e.g.
o Al-Qaeda in Southern Yemen - amputating a thief's hand without a fair trial
o Boko Haram in Nigeria - kidnapping 276 Nigerian school girls
o Islamic State in Syria - killing, kidnapping and executing civilians
 The USA justified sending troops into Afghanistan and Iraq as it claimed that these countries supported
terrorists
 The invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq were not approved by the UN, but the USA justified the invasion
stating that it was:
o To fight terror
 o To defend the USA
o To protect human rights

 The Taliban severely restricted women’s rights (banned from working, studying,
showing skin in public), beating women who failed to comply
 Iraq’s dictator, Saddam Hussein, was responsible for human rights’ violations -
using chemical weapons on the Kurdish ethnic group

The use of torture and rendition

 Even though human rights were used to justify direct military intervention in the ‘war on terror’, some of
the countries involved committed human rights abuse e.g.
o US soldiers tortured prisoners in Iraq
o People accused of being terrorists were flown to a US base, Guantanamo Bay in Cuba - they
were tortured and held without trial for years
 Under international law, including the UDHR (signed by the USA), the use of torture is illegal
 By using torture and rendtion, these countries have undermined their reasons for the invasions and
damaged their reputation
 Organisations such as al-Qaeda, have used this violation to recruit new members
 This increases the risk that American citizens and military personnel will be treated more harshly if
captured

Exam Tip
Think carefully about the language and terminology you use in your answers about the ‘War on
Terror.’ Keep it factual and balanced and avoid sweeping generalisations.
Worked example
Explain how a government's stance on human rights can be undermined by their actions
(8 marks)

 Begin by explaining how some governments see themselves as advocates of human rights and have
used them to justify military interventions
 Then discuss how sometimes their actions could undermine human rights e.g. the real motivation for
the intervention and how they have carried out the intervention. Include examples you have studied in
your answer.
 Finally, you could look at the other side of the argument and suggest why a country’s stance is not
undermined by direct military intervention, backing it up with an example of military intervention, which
has led to progress in human rights

Answer
Many Western governments see themselves as advocates of human rights and are very vocal about
it in international forums. Military interventions are often justified as a last resort by nations claiming
they are defending human rights, such as minority ethnic groups in a civil war. However, sometimes
the actions of the combatant state could actually violate human rights’ laws.

Sometimes the intervention is based on wider global strategic interests such as the need to protect
important resources, like oil and trading routes, rather than the protection of human rights. For
example, the UK continues to offer military aid to Saudi Arabia, despite Saudi’s appalling human
rights record against women and their violations of international humanitarian law in Yemen. This aid
is beneficial to both countries through the amount of trade generated, but Amnesty International have
claimed that the military aid supplied by the UK has played a key role in human rights abuses in
Yemen by Saudi Arabia.

The US and UK invasion of Iraq was argued to be justified on the basis of protecting human rights. It
was claimed that Saddam Hussein, the Iraqi dictator, was using chemical weapons to attack the
Kurdish ethnic minority group of Iraq. The US tortured captured soldiers in Iraq and practised
rendition by sending prisoners to Guantanamo Bay. These actions directly violate the UDHR, which
the US and UK have signed.

However, there are times when military intervention has been successful and the combatant country
has upheld its stances on human rights. The deployment of NATO forces in Bosnia in 1995 has been
widely viewed as successful in terms of ending the genocide by Bosnia Serbs. Eventually, the leaders
responsible for these were prosecuted for war crimes. UK armed forces intervened in Sierra Leone
during the civil war in 2000. The UK mission proved quick and decisive in ending the civil war through
a ceasefire agreement. These two examples were achieved without the combatant countries being
accused of acts of torture.

10.4 Interventions & Outcomes

10.4.1 Measuring the Success of Military Interventions

Measurements of Success
 The world has made progress in terms of human development and human rights
 Most improvements have occurred because of geopolitical interventions, such as the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs)
 Interventions in sovereign states, whether humanitarian, military or the use of development aid, should
improve the lives of people in a measurable way
 To measure the success of geopolitical interventions, a wide range of variables need to be considered,
including whether there have been improvements in:
o Health - more citizens will be vaccinated, a decrease in infant mortality
o Life expectancy - increased for men and women
o Education levels - more women and girls in education, improved literacy levels
o Gender equality - women would have access to the same opportunities as men e.g. jobs,
voting, eduction
o Freedom of speech - fewer restrictions on media, social media and opinions, more evidence of
democracy
o The management of refugees - the successful re-housing of refugees in other countries
o GDP per capita - citizens becoming more wealthy
 Progress in human development is easier to measure than progress in human rights as statistical data
is more readily available e.g. literacy rates

Exam Tip
Single indicators or index data are often used as stimulus material in the exam paper, so make sure
you are familiar with the different indicators and the units used to measure them.
Introduction of Demographic Institutions
 For some governments and IGOs (e.g. the UN) taking steps to make a country more democratic is a
sign of successful intervention - for example:
o Iraq, after the US military intervention and removal of the dictator (Saddam Hussein), has
moved towards a stronger democracy
 It now has regular elections to vote for its National Assembly and president
 The National Assembly wrote a new constitution
 The introduction of democratic institutions and the freedom of expression is vital for future
development:
o A country experiences economic growth when people have the freedom, via democracy and
capitalism, to make their own political and economic choices
o Human rights, especially for women and well-being, are more likely to be upheld in a democracy
than a one-party, authoritarian state
 o Democratic countries are much less likely to go to war with each other, or to resort to internal
conflict if political disagreements arise

Steps to creating a stronger democracy

Improving freedom of expression Creating or strengthening democratic institutions

 Citizens are allowed to openly  Setting up new democratic institutions can lead to new
discuss ideas, so can make laws been written e.g. the Northern Ireland Assembly
more informed decisions (1998) makes laws for Northern Ireland to protect people
 People in power can be and promote equality
criticised by the public as they  Other institutions can strengthen democracy and protect
are elected by them freedom of expression e.g. a judiciary that’s independent
 Censorship laws are removed from the government
and independent media
organisations (radio,
newspapers) are supported

 Most western countries equate freedom and democracy with successful development

The Human Freedom Index (2018)

 The Human Freedom Index shows the state of human freedom in the world based on broad measures,
including personal and economic freedom
 From the map, it is clear that countries with freedom and democracy are less common
Worked example
Explain the relationship between freedom of expression and democracy
(4 marks)

 Do not waste time defining all the keywords in these short answer questions
 One mark for each valid point, up to a maximum of 4 marks

Answer
In a democratic country, people have the right to express their beliefs without government retaliation.
This means that people can criticise the government and hold it accountable, which is central to a
successful democracy. Freedom of expression also means that independent newspapers can publish
opinions about political parties without fear of censorship. This allows people to debate and discuss
ideas, helping them make a more informed decision about who to vote for in democratic elections.
Economic Growth
 For some countries the success of geopolitical interventions is measured through economic growth e.g.
o Singapore, who once received USA aid, is now an important trading partner with the USA, and
one of the wealthiest states in the world
 A country that is experiencing economic growth will be able to invest in infrastructure, health, education
and environmental protection
 These nations have less regard for holistic development, believing it slows down economic growth

Bangladesh - an example of economic success

 Since the country’s independence in 1971, Bangladesh has been classed as one of the world’s least
developed countries
o The GDP growth rate was -14%
 It has suffered from political instability, and has been devastated by floods and famine
 However, with its current average GDP growth rate of 8% (more than India), It will soon lose the least
developed status and be re-classed as an emerging country
 The role of foreign aid has played an important part in Bangladesh’s economic growth since 2000:
o As the economy grew there was a shift from humanitarian aid, such as providing food, to
more project aid
o In 2000, 48% of Bangladesh’s development projects (e.g. transport, infrastructure, energy,
water supply) were funded by foreign aid
o In 2019, this had decreased to 32%
o Bangladesh has become less reliant on foreign aid
 Foreign aid has helped Bangladesh improve its development indicators since 2000:
o Life expectancy has increased by 7 years to 72 years
o Secondary school enrolment rates have increased by 21% to 72%
o GNI/capita has increased by $1,870 to $2,300
 Bangladesh has a mixed record on human rights, despite its democracy and economic growth there is:
o Reduction in freedom of expression
o Sexual abuse and violance against women
o Poor treatment of the million refugees living in camps

Exam Tip
Make sure you use geographical terminology whenever you can - it shows you have good
geographical knowledge and understanding e.g. humanitarian aid, freedom of expression, holistic
development. To help with this, you could make a glossary of key terms as you revise.

Key terms are even highlighted in blue on these revision pages - just hover over the term and a
definition appears!
10.4.2 Success of Development Aid
Relationship Between Aid, Development, Health & Human Rights
 Intervention and aid should promote economic and social development, improve health and education,
and increase human rights
 This is not always the case as there is a complex relationship between these factors e.g.
o The outcome of development aid does not match the input i.e. less aid reaches the people due
to corruption, the government lacks skills to distribute funds effectively
o Many projects used to be prestige projects e.g. hydro-electric dams, with little trickle-down
benefits to the poorest people
o Donor countries can act in their own interest and decide where and how to spend aid
o Development aid encourages developing countries to become more dependent on donor
countries

 Recently, development aid has been used more successfully for grass-root projects, focusing on
education, training and healthcare of the poorest

 Development aid and intervention have a mixed record of success:

o Success stories experienced in Botswana and Ebola in West Africa after aid provision
o Failures in other states, who have become aid dependent e.g. Haiti and Iraq

The varying success of development aid

Ebola, West Africa - Haiti -

A success story! A failed effort?

 The first cases of Ebola were recorded in March 2014  Haiti, a developing country, in the Caribbean is
 The epidemic killed over 11,000 people, mainly in vulnerable to many hazards (hurricanes,
Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea earthquakes)
 The World Health Organisation (WHO) quickly  Despite receiving over $13 billion in aid over the
declared the outbreak an emergency last decade, it remains one of the world’s poorest
 Individual countries provided support, such as countries
building treatment centres  Haiti’s governmental systems are corrupt and
 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as weak, so the aid is either ‘lost’ or not distributed
Doctors Without Borders, sent medical staff and effectively
equipment  Much of the aid money is spent on contracts with
 The intervention slowed and stopped the spread of American companies, which doesn’t help the local
Ebola, but at a cost of over $4 billion people
 The WHO declared the region free of disease in  The aid is used for large projects e.g. an industrial
January 2016 park, rather than tackling more difficult issues e.g.
corruption
 Haiti has become dependent on this aid, limiting
its progress and economic development

Exam Tip
Case studies are great at providing real-life examples of the content you need to learn. You will study
a lot of case studies over this course, so it is important that you learn dates, names and key facts for
each one. Accurate evidence is important in the 20 mark essay questions - the mark scheme states
ideas must be supported by evidence!
Economic Inequalities
 Development aid should reduce economic inequality and improve people's lives
 However, the relationship between development aid and a country’s level of economic inequality is not
always straightforward:
o For some states receiving large amounts of development aid has meant economic inequalities
have increased, such as:
 Bangladesh - corruption, large top-down aid projects e.g. Padma bridge
o For some states receiving large amounts of development aid has meant economic inequalities
have decreased, such as:
 Bolivia - improving children’s education, increasing food security via rural development
and agriculture projects
 This inequality impacts on human development, including health and life expectancy:
o Health indicators are poor e.g. low life expectancy, high infant mortality
o The poorest people cannot afford healthcare
o People are less economically productive due to poor health
o Standards of living fail to improve for the poorest
 The Gini Coefficient is one way of measuring relative inequality within a country or region
o Countries are scored between 0 and 100 - the higher the value, the greater the income
inequality
 A score of 0 suggests that everyone has the same income in a country (absolute
equality)
 A score of 100 suggests a single person receives all of a country’s income (absolute
inequality)

Gini coefficient for income inequality ranges from

0 to 100 (2017)

Superpowers Use of Development Aid

 The goals of overseas aid include poverty reduction and improving human rights
 However, development aid can also be used as an extension of a superpower’s foreign policy to
secure:
o Access to resources - food, energy, minerals and water
 Chinese aid to African nations with mineral resources (Mali - gold, Angola - oil and gas)
o Formation of alliances - economic, political and military
 French aid to Turkey to strengthen the military alliance
o A global sphere of influence
  French aid is perhaps the most global, as France seeks strategic partners worldwide
(e.g. Indonesia, China, Brazil, Colombia)
o Win political support within International Governmental Organisations (IGOs)
 Recipient countries might be expected to support their donor countries within IGOs (the
UN)

Exam Tip
Make sure you are clear that development aid is controversial and frequently has multiple aims e.g.
humanitarian as well as political
Worked example
Evaluate the view that development aid has been largely ineffective in reducing inequalities in developing
countries
(20 marks)

 A discussion of how far aid has helped reduce inequalities in developing countries is needed.
 Provide evidence - aid responses to the Haiti earthquake (mainly viewed negatively) or to the ebola
outbreak (judged more successfully)
 The answer needs to focus on how far inequalities (e.g. gender, income) might be reduced by the aid,
whether successfully or not
 The best answers will:
o Evaluate between different examples as part of a 'balanced argument'
o Consider why aid was more successful (or less ineffective) in one example than another
o Reach a logical supported conclusion.

Answer
Development aid includes charitable gifts from NGOs and national governments, and IGOs offering
loans. It often aims to reduce different types of inequalities (e.g. income, health, education and
political engagement) in developing countries. The costs and benefits of development aid need to be
considered when judging whether or not development aid is largely ineffective in reducing
inequalities.

Primarily, development aid is used to address economic inequalities in recipient countries but this can
fail due to the mismanagement of funds by corrupt governments. The corrupt governments would
rather protect the powerful elite and secure future elections, than help the poorest citizens. Despite
receiving over $13 billion in aid over the last decade, Haiti remains one of the world’s poorest
countries. Much of the aid money is spent on projects with American companies, which either never
materialise as the money disappears or the projects fail to help the most vulnerable, such as an
industrial park. The poorest people in Haiti live on less than $2 per day and it has one of the highest
ratings for the Gini coefficient; this suggests that the poorest people have not benefited from all the
development aid and inequalities remain wide.

Social inequalities include human rights’ violations and oppression of minorities (females, ethnic
minorities, refugees). Development aid sometimes makes little impact on social inequality as the
recipient country’s main focus is on economic development, rather than human development. For
example, Bangladesh has been one of the top global recipients of aid over the last couple of
decades, and this is reflected in the economic progress it has made. It now has a GDP growth rate of
8%, GNI/capita has increased and so has life expectancy. However, Bangladesh still has a poor
human rights’ record with widespread violence and sexual abuse against women, restrictions on the
freedom of expression and the poor treatment of the million refugees Bangladesh hosts from
Myanmar. The considerable amount of aid that Bangladesh receives has not always trickled down to
the most vulnerable; instead some of it has been lost through corruption or spent on prestige projects,
like the Padma Bridge, which does little to help those with the greatest need and widens these social
inequalities.
Development aid can also help to reduce gender inequality but this can be marred by the repressive
policies of an authoritarian regime. Since 2010, Afghanistan regularly received a large amount of
official development assistance (ODA) and had made progress towards gender equality, under a
more civil government. More women were employed in governmental roles and more girls were
attending school. However, after the Taliban retook control in 2021, the majority of human rights for
women were revoked, reversing any progress development aid had made on gender equality.

On the other hand, development aid can also be very effective. It has been extremely successful in
targeted healthcare programmes, such as vaccination programmes, resulting in the near eradication
of polio and small pox. The improved diagnosis and treatment of other life-threatening diseases, like
malaria, has also saved lives.

Due to international aid programmes (e.g. Nets for Life), the global death rate from malaria fell by
25% between 2000 and 2020, preventing 6.2 million deaths. When the World Health Organisation
(WHO) declared an outbreak of ebola in West Africa, development aid was distributed effectively.
Individual countries provided support, such as building treatment centres. Non-governmental
organisations (NGOs), such as Doctors Without Borders, sent medical staff and equipment. Despite a
cost of over $4 billion, the intervention slowed and stopped the spread of Ebola, resulting in the WHO
declaring the region free of disease in January 2016. These health aid programmes have reduced life
expectancy inequalities.

The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (2000) and the Sustainable Development Goals
(2015) have also highlighted how development aid can reduce inequalities within developing
countries. Over the last 23 years, progress has been made in reducing poverty, improving enrollment
in primary education, achieving more gender equality and reducing other inequalities. In particular,
the UN states that increasing the enrollment in primary and secondary education for all is the key to
make global progress on all 17 targets. Education provides a more skilled workforce and empowers
citizens with an understanding of their human rights. This can lead to economic growth and a country
that is more democratic, with freedom of expression, where minority groups are treated fairly.
UNICEF is supporting the SDGs through their strategy Every Child Learns, with projects such as
improving access to children with disabilities and increasing technology to support remote learning for
children living in remote rural areas. The UN has also championed the gender equality issue for
nearly 50 years, resulting in 45% of bilateral aid specifically funding programmes targeted at gender
equality. Notable successes include declining maternal mortality rates, more girls in education and
more women elected to parliament in many countries. However, the progress of the SDGs has been
marred by the COVID pandemic.

Overall, I disagree with the view that development aid is ineffective in reducing inequalities. With the
right conditions, development aid can boost economic growth (such as Bangladesh) and human
development (stopping the spread of ebola). However, it is not to say development aid is perfect;
other factors do impact on the effectiveness of it, including corruption, the stance of a ruling regime
(whether legitimate or not) and the emergence of a pandemic. But without development aid, would
91% of children globally have been enrolled in primary education? Would Bangladesh be re-
categorised as an emerging country? Would more people have died from Ebola?

10.4.3 Success of Military Aid

Cost of Military Aid
  The recent history of military interventions suggest that there are significant costs involved, leading to
the loss of human rights and sovereignty
 These long-term costs (civilian deaths, number of refugees, monetary, damage to the infrastructure)
generally outweigh the short-term gains (avoiding genocide)
 Direct intervention of sending troops and equipment to fight leads to:
o Loss of lives on both sides (soldiers and civilians) e.g. 2001 Afghanistan war - 149,000 civilians
died
o Physical and mental injuries
o Costs a lot of money e.g. the 2003 Iraq war cost $2 trillion
 Indirect intervention of providing economic or military assistance:
o Preferable option for many governments
o Involves lower risk and cost

The costs of the Iraq war

 In 2003, the US, with coalition allies including the UK, made the decision to invade Iraq and remove the
dictator, Saddam Hussein
 The justification for the invasion was that:
o Saddam, a brutal dictator, was developing weapons of mass destructions (chemical and
biological)
o There was much evidence that Saddam was violating many Iraqi human rights, including the
use of these weapons against his people

Impacts of the invasion on Iraq

Loss of sovereignty and human rights Short-term gains versus long-term costs

 The US-led military intervention was deemed to  Short-term gains:

undermine Iraq’s sovereignty o Saddam removed
 The USA created an interim government (2004), who o A US-funded vaccination programme
had limited power lowered infant mortality by 75%
 The new government was reliant on USA support eg. o Iraq’s first free election for 50 years
US troops remained in Iraq (2005)
 A full-term government was formed (2006) - it’s  Long-term costs:
security was threatened, US troops remained o No systems in place to
 The US withdrew the remaining troops (2011),  Restore security
leaving Iraq vulnerable to attack  Promote democracy
 Islamic State (IS) - an extremist group - violently took  Grow economically
over some of Iraq’s cities (2014) e.g. Mosul o IS established themselves in Iraq due to
 IS continues to fight and kill civilians this instability
 Human rights abuses are still on-going: o Corruption has grown
o Government forces attacking civilians o Increased conflict between Iraq’s Sunni
o Limited freedom of expression and Shia Muslim groups

Exam Tip
Do not think of military intervention as just the movement of troops into a conflict zone. It is much
more than this and has significant consequences for the population.
Non-military Interventions
 Non-military interventions can be more effective in improving human rights and development, such as
the United Nations (UN) peacekeeping missions
UN peacekeeping missions

 UN Peacekeeping uses three main principles:

o Consent of all parties in the conflict
o Impartiality
o Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mission
 The UN:
o Shares the costs among the UN member states
o Draw on troops and police from around the world to provide its peacekeeping forces
o Integrates civilians into the forces
 There are currently 12 UN peacekeeping operations in action across three continents, mainly in Africa
and the Middle East

Un Peacekeeping in Côte d’Ivoire

 Côte d’Ivoire (West Africa) gained its independence from French colonial rule in 1960
 For 30 years it maintained political stability and a sound economy

How non-military interventions can be used to stop civil

wars

Consequences of Lack of Action

 All military interventions can have negative impacts
 Not intervening at all can have more significant negative consequences on the environment, politics
and social development (human wellbeing and human rights) of countries around the world

The effects of no military action in Zimbabwe

 Zimbabwe is a former British colony, it achieved independence in 1980

  It is a country with a history of human rights’ abuses against its citizens
o President Mugabe (1980 - 2017) remained in power due to violent, corrupt elections
 He was viewed as a dictator and ordered military operations within Zimbabwe, resulting
in thousands of civilians’ deaths
o Opponents to the government were attacked, tortured and imprisoned
o Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people were threatened with beheading
 Zimbabwe suffers from great poverty - it is ranked 146 of 191 on the Human Development Index
 Despite its lack of development and frequent human rights’ violations, international organisations have
not intervened:
o Western nations, such as the UK, are sensitive to intervention linked to former colonies
o Several neighbouring African nations (e.g. South Africa) argued Mugabe was not a threat, so
without their support, Western countries would not intervene

The impacts of the lack of military intervention on Zimbabwe

Social impacts Political impacts Environmental impacts

 43% of Zimbabweans live  There is much corruption  Deforestation rates are increasing
below the national poverty within the government  It is one of ten countries recorded
line (2019)  Human rights abuses are as having the largest forest losses
 Rural poverty increased by common, especially violence from1990 to 2010
9% to 52% (2019) against political opponents  Trees are cut down for firewood
 In rural areas, seasonal by the rural poor and to make way
plantation work (e.g. for tobacco plantations
tobacco) is low paid  Tobacco farming is vital to
 Average life expectancy is Zimbabwe’s economy, accounting
one of the lowest in the for 25% of its exports
world - 61.9 years

 The lack of military intervention by the international community in Zimbabwe shows that the UN and
world leaders are prepared to act in some situations but tolerate others
 The survival of the human race could actually be threatened without some global intervention on the
state of the environment, meaning human rights would no longer matter or be relevant

11. Migration, Identity & Sovereignty11.1 Globalisation & Migration

11.1.1 Globalisation & Migration
Changing Pattern of Demand for Labour
Defining and understanding globalisation

 Globalisation is a complex process that has developed over time

 Globalisation refers to the way in which people and places around the world are becoming more closely
linked
 It has different economic, social, cultural and political dimensions:
o Food
o Work
o Culture
o Money
o Migration
 o Trade
o Communication
o Travel
o Poverty etc.
 Globalisation is nothing new, with people and places having past connections:
o Trade - the Silk Road trade routes covered over 6400 km across Asia to Europe from the 2nd
century BCE until the mid-15th century. These routes were central to economic, cultural,
political, and religious interactions between the East and West
o Colonialism - during the 19th century, the British Empire controlled 25% of the world's peoples
 Globalisation has been responsible for changes in:
o Global transport systems
o Global economic systems
o Patterns of demand for labour
o Rural-urban migration within countries
o International migration
o Exploitation of global resources and rise of the transnational corporations (TNCs)
o Global finance
o Global communications
 The level of globalisation can be measured:
o Economic - exports and imports as a proportion of GDP
o Social - internet users as a proportion of the population
o Political - membership of international organisations
o Physical - availability of resources for exploitation (oil, wood, coal, gold, cotton etc.)
 Globalisation has lengthened (distance) connections between people and places and those
connections have become deeper and more commonplace
 Technology has played a key role in driving changes and has transformed lives on every continent,
particularly since 2000
 Although globalisation has benefited billions of people, concerns remain that it has changed some
people’s lives for the worse

Globalisation and migration

 Significant changes in the global economic system have increased disparities of wealth between
different areas of the world
 This has altered patterns of worker demand and increased migration within (internal) and between
(international) countries, with people seeking a better way of life
 Shifts in manufacturing jobs from highly developed, high wage paying, economies (HDE) to less
developed, lower wage paying economies (LDE), such as Mexico, parts of the EU etc, increased the
demand for regionalised manufacturing workers
 Rapid industrialisation of countries such as China and India have created a high demand for workers
and has been met, in part, by rural-urban migration
 Capital investments in emerging market economies (EME) and LDEs has created demand for workers
in construction and services, which drives international migration
 Increases in international trade has resulted in the same companies (TNCs and MNCs) operating in
more than one country and employing international corporate management
 Migration has led to increased remittances being sent nationally and internationally

Rural-urban migration - push/pull

 Globalisation has encouraged internal migration through:

o Mechanisation of agricultural systems creating a loss of jobs - push factor
o Landgrabs by government and agribusinesses forcing people out of their homes and jobs - push
factor but also a pull for investors
o Investments in trade - imports and exports increasing the opportunities of jobs - pull factor
 Internal migration gives rise to a national core-periphery system developing, which is strengthened
over time
 o The periphery is considered areas outside of core economic regions
 However, this leads to uneven economic growth; where one 'core' region has a greater 'pull' than
another cores
 Collectively the flows of investment, resource allocation, and people is known as the 'backwash
effect'
 This is where people, investments and resources are re-directed from the periphery to core regions
 Typically, this is the rural-urban migration pattern, but can be urban to urban or rural to rural, it
just depends on the dominance (pull) of one 'core' over another
o Rapid industrialisation occurred in China after the government created Special Economic Zones
(SEZ) during the 1980s
o These policies allowed for foreign investment into 'special zones' that are separated areas,
managed by a single administration and with its own regulations
o As a result, more than 200 million rural migrants now work in China's main cities such as
Shanghai and Shenzhen with around 20 million people arriving in cities each year
o Over the next decade, an estimated 60% of Chinese people will live in urban areas

International migration

 Most international migration is to highly developed economies (HDE)

 Half of all international migrations are to one of 10 countries
o The US has more international migrants than any other at 51 million in 2020
o Germany has the second largest with approximately 15.8 million and
o Saudi Arabia is third with 13.5 million
 Sometimes the core-periphery process occurs at a larger, spatial scale such as the EU-Schengen
agreement
o In 1995, international borders within most EU countries were removed and allowed for the free
movement of people and goods within the EU
o Eastern European countries joined in 2007
o Benefits include the ability to move from one EU country to another without checks
o Arguments raised against the agreement is the number of migrants that entered the EU (e.g.
Syria) as refugees and then have access to the rest of the EU with no border controls

Exam Tip
The EU Schengen Agreement is different to the EUs right of free movement for EU citizens, make
sure you do not confuse them.
Variation in Migration
 Approximately 3% of the world’s population live outside their country of birth (approx. 281 million
people), of which 66% are economic migrants
 Female migration has steadily increased (50%), with women making up the majority of contract workers
in the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Indonesia
 Until the 1990s the majority of international migration was mainly to HDEs such as the UK and the USA
 However, there is a rise to certain cities of developing countries (Mumbai, India etc.), which have
become major hubs for global immigration
 The level of international migration varies between countries due to differing migration policies and
levels of global economic engagement
o Singapore encourages international migration
o Australia and New Zealand have barriers in place
 Some countries attract few migrants due to civil unrest or lack of development e.g., Eritrea, South
Sudan etc.
 Inward investment by TNCs can depend on the ease by which a company can transfer its senior
management staff into a particular nation
 Spatially there is an increase in migration, impacting both the country of origin and destination, with
many new migration streams/routes being developed
 Changes in International Migration
 Environmental, economic and political events affect both the source areas (country of origin) of many
migrants and their destinations
 Resulting in flows of voluntary economic migrants and involuntary or forced refugees and asylum
seekers
 Temporary movement, such as tourism, is not counted as migration
 International migration occurs for different reasons
o Voluntary migrants are often economic migrants seeking better jobs and standard of living
o Other migrants feel as though they have no choice but to leave their country of origin
through political change
o Some flee across borders because they fear death or persecution from war, natural
disasters, religious or political persecution
o They apply for ‘asylum’ in a host country and whilst the application is being considered they
are known as asylum seekers
o If their application is successful, they may be granted temporary or permanent residency.
Legally they now become refugees
o Environmental changes such as global warming force some people to leave their homes and
even countries
 Low-lying Pacific Islands such as Kiribati and Tuvalu are sinking due to sea level rise
and residents are migrating to New Zealand and Australia

Top ten destinations and origins of

international migrants in 2020 (in millions)

Exam Tip
The push-pull model of migration (from a sociologist called Lee) describes
the reasons why international migration occurs and the processes migrants go through on their
journey

Lee’s Push-Pull Model of Migration

  The model shows that places of origin have both positive reasons to stay and negative reasons to
leave (push factors)
o If the negatives outnumber the positives people might decide to migrate
 The destination country also has positives (pull factors) and negatives
o The more positives there are, the more attraction it has for migrants
 Migrants leave because of both push and pull factors
 When deciding whether to leave, and then on their journey, migrants face
various challenges (intervening obstacles) and processes
o Costs of travel
o Family pressure to stay
o Physical barriers such as distance, seas and mountains
o Human traffickers and smugglers
o Difficulty with new languages and filling out paperwork
o Government policy on immigration
o Border controls
 These obstacles and processes mean that migration happens in steps
o Migrants may make several smaller journeys and stay in temporary accommodation before
they reach their final destination
 Globalisation has increased the movement of migrants around the world and is an
important flow within the global economy
o In 1970 approximately 90 million people were living in a country they weren’t born in
o In 1990 that figure had increased to approximately 153 million
o In 2020 it was estimated to be 281 million

11.1.2 Causes of Migration

 Most migrants move for work; known as economic migrants
 Others move to re-join family members, as part of the diaspora growth
 Post-colonial migrant flows to the UK when former colonies became part of the Commonwealth
o After the second World War, many countries had labour shortages and needed to rebuild their
economies
o The 1948 British Nationality Act, gave people from UK colonies, the right to live and work in
Britain
o Job vacancies in the UK offered an opportunity to people in Caribbean countries, who were also
struggling economically post-war
o Many of those who came, became manual workers, drivers, cleaners, and nurses in the newly-
established NHS and known as the Windrush Generation
 International migrants are not always the poorest, as money is needed to make a journey (even
human trafficking has costs to the migrant)
 There are other causes of migration, including displacement of refugees due to conflict and poverty in
countries of origin

Types of Migrants

Definition Internal External

The individual or Rural to urban for jobs West Indians to the UK

household has a free
Voluntary
choice about whether to Urban to rural retirement British doctors to the USA
move or not

Occurs when the British inner city African slaves to America

Forced
individual or household slum clearance - Atlantic slave trade
 has little or no choice but Amerindians into War - 8.1 million refugees were
to move rainforest reserves recorded leaving Ukraine in 2022

This may be due to

Impelled or Natural disasters –
environmental or human Mt Pinatubo, Muslims and Hindu in India
Political
factors Philippines

 Forced migration still occurs today - Syrian refugee crisis, Ukrainians forced to flee from Russian
invasion etc.
 Counter-migration, in which governments detain migrants who enter or attempt to enter their countries
illegally and return the migrants to their home countries
 Impelled migration as a result of natural disasters has unexpected consequences
o Many Montserratians fled to the United States when Plymouth was destroyed in 1995 and were
given ‘temporary protected’ immigration status
o The U.S. government told Montserratian refugees to leave in 2005 - not because the volcanic
crisis was over or because the housing crisis caused by the eruption was solved
o Rather, the U.S. government expected the volcanic crisis to last at least 10 more years; so, the
Montserratians no longer qualified as ‘temporary’ refugees

Economic Theory & Migration

 There are five economic theories for migration:

Five Economic Theories of Migration

Theory Explanation Example

Wage differences pull or push people Internal migration in developing

Neoclassical
from low-wage regions to higher-wage regions such as rural India to
economic theory
regions cities such as Mumbai
Developed countries 'pull' migrant
Dual labour Fruit and vegetable harvesting
workers to fill low-skilled jobs, as local
market theory in the UK, attracts EU workers
population unwilling to do this work
Trade between countries is favourable to Former colonies remain
World systems
one above the other, encouraging dependent on colonial
theory
migration along these trade routes superpower - UK and India
People feel they have less in comparison North/South migration in the
to someone else (usually wealth), and UK, where people in the north
Relative
therefore, feel deprived. Successful of England feel deprived in
deprivation theory
migrants act as examples to the source relation to the south and migrate
community encouraging migration southwards
The theory views migration as an
economic strategy of a household and
Male construction workers from
New economics of suggests that the family's economic
India migrating to Dubai and
labour migration situation would change as the family
sending remittances home to
(NELM) member sends remittances back. The
families
family's act together to spread the cost
and all benefits eventually
Movement of Labour
  In many nation states, the movement of labour is unrestricted and is based on the notion that humans
are an economic resource for businesses to exploit
 It is considered an efficient way of allocating resources e.g. regional movements in the UK
 Flows of migrants are focused on core economic development regions, at varying levels from local,
national and international
 In order to achieve maximum economic output, businesses argue that people should be allowed to
move freely to available jobs, therefore, migration is considered an effective method of achieving this
 This is the basis of free movement of labour and allows workers to seek work in another country,
without requiring any visa
 This principle also applies to some global regions such as the European Union (EU) but not at a global
level - China restricts all movement of its workers, both internally and internationally
 However, free movement creates winners and losers:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Free Movement of Labour

Advantages Disadvantages

Business profits increase due to a fall in wages - Increased competition for jobs and many people
businesses have a choice of who to employ have multiple jobs in order to survive
Highly skilled workers are in demand and Businesses lose profits when having to pay higher
command higher wages wages to skilled employees
Trickle down wealth from core regions to the Changing economic activity and loss of income or
peripheries - branch offices and factories unemployment
People have a choice of where to work and live Loss of talent - 'brain drain'

Barriers to freedom of movement - China's hukou records

 As of 2020, 60.6% of the total Chinese population lived in urban areas, a dramatic increase from
17.92% in 1978
 When the Communist Party in China came to power in 1949, under Mao Zedong (Chairman Mao)
 One of its goals was to create economic stability between the country’s large rural farming population
(periphery) and its growing urban areas (core)
 One problem China saw, was the potentially large influx of rural workers to the cities looking for higher
paying jobs
 To avoid protests, strikes and slum development such as those in Latin America and Indian cities, the
Chinese government implemented the Huji system in 1958
 This was to serve three main functions:
o Control of internal migration
o Management of social protection
o Preservation of social stability
 The plan was to implement a classification system to keep record of all Chinese people as either a rural
or urban citizen. The government then tied all social benefits (healthcare, education, social security,
working rights, etc.) to a person’s local government
 The system is called “huji” but it’s commonly known by the name of the records “Hukou.” The Hukou
System was implemented in 1958 and is still in place today
 The Hukou System effectively limits the amount of rural-urban migration. People from rural China would
be far less likely to move to urban areas if it means giving up their healthcare, education and social
security
 People from urban areas were given preferential treatment
 They got better social benefits; since their local governments had more resources
 They had access to higher paying jobs and rural workers were limited in the urban marketplace
 Because the people from urban areas were more likely to have an education, they were also
considered more likely to protest
  The preferential treatment was considered a way of calming the risk of any major uprising against the
Communist Party

Impact on rural regions

 Whilst urban citizens enjoy a supply of labour opportunities and comfortable benefits for their families
 Rural people struggle as farming in rural China is very difficult
 The terrain is mountainous and the land lacks sufficient nutrients for farming
 Access to clean water is scarce and there is often extreme draught
 There is little economic infrastructure and a lack of access to modern farming equipment
 As China’s economic power grew, the cities grew, and jobs become more available, the trade-offs for
rural farmers to move to the city became more attractive
 In recent years, the rate of Chinese rural-urban migration is the largest in the history of the world
 More than 250 million Chinese people are estimated to migrate to the cities each year (that’s 2/3 of the
population of the US)
 The Chinese population remained primarily rural all the way up to 2012. During that year, China’s urban
population officially grew larger than the rural population

Floating population – 240 million people as of 2020

 Non-hukou migrant without local residency rights are also called the 'floating population'
o Often it is the parents moving to the cities, leaving their young children to be raised by
grandparents
o These children are the forgotten casualties of China’s economic boom
o These migrants have no access to healthcare, workers' rights etc. in urban areas

Reform

 Whilst the Hukou System has been successful, it is widely disliked

 The Communist Party created an organized caste system with Hukou where the people from rural
areas were systematically discriminated against
 In 2014, reform was finally addressed by the government with the removal the rural and urban system
of Hukou
 All Chinese people will now simply be called residents, but, all social benefits are still tied to a resident’s
hometown
 There is a process to transfer residency, but it is extremely limited in the major cities
 However, it will be easier for people from rural areas to move to other rural towns and smaller cities

Impact

 The socio-economic impacts of 50+ years of “rural” and “urban” classification are incalculable
 Generations were conditioned to believe they were second-rate citizens and received second-rate
treatment
 Even with restrictions somewhat relaxed, it will take help and a number of years for the damage to be
repaired
 This is an acceptable condition for China, as they have successfully avoided squatter settlements and
public protests around their major cities
 Today, there are still over 250 million people in rural areas living on less than $2/day

11.1.3 Consequances of International Migration

Impacts of Migration
 Migration changes the cultural and ethnic composition of nation states
 The openness of government policies can determine the rate of assimilation e.g. Singapore’s migration
policy results in a ‘melting pot’ of cultures and identities
 The rate of assimilation of migrants varies, particularly when there are distinctive ethnic differences
 Ethnicity is the shared identity of an ethnic group and can be based on shared ancestral roots or
cultural characteristics such as food, religion, clothing or language
 If the country is already a multi-cultural/multi-racial society there is a greater rate of assimilation
 A greater level of diversity is brought to places, but doesn't necessarily mean there is a change of race
- in Greater Manchester, some areas have a high concentration of Asian/Asian British population, but
Manchester is not changing its racial composition as a result
 Other places are more mixed, suggesting some assimilation through inter-marriage, social mixing and
shared cultural life and work
o An area of Cardiff which covered Butetown and Cardiff Docks was known as Tiger Bay, (now
Cardiff Bay) and is Wales’ oldest multi-ethnic community, with sailors and workers from over 50
countries settling there from the mid-19th century onwards
o All these nationalities helped to create the multicultural character of the area, where people from
different backgrounds socialised and intermarried
 Highly segregated places can be problematic as deprivation, inequality and discrimination leads to
some ethnic groups suffering above average rates of health issues, poverty and unemployment
 Historical policies that enforced segregation in the past can reduce the rate of assimilation e.g. in South
Africa the rate
of assimilation is low due to the lasting effects of the apartheid system
 Not all segregation is forced, but will depend upon whether the migrants embed themselves in the
national culture or reside solely in ethnic enclaves
o Italian, Chinese, Jewish, Muslim and Sikh communities often hold onto their own culture and
traditions - China Town in the City of Westminster, London, or Little Italy in New York
o Centres of worship 'anchor' diaspora groups to certain areas, along with dietary needs e.g.
Jewish community need for kosher meat and bakery
o Differences in religion can lead to reduced assimilation rates as migrants religious beliefs may
conflict with the values and traditions of the country they have moved to
 The rise of far-right nationalist groups can mean that migrant groups are not accepted
 The amount of time that migrants are resident in the host nation influences the rate of assimilation
o Diversity rates lessen over time - in the 2011 UK census, 77% of people resident in the UK for
more than 30 years identified as having a UK identity, compared to just 10% for recent arrivals
 The ability of migrants to speak the local language can increase the rate of assimilation as they can
gain employment/
participate in the community

Migration & Political Tensions

 Migration causes political tensions because of differences in perceptions of the social, economic,
cultural and demographic impacts
 It is a major global issue, with about 3% of the world’s population living outside their country of birth
(approx. 272 million people) - 2/3rds of these are economic migrants
 In the past, it has had a huge impact on both donor and receiving nations
 In terms of the receiving countries, the consequences have generally been beneficial
 But today, few countries support or want a large influx of outsiders, for a variety of reasons
o Immigrants will vote for parties' centre or left and not to the right as these tend to be against
migration
o Immigrants will head for economic core regions and to inner city regions and can impact on
voting patterns
o When immigrant groups reach a certain size and standing, they begin to develop their own
politicians instead of people from the host society
o High levels of migration into one country can lead to political tension - Mexico/US. Whilst
developing countries look more favourably on international migrants
o Environmental issues are based on the premise that migrants put excessive strain on
environmental systems, but others feel this is a way of curtailing immigration
  The most well-known example is the Mexico/US border
o Between 1900 and 1920 24 million new arrivals were registered due to the 'open door' policy of
that time
o Subsequently, migration restrictions have been introduced, with the US Green Card becoming
harder to obtain
o Now, there are approximately 40 million non-US born citizens, with many more undocumented,
illegal migrants
o Due in part to increased immigration enforcement and to a strengthening Mexican economy. In
recent years, the number of Mexicans leaving the United States is greater than inward
migration, even though the country remains the top destination for Mexican emigrants
o Since 2013, Mexico stopped being the top country of origin to the United States, overtaken by
India and China
o Infact, most migrants into the US, are more likely to be college graduates, than field workers of
prior decades

Gains and Losses for Mexico

Costs Benefits

Large scale depopulation of towns and villages Migrants send home remittances
Many men migrate, leaving a majority of women who Remittances can then support a better standard of
have problems finding marriage partners living for those left behind
Migration can break up families Builds better housing, healthcare and education
Young people tend to migrate, leaving the old and very
Less competition for jobs and housing in Mexico
young dependents behind
Rural areas of Mexico have shortages of economically
active people and lack key workers – Drs, teachers etc.
Gains and Losses for USA

Costs Benefits

Unskilled American workers find it harder to get jobs, Businesses have benefitted as they now have a source
as they want a higher wage than Mexican migrants of cheap labour and higher profits
Mexicans are prepared to do many of the jobs that
Wages are kept low, and all-American workers are
Americans do not want such as fruit picking or factory
affected
work
Large numbers of Mexicans have brought their culture
Increased cultural and racial tension, especially in the
and food with them making Mexican food very popular
towns
in California (Mexifornia)
Illegal migration is seen as a drain on the American
More competition for jobs and housing in USA,
economy – border patrol costs, holding centres, prisons,
benefitting landlords and businesses
transport costs for repatriation, health care etc
The USA spent $4.2 billion on US/Mexico border Mexican immigrants contribute approximately 4% to
security in 2020 the US's GDP
Exam Tip
You need to be able to interpret a number of viewpoints and opinions from a variety of sources on the
contribution of migrants to the culture and social life of two contrasting countries. It is important to
have facts and figures that you can draw on to distinguish the comparisons.
Barriers to Migration
  There are variations in the ability of people to migrate across national borders according to levels of
skill and income; and opportunities, including the presence or absence of controls and international
borders
 Based on the idea of how attractive an immigrant is to a destination country

Occupation shortages

 New Zealand and Australia, for example, operates a points-based system which admits those
immigrants that have the skill set that the country’s economy currently requires
 Often the immigrant must also prove that they are able to support themselves financially for an
initial period of time, until they have contributed enough to the country’s welfare system to receive
support from it in times of need
 This obviously means that immigrants from an HDE have a better chance of migrating into that country,
as they will have had more chance of acquiring the skills and experience than an economy like New
Zealand’s requires
 In other areas, such as the EU, agreements like Schengen, which means that unskilled workers can
move to other EU countries freely and without hindrance
 This obviously gives them an advantage over potential immigrants from outside the EU area

Sponsored migration

 Other nations, for example the USA, have more stringent immigration policies and potential migrants
have to qualify by gaining a green card in a lottery or prove that they have a job offer before they go
 They also need to be sponsored by a US citizen or company, and be employed in a job that no other
US citizen could reasonably undertake
 Other countries limit travel opportunities for their population, for example North Korea and China
 People from LDE nations' such as those in North Africa, may lack the financial resources or skills/levels
of education that other more attractive economies may require
 They then travel as unskilled workers, or they may travel illegally or try to claim refugee status. As a
result, they can end up in camps like the ‘Jungle’ in Calais while they wait to get to the UK, or find
themselves in situations where they are open to exploitation or illegal status where they risk deportation

Illegal migration

 Some countries have little or no control over their borders due to:
o Long borders, particularly coastlines e.g. Greece has a lot of islands
o Conflict which reduces central government control over its country
o International conflict which motivates people to migrate, which can create an underground
market for trafficking - Ukraine/Russia conflict

Exam Tip
Students at times make very generalised statements about attitudes to immigration. Try to be as
specific as possible. For example, many employers favour a high rate of immigration because it
increases the potential pool of labour, while trade unions sometimes oppose high immigration
because this can keep wage rates lower than they would otherwise be.

11.2 Nation States

11.2.1 Variation in Nation States
Variation Between National Sovereign States
 A state is a nation, country or territory that has an organised political community by one government
and which no other state has any power or sovereignty over - in other words, a self-governing nation
 A nation is a territory of people that may or may not have sovereignty
o E.g. Wales and Scotland are nations which are part of the UK
o The UK is a sovereign state, but Wales and Scotland, whilst devolved from the UK government,
do not hold full autonomy and cannot therefore, be considered independent sovereign states
(yet)
o However, Ireland is divided into Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland (Éire)
o Republic of Ireland is a sovereign state but Northern Ireland is a nation of the UK
 A sovereign state has:
o The highest authority over its territory
o A permanent population
o Defined territorial boundaries
o A government not ruled by another - is independent
o The ability to interact with other sovereign states

 A sovereign state can exist without being recognised by other sovereign states, although unrecognised
states find it hard to make treaties with other powers or have diplomatic discussion with other sovereign
states - Taiwan is not recognised by China
 The United Nations (UN), recognises 193 countries as sovereign states with the Holy See (Vatican) and
Palestine as non-member observer states - a total of 195 sovereign states
o This is different to the number of countries worldwide; as countries have merged or split due to
changing political circumstances
o E.g. Sudan divided into two separate countries - Sudan and South Sudan - in 2011

 National sovereign states vary greatly in their ethnic, cultural and linguistic unity due to the:
o History of its population growth
o Degree of isolation
o Role of migration
 Many sovereign states will have an identity (e.g. American, Italian etc.) but it will have come from
different cultural backgrounds over time
o For example, the USA, before colonisation, was home to a mix of indigenous peoples/tribes
o With in-migration, the current population of the USA are the descendants of a 'global mix' of
nations (Greeks, Italians, Spanish, Scots, Irish etc.)
o From this mix, an 'American culture' has arisen, which is both inclusive and dynamic
 Other states have kept relatively homogenous (single) cultural traits because;
o They are physically isolated - Iceland's location has limited migration
o They are politically isolated - North Korean policies limit interaction with foreign nations
 Nation states can therefore, be considered an agglomeration of many different peoples living in one
united territorial area

Development of National Borders

 Boundaries are man-made separation lines between nation states - a demarcation line
o The Turkey/Syria border was decided by railway lines
 Many national borders have arisen due to natural boundaries such as rivers, mountain ranges etc.
o Parts of the Mexico/US border is the Rio Grande River
o The Andes range between Chile and Argentina
 However, all nation boundaries were created in the past; either years, decades or centuries ago
o The Spanish/French border was established in 1659
o Mexico–US border in 1853–1854
 Borders are developed through specific historical developments during a nation state's lifetime,
providing they have the ability and power at the time (war, religion, marriage etc.)
o Belgium was created in 1830–1831 as a buffer state between Catholic France and the
Protestant Netherland
 o The Spanish state formed in 1469 with the marriage of Isabella of Castile to Ferdinand of
Aragon, and its boundary with Portugal established in 1479 and with France in 1659
 Some borders are cultural, which mark a divide between ethnic groups or cultural identity - the Slovakia
and Czech Republic border is partly cultural
 Other borders are a result of colonial history, and many do not take into account different ethnic or
religious groups, which has led to issues of sovereignty and legitimacy
 It is hard to find any national border that a European country, at some stage of its historical
development, hasn't been involved in
o The partition of Africa by European nations in the 18th and 19th centuries does not relate to
indigenous cultural and ethnic distribution
o Space/land was divided by competing powers - many boundaries are straight lines - to distribute
raw materials and water resources between themselves
o The Egyptian and Sudanese border was drawn as a straight line by Great Britain in 1899
o Long established ethnic regions were divided into two or more different state territories
 Borders can be created to resolve political tensions
o The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) acts as a border barrier and is a strip of land (250 km
(160 mi) long and 4 km (2.5 mi) wide
o It runs across the Korean Peninsula near the 38th parallel north and roughly divides the
peninsula in half
o The DMZ was established as a buffer zone between North and South Korea during the Korean
Armistice Agreement in 1953

Exam Tip
The specification explicitly states the need for you to study a range of national borders, including
those resulting from colonial history, historical development and physical geography.
Contested Borders
 There are many contested borders and not all nation states are universally recognised
o For instance, Taiwan is not recognised as a sovereign state by China
 This can lead to both potential conflict and population movements
o The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 was a secret deal between France and Britain, to divide
parts of the Middle East between themselves
o This agreement continues to influence the borders of today's nation states, including Iraq
o Unfortunately, Iraq's borders divides the ethnic groups of Kurds and Arabs leading to conflict
between Arab Shia Muslims in the south and Kurdish Sunni Muslims in the north
 Causes for contested borders include:
o One state wishing to take over another
 Russia believes that Ukraine should become restored Russian territory
 Ukraine declared independence from the USSR during collapse of the Soviet Union in
1991
o A wish to unite culturally and ethnically similar populations
 Cultural groups may exist across borders as current borders were drawn without uniting
the group, so there is pressure from the group for recognition but this is rejected by the
states themselves
 Kurdish people are found in Turkey, Iraq and Syria and claim they were promised a
separate state in 1920, therefore, they contest existing boundaries
o A desire to obtain access to valuable resources
 States may try to gain valuable resources especially if they are lacking elsewhere in their
territory, and so seek to claim territory adjacent to their border/seabed
 China is claiming the nine-dash line extension, which it claims was previously part of
their territory

Ukraine / Russia / Crimea

 Crimea was considered part of Russia for many centuries, but in 1954 it became part of the Ukraine
  In 2014, the then pro-Russian Ukraine president was forced out, and Russia annexed Crimea
 Crimea's population voted to re-join Russia, however, few countries recognise Russia's claim
 They argue that all of Ukraine should have voted, not just Crimea
 Crimea is a strategic area of the Black Sea with vast reserves of oil and gas

Exam Tip
Ensure that in the 20-mark evaluate question both sides of the argument are treated equally, this will
ensure your response is balanced and has a coherent argument.
11.2.2 Nationalism & Development
Nationalism & the Development of Empires
 Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasises the loyalty and devotion of a group of people to
their nation, often defined by a common culture, language, history, or territory
 The development of empires is the process of expanding the political, economic, military, and
cultural influence of a state or a civilisation over other regions or peoples
 19th-century nationalism was important in the development of empires, as well as a source of conflict in
Europe and beyond, as other nations became part of larger empires such as the British Raj in India
 Nationalism can motivate imperial expansion of a nation by creating a sense of pride, superiority, and
destiny among its citizens, as well as a desire to spread their values and civilisation to other parts of the
world
o Although, expansion of the British Empire was initially through trade rather than nationalism,
over time, many British people became to believe their large empire was a result of Britain being
superior. This led to a national unity of pride in British achievements overseas
 Nationalism can also challenge the imperial domination of a nation by inspiring resistance movements
and independence struggles among the colonised or oppressed peoples, who seek to assert their own
identity and sovereignty
o Many countries in Africa sought independence during the mid 20th century as a resistance to
colonial rule
 Nationalism and the development of empires have had significant impacts on world history, culture,
politics, and economy, as well as on the issues of human rights, diversity, and globalisation

19th century World Map

 Various wars and revolutions in Europe, changed dynastic rule and formed many of today's nations
o War with France in 1871 united the small states of German speaking people to form Germany
 Industrialisation allowed European nations to expand their empires:
o Spain and Portugal acquired huge areas across South America
 o France expanded its empire to include:
 Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos in Asia
 French Polynesia in the South Pacific
 Much of north west and central Africa and Madagascar
 The competition by European nations to take over as many colonies as possible led to the 'Scramble
for Africa'
o A term used to refer to the expansion of European empires into Africa during the Age of
Imperialism
o Called a 'scramble' because of the way European nations raced to capture as much territory as
possible, in order to expand to their empires
 This competition also created tension and conflict between the nations, adding to a sense of
nationalism
o On October 11 1899, following a Boer ultimatum that the British should stop building their forces
in the region, the South African War, sometimes called the Boer War or Anglo-Boer War, began
o It raged between Britain and the self-governing Afrikaner (Boer) colonies of the South African
Republic (the Transvaal) and the Orange Free State for 2 years (1901), a final agreement was
reached in May 1902
o At the outbreak of war, Britain ruled the South African colonies of the Cape and Natal
o The Boers (Dutch origin) had refused political rights to non-Boer settlers, known as Uitlanders
(outlanders), most of whom were British, or to give civil rights to Africans
o However, gold had been discovered in the Transvaal and the international financial system,
including the British pound, was based on the gold standard and it was to British advantage to
gain control of the Transvaal and eventually the whole of South Africa in order to maintain its
'power' status

Empires and their colonies

 Indigenous people of the colonies often resented being controlled by another nation
 This helped to push a sense of nationalism within the colony, that perhaps wasn't there before colonial
rule
o Before India became part of the British Empire, it was divided into several kingdoms
o Opposition to rule of the British Raj in India led to uniting many Indians together despite cultural
and ethnic differences
 Independence movements rose, as people felt they had a common goal and were based on:
o The recognition and promotion of a shared history
o Identification of particular qualities of a people
o Promotion of an independent nation state for people to build together, once free of colonial rule
 This was known as the 'wind of change', as many colonies began to seek independence

New Nation States

Decolonisation and 'Wind of Change'

 Since 1945, new nation states emerged as empires disintegrated

 The USA and USSR both opposed the idea of empires and used their influence to assist subjugated
people to liberate themselves from colonial rule
 From the 1960s, African states began seeking independence from their colonial masters in a term
coined by the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan as the 'wind of change’
 Some of this change occurred as Germany, Italy, Spain and Japan lost territory after the Second World
War, in others it was due to hatred of colonial rule or because of the sheer costs involved in overseeing
a colony
o Britain and France could not afford the administrative and security costs of running their empires
after the war and returned rule to many of their nation's people
o Despite this, a number of new nation states were content to remain within the newly
formed 'Commonwealth', keeping the British sovereign as head of the new state
  Any independence conflicts that did arise, were costly in terms of the environment, economy and
human life
o Vietnam, had been under French colonial rule since the 19th century
o During WWII, the Japanese occupied Vietnam but withdrew after its defeat in 1945, leaving the
French educated Emperor Bao Dai in control
o Inspired by Chinese and Soviet communism, Ho Chi Minh formed the League for the
Independence of Vietnam and took over the northern city of Hanoi and declared a Democratic
Republic of Vietnam with Ho as its president
o France, wanting to regain control, backed Emperor Bao and set up the state of Vietnam in 1949,
with Saigon as the capital, effectively dividing Vietnam
o Yet both sides wanted a unified Vietnam, but Bao was more aligned with western ideologies, as
opposed to Ho's communist model
o Eventually in May 1954, the French lost control and withdrew, ending French colonial rule and
splitting Vietnam along the 17th Parallel thereby, forming South Vietnam
o With the Cold War ongoing, the US strongly opposed any nation allied to communist USSR and
China and pledged support to South Vietnam to remove any communist sympathisers
o As a result, war between the communist (USSR and China) supported north and democratic
south Vietnam (aided by the USA) broke out
o By the spring of 1975, the North Vietnamese army conquered all of South Vietnam, and the
following year North and South were formally united in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam
o More than 3 million people (including over 58,000 Americans) were killed in the Vietnam War,
and more than half of the dead were Vietnamese civilians
o US chemical weapons caused severe environmental damage
o 7 million tons of US bombs were dropped which destroyed vast areas of land and infrastructure
 Other reasons included:
o Many young Europeans became concerned about the injustice of colonial rule
o Rapid population growth and an increase in education within colonies
o Dependence on raw materials from colonies lessened as nations deindustrialised

Outcomes of independence

 In many instances, rapid decolonisation left a lack of economic stability, corruption and a power
vacuum
 Economies that were set up to supply raw materials and not industrialised struggled
 Power was usually seized by the army or by the ethnic groups who had worked alongside the colonial
rulers
o During Belgian rule of Rwanda, the minority Tutsi tribe had been elevated above the majority
Hutus', bringing resentment and eventually genocide by the Hutus against the Tutsis in the
coming years
 Interference by other countries such as the USA, Russia and China, increased instability and started
proxy wars such as those in the Sudan, Korea and Vietnam during the 1950s and 60s

Exam Tip

 The history of these independence wars are not needed, just the relevance to how new nation states
were formed and reformed

Former Colonies & Patterns of Migration

 Patterns of migration between former colonies and the imperial core country have always been strong
and has continued after independence
 A key connection is often language and culture
o Migration from Jamaica and India to the UK
o Northwest Africa (Maghreb region) to France
  These patterns are still evident and important in changing the ethnic composition and cultural
heterogeneity within countries of destination

Britain and former colonies

 After WWII, there was a general shortage of workers, and many people migrated from past colonies, to
fill those gaps in employment
 People from Jamaica (Windrush generation) travelled to the UK to work in transport and healthcare
 Some migrants were directly recruited for their skills (London Underground recruited bus drivers from
Kingston in Jamaica)
 Manufacturing of textiles was still ongoing in Lancashire and Yorkshire, and as the population of many
ex-British colonies spoke English and had an affinity with British values, they were particularly targeted
during recruitment of workers
 Many migrants were excited to move to Britain from countries where an education in schools that
promoted British history and culture were taught
 The newly established National Health Service, lacked trained doctors after the war and many doctors
travelled from India, Pakistan and parts of Africa to Britain
o Medical schools in India used the same textbooks as British teaching hospitals allowing Indian
doctors to fit in with the way medicine was conducted in the UK
 Other people simply migrated, as was their legal right, as British citizens
 All these movements have increased British cultural heterogeneity, particularly in London, Liverpool
and Bristol

 This pattern of migration occurred all across Europe after the war and in some instances remains today

11.2.3 Globalisation & Deregulation

Growth of Low Tax Regime States
 Globalisation has encouraged the growth of states that have low-tax regimes which provide (tax)
havens for the profits for Trans National Corporations (TNCs) and homes for wealthy expatriates
 A way for countries to encourage more foreign direct investment (FDI) is to reduce restrictions on who
can invest
 This allows for freer movement of money and encourages TNCs to move parts or all of their operations
to those countries with lower tax rates
 Some nations offer low or zero tax regimes, which provides a shelter from government taxation, called
a 'tax haven'
 Low tax regimes are often associated with higher income inequality and lower public spending on social
services and infrastructure. Nations may struggle to raise sufficient revenue for government priorities,
especially in LDEs
 Some examples of low tax regime states are:
o Ireland, which has a corporate tax rate of 12.5%, compared to the United Kingdom, which has a
corporate tax rate of 19%. This has attracted over £180 billions of FDI from the US
o Luxembourg allows companies to save millions in tax payments on profits earned in other
countries. This has resulted in more than 40,000 TNCs locating 'holding companies' to
Luxembourg to benefit from this tax break
o The Cayman Islands is the most well-known nation for being a tax haven. They offer 0%
personal tax rate and very low business taxes. As of 2022 116,996 companies were registered
on the island, of which, just under 600 are banks and trust companies and include 43 of the 50
largest investment banks in the world

Acceptance of Tax Havens

 Most governments and Inter-Governmental Organisations (IGOs) have accepted the emergence of
tax-havens although many Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have raised objections
  This is because tax havens offer a way of avoiding paying tax, but also reduces investment in LDEs
and encourages corruption
 Tax avoidance uses legal loopholes to reduce a company's or personal tax bill
 Different methods of tax avoidance offered by tax havens include:
o Corporate profit-shifting - where a TNC's headquarters is located in a low-tax country and
therefore, profits are registered there
o Wealthy people can move to a tax haven and live there or if they wish to remain in their home
country, they can invest their money in a trust in a tax haven

Advantages and Disadvantages of Tax Havens

Advantages Disadvantages

Governments and IGOs are more accepting of tax havens TNCs make large profits in other countries, but pay very
and tax avoidance due to the economic boost and growth little tax, leaving the government with less money for
they deliver domestic services such as education and health

Taxing TNCs in multiple countries is considered unfair and Investing abroad reduces money available to invest in their
therefore, tax havens offer a centralised tax centre own country

Tax havens allow individuals to avoid declaring income to

Tax havens can develop quickly and recover from recessions
their home governments. This increases corruption in HDEs
even quicker
and LDEs

Some organisations including NGOs have resisted this

Deregulation of capital markets has enabled growth of tax
deregulation and globalisation and attempted to retain or
havens and other low-tax environments
regain control

Tax havens may provide homes for wealthy expatriates with TNCs are highly important institutions which nations cannot
benefits for them and their employees, who do pay tax and afford to alienate, therefore, are unlikely to take action to
spend locally tackle tax havens

TNCs may use havens/low-tax financial centres to increase Growing inequalities have been recognised as a major
profits (pay lower taxes than if registered in another threat to the sustainability of the global economic system
country (e.g. Google, Starbucks) as taxes paid are minimal

Growing Global Inequalities & Economic Sustainability

 Growing global inequalities have been recognised as a major threat to the sustainability of the global
economic system
 In 2021, Oxfam found that just 10 of the richest men in the world owned more than the combined
wealth of the bottom 3.1 billion people, almost half of the entire world population
 Some of the consequences of inequality are:
o Economic instability - less equal societies have fewer stable economies and are more prone
to financial crisis, debt and inflation. Higher inequality is also associated with low-pay, low-
skilled jobs with no prospects
o Poor health - living in an unequal society causes stress and anxiety, leading to mental health
issues, shorter life expectancy, and higher rates of infant mortality
o Crime and violence - inequality increases property and violent crime
o Low social mobility and education - inequality leads to lower social mobility and education.
Those born into poverty often find it very difficult to escape from it - a cycle of poverty
 o Trust, participation, and happiness - people in less equal societies are less likely to trust
each other, less likely to engage in social or civic participation, and less likely to say they're
happy
o Political instability - inequality increases rejection of the established political classes who are
seen as the rich elite. This further threatens economic stability of the country

Gini coefficient

 The Gini coefficient is a statistical measure in analysing income distribution within a nation or a
social group
 It is measured on a scale of 0 - 100, with 100 being the highest inequality
 The Gini index uses the same data, but the scale is 0 - 1, where 0 reflects perfect equality, while 1 (or
100%) reflects maximum inequality
 Usually, higher wealth inequality is seen within HDEs because of the range of wages available

Alternatives - Bolivia

 With the rise in inequality, some governments have promoted alternative models
 Bolivia introduced a number of policies to reduce inequalities within its borders
 Bolivia has a mixed economic system that include private companies along with a centralised economic
planning and government policy
 Policies have included:
o Nationalisation of oil and resources - this ensures that revenues go to the government and not
private owners, TNCs and shareholders
o Low-energy promotion - through advocating a reduction in the use of resources, economic
growth has been consistent rather than rapid
o Subsidies - reductions on costs through subsidies ensures the poorer citizens of Bolivia can
afford to buy food
o Imports - reduction in overseas imports through promotion of Bolivian production

Impact of Bolivian policies

 Inequality has reduced from 61.6 in 2000 to 40.9 in 2021

 Millions of Bolivians have been lifted out of poverty
 Import substitution has boosted the economy - growth is 3.1%
 Since 2006, Bolivia's GDP has grown at double the rate for Latin America
 However, its per person GDP remains one of the lowest in South America at $3800 compared to
Uruguay at $21,677
 Whilst Bolivia has rejected a western economic model, the nation's budgets rely on global oil and gas
prices

Exam Tip

 The specification states that IGOs and most governments have accepted the emergence of tax havens,
however, with recent protests of companies such as Starbucks and Amazon not paying taxes, there is
more growing concerns over tax havens rather than acceptance
 When looking at alternative economic models, it is important to remember that Covid 19 has impacted
many countries and data may well be out of date
 It would be better if you checked economic data before the exams - The CIA World Fact Book or the
World Bank have up to date information on all countries and their economies
11.3 managing global issues &conflicts
11.3.1 Increasing Importance of Global Organisations
Growth in Importance of the UN
 Global organisations are not new but their importance has grown since the end of WWII (1945)
 Intergovernmental Organisations (IGOs) have controlled the rules of the global trade and flows of
finance
 IGOs also manage global environmental issues

United Nations (UN)

One place where the world's nations can gather together, discuss common problems and find shared
solutions.

www.un.org/en/about-us

 Based in New York, the UN became the first IGO established post-war and is important because:
o It helps maintains international peace and security
o It functions in managing global environmental, socio-economic and political problems
o Promotes the principles of human rights and equal rights for all through its commitment to
economic and social development
o It has a role in global governance through fostering cooperation and dialogue among nations

Members

 The UN’s Membership has grown from the original 51 Member States in 1945 to the current 193
Member States
 All UN Member States are members of the General Assembly
 States are admitted to membership by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation
of the Security Council
 António Guterres of Portugal, is the current and 9th United Nations Secretary-General, and is the Chief
Administrative Officer of the UN - a role which:
o Symbolises the Organisation's ideals
o An advocate for all the world's peoples, especially the poor and vulnerable
 The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security
Council for a 5-year, renewable term

Other functions

 The UN is involved in many global issues, such as climate change, humanitarian crises, nuclear
disarmament, and sustainable development:
o The Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) and its successor, the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs)
o The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is the foundation of international human
rights law. Adopted in 1948, it represents:
 "[the] universal recognition that basic rights and fundamental freedoms are inherent to all
human beings, inalienable and equally applicable to everyone, and that every one of us
is born free and equal in dignity and rights"
o The Geneva Convention which aims to protect the rights of prisoners
o International Court of Justice (ICJ) at the Peace Palace in The Hague (Netherlands) is the
main body of independent judges set up to settle disputes between countries
 oUN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) supports a global response to the
threat of climate change
o The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) aims
 "[to] eradicate poverty, reduce inequalities and build resilience so countries can sustain
progress"
o The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established in 1972, is the voice for
the environment within the United Nations system
o The World Food Programme (WFP) aims to eradicate hunger and malnutrition
o The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) promotes agricultural development which aids
food security
 The UN has also expanded its scope and functions over time, creating specialised agencies, funds, and
programs to address specific challenges and needs, such as:
o The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) supports people affected by conflict
o The United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) promotes socially and
environmentally sustainable settlements to provide adequate shelter for all
o The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) works in 190 countries and territories to save
children’s lives, to defend their rights, and to help them fulfil their potential, from early childhood
through adolescence
o The World Health Organization (WHO) aims to ensure the highest possible level of health for
all
o The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) focuses
on everything from teacher training to helping improve education worldwide to protecting
important historical and cultural sites around the world
o UN Women focuses exclusively on gender equality and women’s empowerment
o UN Population Fund (UNPF) funds family planning services to aid combating HIV
 The UN faces many challenges and criticisms, such as:
o Lack of representation
o Bureaucracy
o Inefficiency
o Politicisation
 However, it remains the most legitimate and representative global organisation that can address the
common problems of humanity

Interventions by the UN
Security
 The Security Council is responsible for keeping international peace and security, and resolving
conflicts that may threaten that peace
 The Council consists of 15 members - five permanent and ten non-permanent - elected by the General
Assembly for two-year terms
 The five permanent members are:
o France
o The UK
o The USA
o Russian Federation
o People's Republic of China
 Permanent members can approve changes to the UN Charter, recommend or veto (block) any Security
Council resolution, including admission of new member states
 This has affected its role in maintaining international peace and security at times
o For example, tensions between the US and the Soviet Union during the Cold War, seriously
affected the UN’s security functions during the first 45 years

Interventions
  As a forum, the UN assembly provides a platform for countries to discuss their differences without
going to war
 It can also adopt resolutions which are binding on all UN member states and can:
o Authorise sanctions to reduce a nation's ability to trade
o Military interventions through peacekeeping operations to help prevent further fighting
 The UN does not have its own army, but member nations supply equipment and forces
to the UN
 Although the UN has intervened through the use of economic sanctions and direct military intervention
in defence of human rights, they have had a mixed record of success

Examples of interventions

 Trade embargo on Iran

o The UN trade embargo on Iran is a set of sanctions imposed by the United Nations Security
Council to pressure Iran to comply with its obligations regarding its nuclear program
o The embargo includes restrictions on arms sales, financial transactions, travel bans, and asset
freezes for individuals and entities involved in Iran's nuclear activities
o The embargo also prohibits the export of dual-use items and technologies that could contribute
to Iran's nuclear enrichment and ballistic missile development
o The embargo aims to prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons and to encourage dialogue
and cooperation with the international community
o In 2016, Iran agreed to stop enriching uranium in exchange for the lifting of all sanctions
o In 2018, the US pulled out of the scheme and Iran subsequently fell into a recession, lost value
of its currency, saw inflation and drove out many foreign investments and investors
 UN forces in Congo
o The United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (MONUSCO) is the largest and most complex peacekeeping operation in the world
o It has over 16,000 military personnel and 1,300 police officers deployed across the country
o The mission:
 Has a mandate is to protect civilians, support the implementation of the 2016 peace
agreement, facilitate humanitarian access, monitor human rights violations, support the
disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of former soldiers, and assist in the
organisation of elections
 Faces multiple challenges, such as the ongoing armed conflict in the eastern provinces,
the humanitarian crisis affecting millions of people, the COVID-19 pandemic, the political
instability and violence following the 2018 elections, and the attacks by armed groups
against civilians and peacekeepers
 Has achieved some notable successes, such as facilitating the peaceful transfer of
power in 2019, supporting the response to the Ebola outbreak in 2018-2020, providing
life-saving assistance to vulnerable populations, and contributing to the stabilisation of
some areas through the deployment of quick reaction forces and community violence
reduction projects
 Continues to work closely with the Congolese authorities, civil society, regional and
international partners, and other UN agencies to advance the peace process, protect
human rights, and promote sustainable development in the DRC

Member States Operating Independently

 A failed state is:
o A political entity that has lost or never had the ability to perform the basic functions of a
sovereign government
 Some indicators of a failed state are:
o A lack of effective control over its territory
o The erosion of legitimate authority
o The inability to provide public services
 o Widespread corruption, and violence or threat of violence
 Failed states pose serious challenges to regional and global security, as they can become havens for
terrorists, criminals, and human rights violators
 As a result, some member states (US, UK, Russia) have operated independently of the UN in
intervening in ‘failed states’ or to conduct a ‘war on terror’
 These interventions have occurred due to:
o UN inaction or delays
o UN Security Council members have different interests and may veto suggested action
 E.g. When Russia annexed Crimea in 2014, the UN member states were divided
 The vote by the UN General Assembly was 100 to 11 in favour of Crimea remaining part
of Ukraine
 These independent interventions have profound negative impacts on geopolitical relations and global
stability
o The US has taken military action in several failed states - Syria, Yemen and Somalia
o Unmanned drones are used; which raises issues with Article 51 - where a state is able to use
force in self-defence if an armed attack happens when attacked
o The US argue that the use of drones is an act of self-defence in a counter-terrorism situation
and reduced the loss of their service men and women
o However, it is difficult to identify individual targets and impossible to avoid civilian casualties,
including children and women, and is therefore, against international law

Iraq War 2003-2011

 The US and UK governments justified their actions by asserting that Iraq was making illegal weapons of
mass destruction (WMDs)
 The UN wished to send in scientists and weapon inspectors, but the US and UK were unwilling to wait
and took military action
 This move was opposed by then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan
 Although there was a short-term military success, long-term, the impact has been one of civil war,
strengthening of its neighbour Iran and the rapid growth of ISIS

Costs

 The cost of intervention is incalculable but ongoing, so far:

o The 'war on terror' has cost the US 2000 lives since 2001
o Since 9/11, the US has spent over $8 trillion on the war on terror
o An estimated 3.6-3.8 million people have died indirectly in post-9/11 war zones, bringing the
total death toll to at least 4.5-4.7 million and counting
o 38 million war refugees and displaced persons
o UK military operations cost in Iraq from 2003 - 2009 was £8.4bn
o Four times as many active personnel and veterans have committed suicide than died in combat

11.3.2 Post War Global Organisations

Global Organisations Established Post War
 The International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank (WB) and World Trade Organisation (WTO) were
established by the WWII allied nations and have been important in maintaining the dominance of
‘western’ capitalism, global economic management and trade policy namely, free-trade

Bretton Woods

 The IMF and WB were set up during the Bretton Woods conference in the US at the end of the Second
World War
 Its aim was to help rebuild and guide the world economy
  The WTO was originally set up as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
 Together these three IGOs are known as the Bretton Woods institutions and have had a huge
influence on world trade and economic development

World Bank (WB)

 Founded in 1944, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development - soon called the World
Bank - has expanded to a closely associated group of five development institutions
 Originally, its loans helped rebuild countries devastated by World War II
 With its headquarters is in Washington DC, the WB is not a traditional high street bank, but a global
bank owned by member countries (187 countries)
 It has two main institutions, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the
International Development Association
 The bank has over 10,000 employees and over 100 offices around the world
 In its early days the bank didn't lend much money, but by the late 1960s and 1970s it started lending
more money to developing countries in order to fund schools, hospitals, infrastructure projects, and
agricultural reform with the goal of reducing poverty
 In the 1980s the World Bank along with the IMF began imposing SAPs (structural adjustment
programmes) on many of its borrowers - based on a model of western free markets
 From the 1990s onwards the World Bank became more interested in helping countries achieve the
UN's Millennium Development Goals, which included reducing poverty, improving health and education
and ensuring sustainable growth

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

 The International Monetary Fund (IMF) help makes currency exchange between countries easier
 Member countries of the IMF agree to exchange their currency with other countries
 The IMF lends money to countries, along with advising about their economic and monetary policies,
which helps keep the value of world currencies stable
 This makes international trade and investment around the world possible

Foreign exchange

 Before countries can buy goods from another country, money (currency) has to be exchanged from a
buyer's country into the seller's country's currency - foreign exchange of currency
 Every currency, whether it's the US dollar or the Euro, has a value in terms of other currencies
 Without a reliable supply of foreign exchange in each country, and without relatively stable exchange
rates, world trade would drop drastically
 The IMF works to help member countries ensure that they always have enough foreign exchange to
continue to do business with the rest of the world

World Trade Organisation (WTO)

 The WTO deals with the global rules of trade between nations
 The WTO is the only international organisation dealing with the rules of global trade
 Its main function is to ensure that global trade flows smoothly, predictably and freely as possible
 The WTO creates and embodies the ground rules for global trade among member nations, offering a
system for international commerce
 This means WTO rules become part of a country's domestic legal system
 The WTO is the most important and powerful international institution ever to have been created
 Through the dispute settlement body, the WTO has the unique tool of a global government which can
create binding agreements and make sure they are respected and enforced
 Theoretically, WTO decisions are absolute and every member must abide by its rulings
o So if the US and the UK are arguing over chlorinated chicken, it is the WTO which acts as judge
and jury
  WTO members are authorised by the organisation to enforce its decision by imposing trade sanctions
against countries that have breached any of the agreed rules

Global Trade Policies

 Global borrowing rules and trade policies have been especially effective in delivering growth to the
developed world, but the impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) and Heavily Indebted
Poor Counties Schemes (HIPC) policies on the developing world’s economies and economic
sovereignty is disputed

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs)

 Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) are economic policies imposed by the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank on developing countries as a condition for receiving loans or
debt relief
 The main components of SAP policies include fiscal austerity, trade liberalisation, privatisation,
deregulation, and currency devaluation
 The impact of SAP policies on the economies of the developing world has been controversial and
debated

Some Potential Benefits and Challenges of SAPs

Benefits Challenges

SAPs typically involve measures such as trade

liberalisation, fiscal austerity, deregulation and currency Reduced public spending on health, education, and
devaluation. For example in Nigeria, SAP policies social services, leading to increased poverty, inequality,
helped to restore economic growth, without inflation, and human suffering. For example, in Zambia, the SAP
and reached 5% GDP. SAP policies helped to reduce policies resulted in a 50% drop in health spending per
Nigeria's dependency on oil and imports by diversifying capita and a rise in child mortality from 111 to 191 per
the productive base of the economy through revival of 1000 live births between 1980 and 1990
its agricultural sector
Increased vulnerability to external shocks, such as
SAPs help to shrink government budget deficits,
fluctuations in commodity prices, exchange rates, and
eliminate hyperinflation, and maintain debt-payment
interest rates. For example, in Mexico, the SAP policies
schedules. For example, SAPs in Bolivia and Uganda
exposed the economy to the volatility of the global
reduced their fiscal deficits and inflation rates and
financial market and triggered the peso crisis of 1994-
improved their debt servicing ratios in the late 1980s
1995, which caused a severe recession and social
and early 1990s
hardship
SAPs aim to attract foreign investment by reducing
Loss of policy autonomy and sovereignty, as the IMF
inflation and exchange rate volatility, which increases
and the World Bank dictate the economic agenda of the
investor confidence and reduce uncertainty. Also, by
borrower countries. For example, in Argentina, the SAP
strengthening governance, rule of law, and anti-
policies forced the government to adopt a fixed
corruption measures, SAP policies can improve the
exchange rate regime and to relinquish control over its
transparency, accountability, and credibility of the
monetary policy, which contributed to the economic
institutions, which can reduce corruption, bureaucracy,
collapse of 2001-2002
and political risk for foreign investors
Erosion of domestic industries and agriculture, as
SAPs aim to achieve long-term or accelerated economic
cheaper imports flood the market and undermine local
growth by restructuring the economy and reducing
production. For example, in Ghana, the SAP policies led
government intervention. For example, SAPs in Ghana
to a decline in the share of manufacturing in GDP from
and Tanzania led to higher GDP growth rates and 15% to 10% and a loss of 300,000 jobs in the sector
increased private sector investment in the 1990s between 1983 and 1989
Increased social unrest and political instability, as the
SAPs facilitate the process of global economic
population protests against the harsh measures and their
integration by liberalising trade and investment policies
negative consequences. For example, in Bolivia, the
and promoting exports. For example, SAPs in Mexico
SAP policies sparked widespread demonstrations and
and Chile opened up their markets to foreign
riots in 1985, 2000, and 2003, which challenged the
competition and increased their export earnings in the
legitimacy of the government and threatened social
1980s and 1990s
cohesion

Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)

 HIPCs are a group of 39 low-income countries that qualify for debt relief from the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
 HIPC policies aim to reduce the debt burden of these countries and free up resources for poverty
reduction and social development
 The impact of HIPC policies on the economies of the developing world is mixed and controversial

Some Potential Benefits and Costs of HIPCs

Benefits Costs

Reduced debt service payments and increased fiscal space Insufficient debt relief and unsustainable debt levels,
for public spending on health, education, infrastructure and especially in the face of external shocks such as commodity
other sectors. For example, in Uganda, the ratio of debt price volatility, natural disasters and pandemics. For
service to government revenue fell from 35% in 1998 to 6% example, in Zambia, the debt-to-GDP ratio rose from 86% in
in 2004, allowing for more spending on primary health care 2005 to 120% in 2020, partly due to the fall in copper prices
and universal primary education and the impact of COVID-19

Improved macroeconomic stability and growth prospects, as Conditionalities and policy prescriptions that may
well as enhanced creditworthiness and access to undermine national sovereignty and policy space, as well as
international markets. For example, in Mozambique, the limit the scope for alternative development models and
annual GDP growth rate increased from 3.7% in 1996 to strategies. For example, in Bolivia, the HIPC conditions
8.1% in 2008, while the inflation rate decreased from 47.7% required the privatization of water services, which sparked
to 6.2% social protests and political instability

Strengthened governance and accountability, as well as

Trade-offs and opportunity costs between debt relief and
increased participation of civil society and donors in the
other forms of development assistance, such as grants,
design and implementation of poverty reduction strategies.
concessional loans and aid for trade. For example, in
For example, in Ghana, the HIPC process led to the
Malawi, the HIPC initiative resulted in a reduction of aid
establishment of a multi-stakeholder monitoring committee
inflows by about $150 million per year, which could have
that oversees the use of debt relief funds and ensures
been used for other development purposes
transparency and accountability

Criticisms of World Bank

 The WB has had a number of criticisms including:

o Its imposition of policies on developing countries (particularly the damaging SAPs)
o Its assumption that LDEs cannot develop without outsider help and knowledge
o The largest contributors (HDEs) have too much power over policies
 o That the head of the World Bank always comes from the US
o That it focuses too much on GDP growth rather than improvement in living standards
o Some development projects were environmentally damaging e.g. dams causing deforestation
o Some projects involved expensive technology which countries cannot fund themselves

Criticisms of IMF and SAPs

 Reforms implemented too quickly

 SAPs have been criticised for undermining social welfare, environmental protection, human rights and
national sovereignty
 SAPs have also been associated with increased poverty, inequality, unemployment, debt and social
unrest in many countries
 IMF has given loans to countries with military dictators
 Ignores human rights abuses and detrimental impacts of SAP conditions on employment, health and
education
 Negative impacts on the environment as countries are encouraged to implement ecosystem-damaging
projects to get more cash

Criticisms of WTO

 The WTO has been heavily criticised over the effects of free trade and economic globalisation
o For instance, many countries have been waiting for the WTO to conclude a long-awaited global
trade deal, that is intended to cut subsidies, reduce tariffs and give a fairer deal to developing
countries
o The so-called Doha Round of Talks began in 2001, but a breakthrough is yet to happen
o However, there are plenty of rows among the WTO’s key players over agricultural tariffs and
subsidies which just goes to prove that there are no global players only global tantrums

For and Against The WTO

For Against

It is democratic because the rules were written by its The WTO is too powerful in that it can compelled
member states, many of which are democracies who sovereign states to change laws and regulations by
also select its leaderships declaring these to be in violation of free trade rules
By expanding World Trade the WTO in fact helps to The WTO is run by the rich countries for the benefit
raise living standards globally. The term free trade of rich countries and large multinational corporation.
assumes there are no barriers or tariffs to trade These harm smaller countries which have less
between countries and that the cost of goods and negotiation power. It doesn’t lend weight to the
services is determined by the balance between what problems of developing countries; e.g. rich countries
the producer country wants for the goods and services not fully opening their markets to products from poor
and what the receiving country is prepared to pay countries
If a commodity or service is scarce and where the WTO is indifferent to the impact of free trade on
competition for those goods or services the producer workers' rights, child labour, the environment, and
country can exert influence on their cost health
However if there is an abundance or surplus supply of
It lacks democratic accountability as any hearings on
a good then the consumer country can negotiate a
trade disputes are closed to the public and the media
lower cost

Jamaica's SAP
  Started in 1977 when Jamaica signed its first Stand-By Agreement with the IMF to address the
country's debt crisis, balance of payments problems and dependency on foreign capital
 It involved austerity measures such as wage freezes, public sector layoffs, devaluation, trade
liberalisation, privatisation and deregulation
 The SAP was supported by loans from the IMF and the World Bank, which imposed conditionalities on
Jamaica's economic policy
 It faced popular resistance and social unrest, especially in the 1980s
 It had mixed results on economic growth, poverty reduction and human development indicators
o On the one hand, it helped to reduce inflation, stabilise the exchange rate, increase foreign
reserves and improve fiscal discipline
o On the other hand, it also contributed to low growth, high unemployment, poverty, inequality,
social unrest and environmental degradation
o According to some statistics, Jamaica's GDP growth rate averaged only 1.4% per annum in the
1980s and 1.3% per annum in the 1990s, compared to 2.2% and 3.0% for Latin America and
the Caribbean respectively
o Jamaica's debt-to-GDP ratio reached 147% in 2013, one of the highest in the world
o Jamaica's poverty rate increased from 12.9% in 2007 to 19.9% in 2017
o Jamaica's Human Development Index (HDI) value was 0.734 in 2019, ranking 96th out of 189
countries

Membership of Organisations & Trading Blocs

A word on terms

 Nationalism - identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the
exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations e.g. Donald Trump and MAGA
 Isolationism - a policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, especially the
political affairs of other countries e.g. North Korea is not involved with other countries
 Sinicization - the spread of Chinese culture and ownership
 Fundamentalism - a movement or attitude stressing strict and literal adherence to a set of basic
principles e.g. Afghanistan
 Protectionism - government economic protection for domestic producers through restrictions on
foreign competitors - US vs Chinese imports
 Foreign Direct Investment - FDI overseas investments in physical capital by TNCs - Apple in China
 Internationalism - belief that it is good for different countries to work together - IGOs, TNCs, UN,
World Bank etc.
 New International Division of Labour - divides production into different skills and tasks that are
spread across regions and countries rather than within a single company - outsourcing of jobs

 As a result of the dominance of these organisations, membership of global trade and financial IGOs is
almost universal
 However, regional groupings have emerged in the form of trading blocs such
as NAFTA, SEATO, ASEAN, Mercosur and COMESA
 There are over 30 major trade blocs and agreements, which all seek to have some form of free trade
agreement between themselves, along with customs (import/export) integration and closer political
unity such as the EU
 Critics argue that economic sovereignty has been removed to some degree
o Economic sovereignty is the ability of a country to control its own economic policies and
resources

Protectionism

 Protectionism by restricting imports through increased taxes and tariffs on goods that can be produced
within the country, has become increasingly popular
 Countries have argued that free-trade agreements are unfair and disadvantage some others
  Former President Trump argued that protecting US jobs through bilateral, not multi-lateral, trade
agreements was a better option
o For example, keeping US coal mines open rather than importing coal from overseas
 This attitude was one of the ways that Trump won the election but also swayed the British population
and the Brexit vote

Brexit


o Protection of UK trade markets was through the withdrawal of the UK from the EU on 31
January 2020
o The UK and the EU eventually agreed on a new trade deal that came into effect on 1 January
2021, which allows tariff-free and quota-free trade between them
o The trade deal also includes some shared rules and standards on workers' rights,
environmental regulations, and dispute resolution mechanisms
o The UK is no longer part of the EU's single market and customs union, which means there are
new checks and paperwork for goods crossing the border
o The UK is free to negotiate its own trade deals with other countries, such as the US, Australia
and New Zealand
o Northern Ireland remains aligned with some EU rules to avoid a hard border with the
Republic of Ireland, which is still an EU member state

Exam Tip
When discussing IGOs, remember to consider the wider implications of these global organisations
and not just the positive aspects.

Keep your focus clearly on the issue, impact of work that has been done (positive and negative) and
make clear comparisons between different organisations, this will ensure your response is balanced
and has a coherent argument.
11.3.3 Global Organisations & the Environment
Global Environmental Issues
 Global environmental issues affect everyone and agreements need to support from all nations
 The UN has/is trying to manage many of the world's environmental issues, but has seen varying
success
 Over time, numerous other agencies, IGOs and agreements have come into being that deal with
particular issues and environmental governance

Atmosphere

Montreal Protocol (1987)

 The Earth's atmosphere and biosphere are shared resources, (a global commons), that everyone
relies on
 The ozone layer, is a thin, protective blanket of gas in the Earth's atmosphere, which absorbs the sun’s
ultraviolet radiation
 In 1974, a group of scientists suggested that chemicals used in products such as aerosols, packaging
and fridges, could deplete the ozone layer and increase harm to humans and wildlife on earth
 By 1985, the ozone depletion theory was proven, when a 'hole in the ozone layer' was discovered
over Antarctica
 International concern over the ozone's thinning, led to previously unseen multilateral action to ban
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 An agreement was signed two years later and entered into force in 1989
 o Six amendments and adjustments have been made since then
 The agreement regulates the production and consumption of nearly 100 ozone depleting substances
(ODS), such as CFCs, halons, HCFCs, methyl bromide and HFCs
 The agreement has been successful in reducing the global emissions of ODS and restoring the ozone
layer, as well as contributing to climate change mitigation
 The Montreal Protocol was ratified (agreed) by all 197 member countries of the UN and was a first in
international co-operation
 It is expected that the ozone layer will be fully recovered by 2070
 Most ODSs are also greenhouse gases, therefore, the Montreal Protocol has prevented 135 billion
tonnes of CO2 greenhouse gas emissions, which makes the agreement an important contributor
against global warming

Kyoto Protocol and COP21

 As an issue, climate change was first raised at the UN Earth Summit Conference of 1992
 Debates followed as to which nations should be held responsible for the majority of emissions, or if
there was any evidence at all to climate change or global warming
 Eventually the Kyoto Protocol was agreed as an international treaty which committed industrialised
countries, and economies in transition, to limit and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions
 Adopted 1997 and entered into force in 2005 it finally recognised that developed countries are largely
responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere
 COP 21 stands for 21st Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC)
 Held in Paris in 2015 and resulted in a legally binding international treaty on climate change
 The Paris Agreement aims to hold the global average temperature increase to 'well below 2°C' above
pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit it to '1.5°C'
 The Agreement requires countries to submit their national climate action plans, known as 'nationally
determined contributions (NDCs)', and update them every five years
 Overall, international co-operation on climate change has been very slow and many see it as a failure
of international governance
 Critics of the Paris Agreement argue that pledges to reduce carbon emissions are not enough and
cannot be enforced

Biosphere

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

(CITES)

 CITES is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals from the threats of international
trade and organised by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)
 Legal trade in wild animals and plants (alive or dead) is worth an estimated US$220 billion each year
 The illegal wildlife trade is worth around US$23 billion a year and is the fourth largest illegal activity
worldwide, behind only arms, drugs and human trafficking
 It took 12 years of negotiation and was signed in 1973 by 80 countries and now has 183 countries as of
2021
 It lists 40,000 species of animals and plants, whether traded as live specimens, fur coats or dried herbs
 It regulates trade through a system of permits and certificates issued by national authorities
 It works with other international organisations and conventions to promote conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity
 CITES is considered a success in recording the trade in wild plants and animals and managing species
that can be traded legally to protect endangered species
 However, protection of species from illegal trade is difficult to manage as goods typically cross borders
between countries which requires international cooperation and is expensive to monitor
o China still trades in illegal ivory and rhino horn for traditional medicines
 o Pangolins are believed to be the world's most trafficked mammal, accounting for as much as
20% of all illegal wildlife trade
o Traded for their scales for use in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), but also as a luxury food
in Vietnam and China

Global Environmental Laws

 IGOs have been involved in developing laws for managing oceans and international rivers, as well as
monitoring the state of the environment

UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

 It is an international agreement that establishes a legal framework for all marine and maritime activities
 It was opened for signature on 10 December 1982 in Montego Bay, Jamaica, after more than 14 years
of work involving participation by more than 150 countries
 It lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world's oceans and seas, addressing
issues such as territorial sea, exclusive economic zone, continental shelf, high seas, marine
environment, marine scientific research, and dispute settlement
 It also manages the rights of 42 land-locked states
 It entered into force on 16 November 1994 and as of June 2016, 167 countries and the European Union
are parties to it
 It is considered a critical part of the rules-based international system and the United Kingdom is fully
committed to upholding its rules and securing the implementation of its rights and obligations

Helsinki Water Convention rules

 An international guideline regulating how rivers and their connected groundwaters that cross national
boundaries may be used, adopted by the International Law Association (ILA) in Helsinki, Finland in
August 1966
 Applies to all drainage basins that cross national boundaries, except where other agreement between
bordering nations exists
 It covers various aspects of water management, such as allocation, pollution, navigation, fishing,
hydroelectric power, etc.
 Asserts the rights of all bordering nations to an equitable share in the water resources, with reasonable
consideration of past customary usage along with balancing needs and demands of bordering nations
 Provides protection against water pollution and sets recommendations for resolving disputes over
usage
 The Berlin Rules on Water Resources in 2004, updated and expanded the Helsinki Rules to reflect the
developments in international water law

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)

 The MEA assess the role ecosystems play in supporting human development through its role in
providing:
o Food
o Cultural value
o Water
o Regulating climate etc.
 The MEA found that humans have altered ecosystems more rapidly and extensively in the past 50
years than in any other period, resulting in both benefits and costs for people and nature
 It also identified the main drivers of ecosystem change, the scenarios for the future, the policy
responses and the knowledge gaps that need to be addressed
 It aimed to provide a scientific basis for action to conserve and sustainably use ecosystems and their
services
  It identified 'ecosystem services' as a financial value, which strengthened the notion for preservation
and fits into the capitalist western view of a global economic system, thereby, helping to promote its
globally as worth conserving

Antarctica
 Antarctica is the highest, driest, windiest and coldest continent in the world and is the 5th largest
continent and is known as the 'continent of peace and science',
 IGO management is through the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)
 The ATS is a set of agreements that regulate the international relations and activities in Antarctica, the
only continent without a native human population
 Established in 1959 by 12 countries that were active in Antarctic research during the International
Geophysical Year of 1957-58
 Some of these countries had territorial claims or interests in Antarctica, but they agreed to set aside
their differences for the sake of scientific cooperation and peace
 The main principles of the ATS are:
o Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only, and no military activities or weapons testing
are allowed
o Antarctica shall be a natural reserve devoted to science and environmental protection, and no
mineral exploitation or commercial activities are permitted (although this is due for review in
2041)
o Scientific investigation and exchange of information shall be encouraged and facilitated in
Antarctica, and all scientific observations and results shall be made available to the international
community
o The legal status of Antarctica and the respective rights and claims of the parties shall not be
affected by the Treaty, and no new claims shall be asserted while the Treaty is in force
 The ATS consists of the Antarctic Treaty itself and several related agreements, such as the Protocol on
Environmental Protection, the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources,
and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals
 The ATS also includes various decision-making bodies, such as the Antarctic Treaty Consultative
Meeting, the Committee for Environmental Protection, and the Scientific Committee on Antarctic
Research
 These bodies meet regularly to discuss and adopt measures for the effective implementation of the
Treaty and its objectives
 Successes of the ATS:
o Number of countries that have signed the Treaty now stands at 56
o There have been no territorial disputes
o No military activities have happened
o Scientific research has been key in recognising atmospheric problems

International Whaling Commission (IWC) and Moratorium (IWM)

The International Whaling Commission (IWC)

  The IWC is the global IGO charged with the conservation of and management of whaling
 It adopted the Florianópolis Declaration in 2018, which reaffirmed its commitment to the conservation of
whales
 In response to the severe depletion of whale populations due to commercial whaling
a moratorium came into force in 1986
 It applies to all whale species and populations, except for those hunted by Norway, Iceland and Japan,
who have lodged objections or reservations to the moratorium
 It is still in place today, but its effectiveness and future are under debate

Whale sanctuary and Japan

 All forms of commercial whaling are banned in an area of 50 million km² that surrounds Antarctica,
called the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
 There area is abundant in marine wildlife, including krill that attract migrating whales who stay in these
waters to feed during the spring
 Despite a ban on all whaling in the Sanctuary, Japan’s Whale Research Program continues to hunt
Minke whales
 In 2008, the Federal Court of Australia deemed Japan’s whaling illegal, yet Japan still continued
whaling without any prosecution from the Australian Government
 In 2014, the Governments of Australia and New Zealand took the Government of Japan to the
International Court of Justice (ICJ) in the Netherlands where their Southern Ocean whale hunt was
deemed illegal
 Despite this, the Japanese continue to whale each summer, with a 'scientific' program and self-imposed
quota to kill 333 protected Minke whales each year in the Southern Ocean

Exam Tip
Make sure you can give examples of the different IGOs, NGOs and treaties that work to protect
Antartica. You will need to be able to explain how each one contributes to conservation efforts.
Remember to consider which are most and least effective and why.

11.4 Threats to national sovereignty

11.4.1 National Identity
Nationalism
 Globalisation is the idea of global connections and global flows of people, ideas and goods, which
effectively shrinks the world and produces borderless nations
 Over time, the relevance and power of countries becomes less, producing 'hyper-globalisation', with a
'one global village with global citizens' sharing an identity within the 'one world' and thereby, reducing
conflict and improving opportunities
 However, globalisation and its pervasive nature has increased the sense of nationalism with many
countries attempting to reassert a national identity and sever the interconnectedness of countries
o Brexit was a nationalist movement for the UK to leave the EU
o Building of the US/Mexico border wall
 Therefore, nationalism remains a powerful force and is strengthened via:
o Education
o Sport
o Political parties through emphasising loyalty to the 'institution' and 'ideals' of a nation state

Factors Used to Emphasise Nationalism

 Factor Implemented Via

National Curriculum teaches Fundamental British Values (2014) of

democracy, rule of law, respect, tolerance and individual liberty through
Education citizenship, history and other subjects

Contested values in terms of which national stories and symbols

however, it does attempt to bring some cohesion to what is learnt
Serves as a national unifying force through Football and Rugby World
cups or Winter and Summer Olympics etc. where flags, painted faces
and traditional songs form part of the national sporting ritual
Sport
However, the UK is unusual in that nationalism of sport is not solely on
a unified nation, but fragmented into Welsh, English, Irish and Scottish
nations
Political parties use symbols such as the rose, lion, dragon, oak or union
flag as part of their image, which appeal to particular national identities
Political
Not all people can or want to relate to these symbols, some even find
them offensive and off-putting, particularly voters with international or
European connections/outlook

 For some, the idea of national identity is linked to sovereignty and view IGOs such as the World Bank,
the UN, the EU and IMF, as having too much power and making unfair rules
 This is reinforced by political parties referring to 'taking back control' over the flow of laws, people and
goods etc.

Exam Tip
Don't get bogged down on political views here, this is not the place to discuss politics or the rights and
wrongs of political parties. Stay geographical in your responses.
Identity & Loyalty
 Identity and loyalty can be linked to:
o Distinctive legal systems
 In France, a person is considered guilty until they prove their innocence, whereas, the
UK's legal system is innocent until proven guilty
 The USA's Constitution Bill of Rights, Second Amendment of the 'right of the people to
self-defence' and therefore, the right to bear arms
o Methods of governance
 Britain has the right to vote for representation in Parliament
 The principles of the Magna Carta, 1215, is considered the foundation of British laws,
liberties and principles and the first to identify 'human rights'
o National ‘character’
 British identity is seen as ideals of tolerance, determination, politeness and tea
 France and 'liberty, equality and fraternity' - used to justify the ban of the burqa as a
symbol of female oppression, which was incompatible with French culture and not a
religious ban
o Landscape
 The countryside can be linked to identity; such as the 'quintessential British country
cottage with a thatched roof, nestled within beautiful gardens of soft colours'
 However, it is difficult to distinguish 'where' this should be - Lake District, Cotswolds etc.
  Artists, poets and writers have penned a particular view of a nations countryside as a
national identity
 Wordsworth's daffodils, Constable's 'Haywain' or Bronte's 'Wuthering Heights'
etc.
 Federico Lorca's 'Sketches of Spain'
 There is a fine line between nationalism and fanaticism
o Fanaticism can lead to a belief that people who are seen as 'different and living in their country',
are essentially wrong, improper, or inferior; whereas nationalism will recognise and value
cultural differences to a point
 Inciting nationalism can lead to issues of sovereignty and national independence with far reaching
consequences
o The referendum on EU membership in 2016, back fired on the Conservative party when
nationalism was at the forefront to the 'leave' campaign, appealing to many of the UK's older
citizens

Multinationalism
 Most countries are multinational with contrasting ethnic groups (linked to migration) therefore, questions
of national identity and loyalty are complex
 This is particularly evident in an era of globalisation where many people will have mixed loyalties to
their:
o Place of birth
o Place of current residence
o Cultural heritage
 Furthermore, changes in religion, food and language have modified perceptions of national identity
 National identity and loyalty is generally higher in ethnically diverse areas due to a sense of belonging
and national pride among individuals who identify with multiple cultures
 Cultural cohesion and how states achieve this, is debated

Cultural Cohesion in NZ, UK and USA

Once part of the British Empire, it gained independence in 1947. Now it is home to many
ethnic groups including, Korean, Chinese, South African along with indigenous Māori people.
In 1989, to aid cultural cohesion, the 'Tino rangatiratanga' (Māori for 'absolute sovereignty')
New Zealand flag accepted as the national flag for the Māori, yet in 2016 in a second-round referendum to
change to the country's national flag from its 1902 colonial design (the Union Jack and
Southern Cross Stars) to one that incorporated Māori and contemporary culture was
defeated by a majority popular vote of keeping the original flag

There is a split between political and cultural identity in the UK which has become important
in reflecting British values, but also the values and beliefs of overseas family heritage. For
UK
instance, Asian families can be politically British but culturally Indian - a way of integrating
into British way of life without losing a sense of Indian heritage

National identity is difficult due to a complex settler history - Asian, Hispanic,

French, black American, and white Europeans have all developed distinct cultures
USA from each other, yet it has become a melting pot of a single 'American culture'

The hundreds of different Native American tribes and communities predate the first
settlers and retain their own indigenous culture
Exam Tip
When writing an introduction to the 20 marks assess and evaluate questions, do not waste time by
rewriting the question as part of your introduction. Instead focus on identifying your view or
introducing the key issues you intend to discuss in the essay. Remember, the essay is not a 'mystery'
story and therefore, the 'plot' should be disclosed at the start; in this way, the reader/examiner knows
exactly what you are going to focus on.

Factors that strengthen national identity

 Countries with a common language and a long history, will tend to have a stronger national identity
 Countries with clear physical borders
 Government action can attempt to strengthen national identity (e.g. USA: daily pledging allegiance to
the flag, UK: lessons in British values)
 Sport can strengthen national identity (London 2012); however, this may be short-lived (Scottish
referendum 2014 and Brexit vote 2016)

Factors that can weaken national identity

 Countries with clear tribal or religious differences may lack national identity or coherence (e.g. Kenya,
Nigeria, Syria), and may be exploited by extremists which may harden attitudes and identity to a sub-
group, rather than to the nation
 International migration can weaken national identity as cultures blend and may challenge the status
quo, such as Sharia Law in UK
 Social media allows individuals to build identity through a common interest, which may be global in
extent, making the nation irrelevant
 Individuals may choose to reject the nation’s identity (such as those going to join IS in Syria) and if
enough do this, the nation’s identity itself may be threatened

11.4.2 Challenges to National Identity

Foreign Ownership of UK based Companies
 With state boundaries becoming increasingly permeable to flows of investments, many UK-based
companies are foreign owned (EDF or Jaguar Land Rover (JLR)), making ‘Made in Britain’ an
increasingly complex idea
 For example:
o Foreign governments with sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) - In January 2015, Qatar
acquired the entire Canary Wharf financial district for £2.6 billion and owns 95% of the Shard
and the Chinese government owns a 10% stake in Heathrow Airport
o TNCs - in 2010, Kraft USA acquired Cadbury's and the UK car industry is mostly foreign-owned
 Sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) are worth hundreds of billions of dollars and allow foreign
governments to own assets in other countries, which many see as undermining national identity and
threaten sovereignty
 Some countries set a high shareholder threshold, making it harder for companies to be bought out by
overseas investors

British car industry

 Once the second largest car manufacturer, with names such as Jaguar, Rover, and Triumph
dominating the world's exports of vehicles
 Rising production costs and competition from German and Japanese manufacturers in the 1970/80s,
led to a shrinking British owned car industry
 Most UK car manufacturing is now under foreign ownership, which complicates the once iconic British
brands
 o In an effort to create a fuel-efficient car that was affordable for the masses, in 1957 the Mini was
born
o With its very British looks, affordability, and a promise of 'fun, freedom, and adventure' the Mini
became a success and soon gained a cult following, even Enzo Ferrari owned a Mini
o In 1994 German owned BMW acquired the Rover Group and began manufacturing the modern
Mini in Oxford and Birmingham
o In an effort to keep the 'authenticity' of the brand, the new Mini has optional Union Jack taillights
o BMW have produced a number customisations in order to keep the 'original' car’s fun and
friendly personality such as:
 Convertibles
 Hybrid and electric models
 Seating for 5 adults
o Yet despite being assembled in the original factories in the UK, parts are manufactured in other
EU countries
 BMW have also run Rolls-Royce since 2003, although manufacturing is still based in West Sussex
 MG Motor UK Ltd has its HQ in Birmingham, but is actually owned by China's Shanghai Automotive
Industry Corp (SAIC)
 The MG badge is about the only thing that is British as the car is manufactured in China and then
imported into the UK
 Other 'British' car brands such as the Bentley, Jaguar Land Rover and Lotus are all owned by overseas
companies
 This raises the issue of the UKs so-called industrial decline, because although the loss of the car
industry did lead to reduced employment, output has increased with profits going offshore

Exam Tip
Make sure you can name other examples of foreign takeovers such as food companies, energy and
football teams and consider if the 'brand' remains 'British'.
Westernisation
 Largely driven by retail, food and media, 'westernisation' is a soft power challenge to national identity by
European and North American TNCs
 Purely US cultural values are promoted as 'Americanisation'
 The spread of 'western' culture by TNCs is not a form of global political power play, however, their
promotion does naturally bring about a cultural change to places
 The most successful companies design, advertise and sell aspirations that people believe they want
o McDonalds - based in 100 countries and serve over 70 million customers a day, spreading the
idea of American fast food
o Disney - accused of portraying a highly sanitised version of the world with its films, TV channels
and resorts that are rooted in a false and unachievable 'American Dream'
o Apple, Google and Microsoft - all tech giants indirectly spread 'western' ideals, culture, news
etc. through their global connections
 The actions of these corporations does not automatically challenge or modify national identities, as
these TNCs gain new ideas from various cultures across the globe
 It is more of an influence, that is then linked to the country of origin - Indian, Korean and Japanese
influences inspire creative industries such as film, music and food, creating a 'fusion' that is
subsequently 'promoted' as 'western or American'
 Some 'westernisation' is resisted by places; such as when the sales of Valentine's Day cards and
associated gifts were targeted by the local government in Kohat, Pakistan, who were worried about the
'western tradition' of honouring a Christian saint
 This 'western and Americanisation' of places promotes a distinctive view of the benefits the dominant
capitalist model.

Ownership of Property, Land & Businesses

  Property, land and businesses are increasingly owned by non-nationals which impacts national identity
 Individuals such as billionaires from the former Soviet Union (Russian oligarchs) bought so much
property in London that it started to get the nickname ‘Londongrad’
 Foreign property investments has pushed up property prices in London, making housing unaffordable
for some
 Non-national ownership of property within the UK is targeted within London, which is seen as an area
with a 'great return on investment'
 UK citizens are also responsible for changing a places identity
o Coastal areas in France, Italy and Spain have become British ex-pat areas dominated by
retirees, young entrepreneurs and sun-seekers
o This has contributed to the growth of British enclaves overseas
o In some places, visible landscapes have been replaced with a new British ethnoscape
 Ethnoscapes are changes made by minority ethnic groups to a cultural landscape in order to remake
the place where they live to reflect their origins
o A British pub in Nice, France, serving a roast beef dinner
 Some also argue that ethnoscapes not only change the physical landscape but also influence a cultural
change
o Ayia Napa, Cyprus is an enclave for young tourists with music, sun, sea and drink as its draw,
however, it also encourages the local youngsters to experience and accept tourist behaviours
as the 'norm' and increases crime within a once quiet town with cobbled streets, harbourside
tavernas and a Medieval monastery
 A consideration is whether ethnoscapes and foreign property investments make it harder/difficult for
local residents to buy property or to live in these areas and therefore, considered threats to national
identity

Exam Tip
You should evaluate throughout your essays and include a mini evaluation at the end of each
paragraph. This way you will hit
the level 4 criteria which states a 'rational and substantiated conclusion', which links back to the
question.

11.4.3 Consequences of Disunity

Nationalist Movements
Nation or state?

 Confusion arises around the terms nation or state or even nation-state and which one to use.
o The term nationalism is used to describe pride and promotion of sovereign and non-sovereign
regions which leads to more confusion
 For example, when talking about 'African nations' it refers to sovereign states (the countries) but the
'United Nations' is an organisation of nation-states

Differences Between a Nation and a State

Nation State

A nation is a group of people with common traditions, The State must have all the following: a population, a
culture, language, or history and willing to live together. territory, a government and sovereignty (power to
A nation is dynamic and always changing govern)
 Nations do not have judicial laws, but have unwritten
States create laws and rules that are mandatory
traditions, customs and rules

Not all nations have a state. They can form other

territorial entities, such as communities, regions or A state is based on one or several nations
villages

A nation is historical and sociological The state is a political concept

Nations evolve and are more stable States are created and rely on soverignty

Nations can survive without a defined territory States have a defined, fixed territory

Consequences of disunity

 There are strong nationalist movements seeking to create independent, smaller states (separatism)
whilst remaining within larger trading groups (Catalonia or Scotland wishing to be separate but remain
in the EU)
 These nationalistic movements arise due to:
o Differences in languages and cultures
o Peripheral location geographically (Bangladesh was once part of Pakistan but separated by
India)
o Alienation from central government
o Or a combination of above factors
 If national divisions are significant enough, it can lead to a demand for secession - where part of a state
is separated in order to create a new and independent country

Demands for secession

Independence Movements

Catalonia Scotland

Autonomous region of Spain, a triangular area in

Where the northeastern corner of Spain. It is bordered by Northern region of the UK
France and Andorra to the north

English with Scots and Scottish Gaelic as minority

Language Catalan
languages

Autonomy existed prior to Spanish Civil War, but The Scots have always resented the way their nation
was withdrawn by Nationalist General Franco as is controlled by English politicians sitting
Catalan had sided with the losing Republicans. Westminster. Ancient conflicts with the English stir
Background
Recognised as a separate nationality by the new up strong feelings on nationalism, yet in 2014, the
democratic government in 1979, but not granted Scottish people chose to remain part of the UK - but
independence. only just
 Large pro-independence demonstrations held
which culminated in an independence
Very few supported the Conservative or Labour
referendum being held in October 2017.
Party in Scotland during the 2019 General
Election. Out of 59 Scottish seats, 48 were won
The referendum attracted a 43% turnout, with
by the SNP (Scottish National Party), which
Recent 90% of the votes returning 'yes'. This was
advocates full Scottish independence.
movement enough for Catalan President Carles
Puigdemont to declare independence from
Although Scotland has an income from oil and
Spain.
gas, recent price fluctuations means that
independence may cost more than nationalists
The Spanish government in Madrid declared it
suggested.
illegal and Madrid imposed direct rule on the
region shortly afterwards.
No other state recognised the result as valid In 2020, support for Scottish independence is
and independence wasn't gained. higher than in 2014, and a second referendum is
being pushed for.
Result Some leaders of the separatist movement were
put on trial, and others fled the country. The Brexit may be the catalyst for a Scottish
trial increased tensions with Madrid and independence as support for the EU is strong with
support for independence is mixed. over 60% of Scotland voting to 'remain' in the EU
Political Tensions in Emerging Nations
 There are significant political tensions in the BRIC and other emerging nations resulting from the
uneven pattern of the costs and benefits of globalisation
 In some instances, these uneven, internal regional or ethnic divisions threaten to dis-unify nation-states

Emerging Economy Internal Tensions

Divisions arose over the costs of hosting of the World Cup (2014) and the Olympic Games
(2016). Protesters argued that the money would have been better spent in alleviating
poverty. Many of the promises of improved homes, infrastructure and schools never
materialised and many of the stadiums and Olympic Village sits abandoned and vandalised.
Brazil Indigenous communities of the Amazon are facing loss of ancestral land from land-grabbers
after deforestation. Many communities have been threatened and even killed, in attempts to
oust them from their land.

Bolsonaro elected in 2019, divided Brazilian society on a wide range of issues from anti-
LGBT rights and support for deforestation
Internal tensions on Russian nationalism are a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that
have political, social and cultural dimensions and many link back to the era of the Soviet
Union
Russia
Russification was a policy of enforcing Russian culture on the vast numbers of ethnic
minorities that lived in Russia. It involved promoting Russian language, religion, education,
and administration over other cultures and suppressing their rights and identities.
 There are long-standing tensions between the Hindi majority and Muslim minority and
Prime Minister Modi's 2019 Citizenship Amendment Act is seen as a way to alienate India's
Muslims
India
Kashmir in the northwest is a difficult region to control and is disputed with Pakistan

Several separatist movements in the northeast of the country Tripura, Nagaland and
Mizoram
Separatist pressure exists in Tibet and in the west where the mostly Muslim Uyghur ethnic
group live, resulting in the Chinese government constructing 're-education camps', which
some observers have commented as an action to genocide.

Internally, there is large rural to urban migration and the hukou system has resulted in
China migrants not having full rights when they move to urban areas.

Hong Kong has seen pro-democracy protests as a response to Beijing's move to exert more
control within the semi-autonomous region. China's new National Security Law (2020)
effectively gives control over Hong Kong - although this is in breach of the Sino-British
Joint Declaration of 1985
Role of State & National Identity
 The role of the state is variable and national identity is not always strong, especially in ‘failed states’
where there are stark differences between the politically and economically powerful elite, foreign
investment groups and the wider population
 Where a government has lost political control and is unable to provide it basic responsibilities; unity and
loyalty to the state is lost and it becomes 'a failed state'
 Many African states were artificially created under European rule in the 19th century, and this threw
differing indigenous communities together
 In the immediate post-colonial period, statesmanship was lost as these communities squabbled
amongst themselves for ultimate power, creating a lack of internal cohesion allowing for newly
emerging nations to quickly fail
 It also exposed the differences between those with political and economic power and the wider
population and bred corruption and inherent instability

Sudan

 The Sudan became independent in 1955

 During its colonial past, Britain divided it along ethnic lines
o Arabs in the north
o Mostly black African ethnic groups in the south
 This separated the country ethnically and culturally
 In 2011, after 50 years of internal struggles and a loss of 2 million lives, the Sudan gave up on unity
 The new state of South Sudan was declared
 The remainder of Sudan kept its name and the capital city - Khartoum
 As a state, South Sudan has the worst health and development indicators in the world
 Internal issues include:
o Violence and corruption jeopardising peace and development efforts
o Ethnic conflict that has killed and displaced thousands of civilians. South Sudan has 64 ethnic
groups with the largest being the Dinkas, who make up around 35% of the population and
dominate in government.
o Lack of a viable governing system and widespread political conflict
o Food insecurity and malnutrition caused by drought and economic failures
 o Cattle are used as food and as a store of wealth. It takes 20 cows to buy a bride if a young man
hopes to marry, which encourages cattle raiding and ethnic conflict
o Attacks on humanitarian workers and suspension of aid support

Solution?

 There are no easy solutions to internal disunity

 Many of the borders were drawn by past colonial rule, which threw unrelated ethnic groups together
and created further tensions when independence was subsequently gained
 Even secession can create issues, as South Sudan has shown

Exam Tip
Although many of the failed states are due to past colonial rule, it is important that you find a balance
in your argument when discussing disunity. Remember that although they are unsettled and waring
amongst themselves, national tendencies may eventually unite these states. Rwanda is a positive
example of this, where despite the legacy of genocide, reparations are being made through
intermarriages of Tutsis and Hutus, in a bid to unite the country and become a single nation-state with
one voice.

END