Physics 2120

Laboratory Manual
Spring 2025

Week
of: Lab Topic
6 NO LAB
January

13 Standing Waves
20 NO LAB
27 NO LAB
3 Electric Fields & Potential
February

10 Simple Resistive Circuits

17 NO LAB
24 NO LAB
3 RC Circuits
10 SPRING BREAK!
March

17 LCR Circuits
24 Refraction and Thin Lenses
31 NO LAB
7 Diffraction
April

14 Optical Spectroscopy
!
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!
 LAB 1: STANDING WAVES
Updated December 2024

Note: Sections III & VII (INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS) should be completed before you come to lab.

I. INTRODUCTION

In this lab, you will explore standing waves in two different physical systems. You will first
make measurements of transverse standing waves on a string. You will then make
measurements of longitudinal standing waves in an acoustic resonator (that is, a tube).

II. USEFUL EQUATIONS

wavelength-frequency relation: v= f l

T
wave speed on a string: ν=
(M string / L)

v
standing-wave frequencies on a string: fn = n , n = 1,2,3,...
2L

T
velocity of sound (T = temperature in K): v = 331.45 m/s
273

v
standing wave frequencies for open-closed tube: fn = n , n = 1,3,5,...
4L

–––––––––––– STANDING WAVES ON A STRING ––––––––––––

III. INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

* * Complete this section before coming to lab. * *

Let’s make sure we understand what the first few standing waves on a string should look like.
The graph below illustrates the displacement u(x ) for the fundamental mode at some fixed time
t. In the graphs that follow sketch u(x ) for some fixed time t for the next three resonant modes
of the string.

fundamental ( f1 )

u(x)
L

x
Standing Waves
1
 first overtone ( f 2 )
u(x)
L

second overtone ( f 3 )
u(x)
L

third overtone ( f 4 )
u(x)
L

IV. EXPERIMENT DETAILS

A. Instrumentation Overview

You will use the following instrumentation: computer, 850 Universal Interface computer
interface box, Capstone software, string vibrator, rod, table clamp, Universal Table Clamp,
super pulley, 200 g hanging mass, 2 leads and a meter stick. The interface box and string
vibrator are used to create transverse waves on the string at a frequency f. The experimental
setup is shown in the following diagram.

B. Experimental Setup

1. Experimental hookup: As shown in the diagram, hook the leads from

Output 1 of the interface box to the input of the string vibrator.
The end of a string should be attached to the string vibrator as well. The string should
be draped over a pulley and the 200 g mass attached to it, as also shown in the diagram.
Standing Waves
2

The image part with

relationship ID rId32
was not found in the
file.
2. Programming the interface box: Turn on your interface box, start the computer, and
launch Capstone. Select the Signal Generator icon in the Tools Palette, then select 850
Output 1.

Make sure the Signal Generator is set to output a Sine Wave. Set the Amplitude to 2.0 V using
the toggle switch next to the V. Keep this window open.

NOTE: If at any time during this experiment the string vibrator starts making a loud noise,
turn the voltage down.

C. Experimental Overview

In this part of the lab, you will experimentally find the (resonant) frequencies f n that produce
standing waves on the string. Before doing that, you will calculate the expected resonant
frequencies for the string.

V. MEASUREMENTS OF STRING STANDING WAVES

A mass of 200 g is suspended from the string. Calculate the tension in the string. Remember,
tension is a force!

tension T =

The yellow string supplied has a mass per unit length (Mstring/L) of 1.61 ´ 10-3 kg/m. Using this
number and the tension you just calculated, find the wave speed v for waves on this string.

wave speed v =

Measure the length L of the string from its attachment point on the string vibrator to the top of
the pulley and record it below. Make as precise a measurement as you can.

string length L =

Now calculate the fundamental frequency f1 for standing waves on this string.

fundamental frequency f1 =

In the Signal Generator window set the frequency to your calculated fundamental frequency f1 .
Note: you must press Enter every time you type in a new frequency, otherwise the software
doesn’t recognize that the frequency has been changed! Click On. The signal generator should
now be vibrating the string which should cause the string to oscillate transversely.

Is the string oscillating in its fundamental mode? _______________

You will likely need to slightly change the signal-generator frequency to exactly hit resonance.
You should be able to find resonance to a precision of 0.1 Hz. Change the frequency until you
Standing Waves
3
get the string to oscillate at resonance: a standing wave will have a very stable shape and a large
amplitude. TIP: Use the buttons by frequency in the Signal Generator window to
change the frequency without needing to type in every value. The two buttons on the right let
you select which digit changes when you click the up and down buttons.

If you are slightly off resonance, the amplitude of the wave will probably vary slowly in time. If
the experimental resonant frequency is vastly different from your calculated one, or you cannot
find the fundamental resonance, go back and check your calculation!

In Table I, fill in your expected resonant frequency that you calculated. Also fill in the value of
the measured resonant frequency. Then calculate expected values of the first three overtone
frequencies and fill in the first column of the table. Experimentally find these resonant
frequencies and record their values in the table.

Turn the Signal Generator off.

Table I
calculated f n measured f n % difference
n
(Hz) (Hz)

VI. ANALYSIS OF STRING STANDING WAVES

1. % differences: Calculate the % difference between the experimental and measured values of
each resonant frequency as:

measured f - calculated f
% difference = ´ 100 .
calculated f

Fill in the values in Table I.

2. Statistical vs systematic errors: Errors in an experiment come in two flavors: statistical

errors and systematic errors. Statistical errors arise from random variations in measured
quantities in an experiment. The consequence of statistical errors are random variations in
repeated measurements of a quantity. The influence of statistical errors can be lessened by
making repeated measurements and determining an average. The standard deviation associated
with a particular measurement is essentially the average of the statistical error in the measured
quantity. Thus, larger statistical errors lead to larger standard deviations.

Standing Waves
4
On the other hand, a systematic error arises from some fixed error in the measuring system or
measuring technique. For example, let’s say that you are measuring distances with a “meter”
stick that, in fact, is 10% too short. Your length measurements will then all be off by a factor of
1/0.9 = 1.11 from their true value. In this case repeated measurements will not improve the
accuracy of the quantity being determined. Thus, larger systematic errors lead to larger %
differences between expected values and measured values.

Let’s now think about the % differences between your expected frequencies and your measured
frequencies in Table I. Use Excel or your calculator to determine the average % difference and
the standard deviation of % difference values in Table I. (The signs of the % differences are
important – don’t forget them in the calculations.) TIP: If using Excel, the average and standard
deviation are calculated using the AVERAGE and STDEV functions, respectively.

average % difference =

standard deviation of % difference =

Is the magnitude of the average % difference greater or smaller than the standard deviation?
______________________________________________________________________________

Using the answer to this question, would you say that statistical or systematic errors are larger in
your experiment?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

–––––––––––––––– ACOUSTIC RESONANCE ––––––––––––––––

VII. INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS
* * Complete this section before coming to lab. * *

In the experiment that you just completed with the string, you changed the frequency to find the
resonant modes of the string. In this experiment we will change the length of the acoustic
resonator, at a fixed frequency, in order to find resonances. From the measurements, we will be
able to determine the speed of sound in air.

In this experiment, you will use a fixed frequency f of 1000 Hz. Because the speed of sound is
constant, what can you say about the wavelength l of this sound wave?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

If the speed of sound is 340 m/s, what is the wavelength?

l=
Standing Waves
5
The equation that we normally use for resonances in an open-closed tube, gives the standing-
wave frequencies f for a given length L and index n as shown:
v
fn = n , n = 1,3,5,... ,
4L
In this experiment we are going to change the length L of the resonator (while keeping the
frequency fixed), so we will solve for L and write the equation as:

v
Ln = n , n = 1,3,5,... . (1)
4f
This equation gives lengths L at which standing waves of a given frequency f will appear as the
length is changed.

Consider the following picture, which plots displacement vs position (at some fixed time) for an
acoustic wave in an open-closed tube, with the open end at the left (at x = 0) and the closed end
at the right (at x = L1 ). The closed end in this experiment is a piston that can be moved to
different places in the tube. This illustrates the first resonance condition for this experiment:
maximum displacement at the open end, zero displacement at the piston, and no nodes in
between.
L1
u(x)
piston

In what follows, you are going to construct pictures analogous to this picture for the next two
resonance conditions (L = L3 and L = L5 ). To do this we need to first figure out a few things.
First, from Eq. (1) write down explicit expressions for L1 and L3 .

L1 =

L3 =

Now determine the ratio L3 L1 .

L3 L1 =
Now, using the ratio that you just determined, mark the position of L3 in the picture on the next
page. At that position draw the piston, as in the previous picture. Lastly, sketch the displacement
associated with the standing wave in the tube when the piston is at the L3 position. Keep in
mind that the wavelength in this picture is the same as the wavelength in the previous picture.

Why is this? ____________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________

Standing Waves
6
 u(x)
L1

Now, repeat the same procedure for the second overtone (when the piston as at L5 ).

u(x)
L1

VIII. EXPERIMENT DETAILS

A. Instrumentation Overview

For this experiment you will use the acoustic resonator, shown below. At one end is a small
speaker. A sound sensor is placed under the tube, near the speaker. The signal generator will
be used to drive the speaker. Inside the tube is a piston that can be moved to effectively create
open-closed tubes of different lengths. The end of the tube with the piston is the closed end
while the end with the speaker is effectively open.

B. Experimental Setup

1. Experimental hookup: Unhook the two leads from the string vibrator, and insert them into
the leads for the speaker, as illustrated in the diagram. If not already done, plug the 8-pin
connector of the sound sensor into Analog Channel A.

2. Signal generator setup: In the Signal Generator window set the Amplitude to 1 V, and set
the Frequency to 1000 Hz. (If you type in 1000, you must hit enter to set the value.) Select
Auto before closing the window.

3. Oscilloscope setup: Activate the Sound Sensor [open the Hardware Setup panel – click on
analog Channel A – type “s” – select Sound Sensor – close the Hardware Setup panel]. Drag
the Scope icon from the Displays Palette onto the worksheet. It should open up an oscilloscope
display. Choose Sound Intensity (V) for the measurement on the y-axis.

The oscilloscope window allows you to measure voltages as a function of time. Click on the
Trigger button at the top of the oscilloscope window. This will keep the trace on the scope
stable vs time.

Standing Waves
7
 IX. MEASUREMENTS OF ACOUSTIC STANDING WAVES

IMPORTANT!!! In doing the following experiment DO NOT click the Record button to
turn on the frequency generator. This will cause the software to record the incoming signal
from the microphone, which will quickly cause the memory to overload and cause the software
to hang up. At the bottom of the screen, select Continuous Mode and change it to Fast
Monitor Mode. Now we can monitor the data without recording it. Click Monitor.

Since you selected Auto in the Signal Generator, you should hear a tone. (If you don’t, go back
and fix it!) The oscilloscope display should be a piece of a sine wave with frequency equal to
1000 Hz. (The wave should repeat every 1/1000 s = 1.00 ms.

Does it? ___________________________

Slide the piston slowly in-and-out. You should observe multiple positions where the sound from
the tube is especially loud. These positions correspond to the different Ln resonance conditions
described by Eq. (1). At resonance, the amplitude of the trace on the oscilloscope (which is the
voltage from the microphone) will be a maximum.

For values of n = 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 find the Table II

positions of the piston that gives the n Ln (m)
corresponding resonance. You will have to
carefully observe the oscilloscope signal to obtain 1
accurate values of the piston positions. Mark 3
these positions with the sliding black plastic
markers that are given then measure the distance 5
from the speaker to the marker. Record your 7
results in Table II. When you’re finished
monitoring data, press stop. 9

X. ANALYSIS OF ACOUSTIC STANDING WAVES

Again consider Eq. (1)

v
Ln = n , n = 1,3,5,... . (1)
4f
If we plot Ln vs n , we should get a line. Let’s compare equation (1) to the standard equation
for a line y = mx + b . In this case y = Ln, x = n and b = 0. What is the slope m?

m=

What are the units of this slope? ______________________

Now solve the equation you found for the slope m for the velocity.

v=

Standing Waves
8
Open Excel and enter the n values in one Piston Position vs n
column and the corresponding Ln values in the 0.8

0.7
next column. Use Excel to plot Ln vs n as
0.6
follows: Highlight the two columns, click 0.5
Insert in the tool bar at the very top of the

Ln
0.4
screen. Go down to Chart and choose X Y 0.3
(Scatter). With the Chart Design tab selected, 0.2 Series1
click on Quick Layout and choose the first 0.1
option. Now, label the x and y axes. When 0
finished, you should have a graph similar to this 0 2 4 6 8 10
graph. n

Piston Position vs n
Let’s now fit the data to a straight line. Choose 0.8
the Chart Design tab (click on the table if it’s 0.7
y = 0.08807x - 0.06405
not showing). Click on Add Chart Element go 0.6 2
R = 1.00000
to Trendline and choose More Trendline 0.5
Options. Make sure Linear is selected, then 0.4

Ln
check the boxes by Display Equation on chart 0.3
Series1
and Display R-squared value on chart. When 0.2
Linear (Series1)
done, your graph should look similar to the 0.1
graph shown. (You can click and drag the 0

equation and R2 value to move them if needed.) 0 2 4 6 8 10

n

What is your fitted slope? ______________________

Determine the speed of sound from the fitted slope.

v=

The speed of sound in dry air is purported to be independent of frequency and given by

T
v = 331.45 m/s.
273

In this equation T is the temperature in Kelvin. Using the temperature of the room (written on
the board by the TA), find T in Kelvin! (Remember T in Kelvin = T in degrees C + 273).

T=

What does this formula give for the speed of sound?

v=

Find the percentage difference between your experimental value and the value given by this
equation.

% difference =
Standing Waves
9
 XI. FIVE QUESTIONS

Q1. Assume that in the experiment with the string that your measurement of the length L was
(repeatedly) 10% too long.

A) Would this cause a systematic or statistical error in your calculation of the expected
fundamental frequency f1 ? ______________________

B) Would the calculated value of f1 be too large or too small? ______________________

Q2. A precisely determined value for a particular physical quantity is 2.00 m. A student in a lab
measures that quantity to be 1.85 ± 0.05 m.

A) Is this measurement plagued more by statistical or systematic errors? ________________

Why? _____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

B) Another student measures that quantity to be 2.1 ± 0.2 m.

Is this measurement plagued more by statistical or systematic errors? ___________________

Why? _____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Q3. Consider the pictures that you drew of the displacement of the standing waves for both the
string and the tube (sections IV and VIII).

For standing waves, what is the distance between nodes in terms of the wavelength?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q4. In fitting piston position vs n for this lab, a student determines the slope to be 0.08807.

A) What are the units of the slope? ______________________

B) What is the velocity of sound determined from this slope?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Q5. The nth harmonic of a particular frequency is n times that frequency. What is the 2nd
harmonic of 2500 Hz?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Quit Capstone and Excel; do not save any changes.

Shut down the computer, and turn off the interface box.
Standing Waves
10
 ELECTRIC FIELDS AND POTENTIAL
Updated December 2024

Note: Section III (INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS) should be completed before you come to lab.

I. INTRODUCTION

In this lab you will explore the concepts of electric field, electric-field lines, electric potential,
and equipotential surfaces. You will also explore the relationship between the electric field and
electric potential differences.

II. USEFUL EQUATIONS


 Ftest
electric field: E=
qtest

q
electric field from a point charge: E=k 2
; k = 9 ×109 N m2/C2
r

EPEtest
electric potential: V=
qtest

q
electric potential from a point charge: V =k
r

VA - VB 
potential → field relationship: EDs = ; d points from A to B
d

III. INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

* * Complete this section before coming to lab. * *

Let’s first consider an electric field that

should be familiar. Figure 1 shows
electric field lines and equipotential
surfaces for a positive point charge.

Notice that the equipotential surfaces

are closer together nearer the origin.
This tells us that the electric field
strength is larger as you move closer to
the origin. Given this, how does the
electric field strength at points P1 and
P2 compare?
_______________________________
_______________________________

1 Electric Fields and Potential

 V - VB
The relationship between potential and electric field is given by E = A , where E is the
 d

component of E parallel to the displacement vector d that points from point A (on one

equipotential surface) to point B (on a nearby equipotential surface). If d is perpendicular to the
equipotential surfaces (and thus parallel to the electric field lines) then this equation gives the

magnitude of the total electric field at that location. On Figure 1, the displacement vector d that
goes between the two equipotential surfaces on either side of P1 and is parallel to the electric
field at P1 is shown. Draw the displacement vector d for point P2.

Assuming that each equipotential surface is separated from an adjacent equipotential surface by
10 V, estimate the strength (magnitude) of the electric field at points P1 and P2 in Figure 1.
Assume that the x and y axis scales are in meters.

E P1 =

E P2 =

Figure 2 shows electric field lines and equipotential surfaces from another charge distribution.
Describe this charge distribution in as much detail as possible.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Notice that in Figure 2 points P1 and P2 lie equidistant between the same two equipotential
surfaces. What does this tell you about VP1 and V P2 ?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2 Electric Fields and Potential

However, the electric field strength at P1 does not equal that at P2.

At which of these points is the electric field strength greater? _______________________


As for Figure 1, draw the displacement vectors Ds that are parallel to the electric field, pass
through either P1 or P2, and connect the adjacent equipotential surfaces in Figure 2. As you did
for Figure 1, calculate the electric field strength at points P1 and P2 to verify the relative
strengths of the fields. (Each equipotential surface is separated from an adjacent equipotential
surface by 10 V.)

E P1 =

E P2 =

In this lab you will be finding equipotential points, drawing equipotential surfaces and electric
field lines to make a diagram similar to Figures 1 and 2.

IV. EXPERIMENT DETAILS

A. Instrumentation Overview

You will uses the following instrumentation: computer, 850 Universal Interface box, Capstone
software, voltage sensor, electric field mapping apparatus, 2 leads, a ruler and a grid sheet to
draw your electric field and potentials on. A diagram of the experimental setup is shown below.
In this experiment there are 4 wires (or leads) coming out of the interface box. The two leads
from the Output 1 section of the box will be used to create a potential difference between two
points on the conductive sheet. The two leads from Channel A (i.e., the Voltage Sensor) will
be used to measure electric potential at different points on the sheet.

Notice that the conductive sheet or board has two lead inputs across from each other on each
end. This is where the two leads connected to Output 1 should be connected to the apparatus.
The board is a relatively poor conductor (it has a large resistance), but current will flow through
the board when a voltage difference is applied to the two ends of the board.

voltage sensor
leads

conductive sheet or board

Interface

3 Electric Fields and Potential

 B. Experimental Setup

1. Experimental hookup: The two leads from the Output 1 of the interface box should be
terminated with banana plugs. Attach one plug to one of the two clamps or lead inputs that hold
the conductive sheet. Attach the other plug to the other clamp or input. Plug the black voltage-
sensor lead into the black output lead and the red voltage-sensor lead into the red output
lead.

2. Output voltage setup: Turn on your interface box,

start the computer, and launch Capstone. Select the Signal
Generator icon in the Tools palette and select 850 Output
1. Make sure the Waveform is set to output DC. Set the
DC Voltage to 5.000 V using the toggle switch next to the
V. Select Auto. Your Signal Generator window should
now look equivalent to the following picture.

3. Voltage sensor setup: In the Hardware Setup add a

Voltage Sensor icon to Analog Channel A. (To find a
sensor more rapidly, type the first letter of the desired sensor when the list appears.) Drag a
Digits icon from the Displays palette to the display area. Click Select Measurement in the
upper left corner of the window and choose Voltage (V). This will display the voltage across the
voltage-sensor leads that are hooked up to channel A.

4. A quick test: Change Continuous Mode in the Controls palette to Fast Monitor Mode.
Click Monitor. (Do not click on the Start button to get things going – you will likely overflow
the computer memory if you do!) Your Digits window should now be displaying the potential
difference between the voltage-sensor leads; it should read approximately 5.00 volts, although it
may be off a bit and also fluctuating slightly. For this experiment we only need a precision of
0.01 V, so we will decrease the precision. To do this select the Decrease Digits button
(second from the top left in the Digits window). Your Digits display should now look similar to
the following picture.

If it doesn’t, figure out what is wrong and

correct it!

If the Digits display looks like that above,

then this tells you that there is a 5.00 (or in
this case 4.96) volt difference between the
red and black leads of the voltage sensor
(which is now measuring the potential
difference between the leads from the
output section of the interface box).

C. Experimental Overview

In this experiment the output potential difference of 5 volts is placed across the two lead inputs
on either end of the conductive sheet. Because these two leads are relatively good conductors,
the potential on each is very nearly constant (this is also true for the wires from the interface

4 Electric Fields and Potential

box). You may think of the red output lead as positively charged and the black output lead as
negatively charged. These are the sources that produce the electric potential and field that you
will measure. The rest of the sheet is much more resistive, but a small current will flow through
it due to the applied potential difference. This small current allows a well-defined potential to be
set up at each point on the sheet. We will be measuring the potential at a series of points in the
sheet. From your measurements you will determine equipotential surfaces and electric field
lines. You will also determine values for the electric field at several points on the sheet.

V. MEASUREMENTS

Remove the red voltage-sensor lead from the red output lead. Move the lead to different
locations on the conductive sheet.

What happens to the potential as it moves closer to the black output lead? __________________

The red output lead? _________________

Use the red voltage-sensor lead to measure the

potential at four points on the conductive sheet (you
will determine the electric field strength at these
points later in the lab). Choose two points on the
vertical line of symmetry (column 8) and two points
on the horizontal line of symmetry (row 6) as show
in the picture. Record the location of these points
(the x & y coordinates) then measure the potential
at these points and record them in Table I. Don’t
worry about the distance and the electric field
yet. This data will be filled in later in the lab.

Table I
point (x,y) potential (V) distance (m) electric field (V/m)

Equipotential Surfaces: Find eight well-spaced points on the conductive sheet (within the grid
of points) where the potential is 1.00 V. For each point identified on the sheet, plot that point on
your grid. Keep in mind that we want to find the whole equipotential surface in the grid region
of the conductive sheet. Next, draw a smooth curve through all of these points. This is the 1 V
equipotential surface. (This curve is actually just an intersection of the 3-dimensional
equipotential surface with the conductive sheet, but that is a detail you don’t need to worry
about!)

Now find eight well-spaced points on the conductive sheet where the potential relative to the
reference point is 2.00 V. Plot these points on your grid and draw the 2 V equipotential surface.

5 Electric Fields and Potential

Repeat the procedure to find the 3.00 and 4.00 V equipotential surfaces.

Click the Stop button when you are finished making the measurements.

VI. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

As you know, electric field lines are everywhere perpendicular to equipotential surfaces. Draw a
total of seven electric field lines through the potential lines that you have drawn. Try to have
them roughly evenly spaced through the grid region. Make sure that the field lines intersect the
equipotential surfaces at right angles! Indicate the direction of the electric field lines.
Remember that the electric field is always in the direction of decreasing potential.

You are ready now to find the electric field strength at the four points recorded in Table 1. Use
the potential → field relationship from page 1 and the same procedure that you used in the
Initial Considerations for Figures 1 and 2. (Use the ruler to measure the length of the
displacement vectors.) Record the values in Table I. Be careful with the units!

VII. FIVE QUESTIONS

Q1. A) How does the potential at the points on the vertical line of symmetry (column 8)
compare? _________________________________________________________________

Does this make sense? ________________________________________________________

B) How does the electric field strength compare at these two points? That is, is it larger at
one than the other? ___________________________________________________________

Why? _____________________________________________________________________

Q2. A) How does the potential at the points on the horizontal line of symmetry (row 6)
compare? _________________________________________________________________

Does this make sense? ________________________________________________________

B) How does the electric field strength compare? Is it larger at one than the other?
___________________________________________________________________________

Why? _____________________________________________________________________

6 Electric Fields and Potential

Q3. In a particular region of space, the electric field is uniform and pointing upwards. Two
points, vertically separated by 2.5 cm have a potential difference of 7.5 V. What is the strength
of the electric field in the region?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q4. Consider two nearby points, A and B, located on the same equipotential surface. Describe
V -V
how the equation EDs = A B applies to these points?
d
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q5. Consider the picture below, which shows a uniform electric field pointing to the right.
Which potential is higher, VB or VA ? Why?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Quit Capstone and Excel; do not save any changes.

Shut down the computer, and turn off the interface box.

7 Electric Fields and Potential

8 Electric Fields and Potential
 SIMPLE RESISTIVE CIRCUITS
Updated December 2024

Note: Section III (INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS) should be completed before you come to lab.

I. INTRODUCTION

In this lab, you will gain some hands-on experience with electrical circuits that contain resistors.
You will measure both potential differences across resistor circuits and the current through them.
You will investigate the properties voltage and current when resistors are wired in series and in
parallel.

II. USEFUL EQUATIONS

V
Ohm’s Law: I=
R

Power dissipation P = IV = I 2 R = V 2 R

N resistors in series: Rtotal = R1 + R2 +  + RN

1 1 1 1
N resistors in parallel: = + ++
Rtotal R1 R2 RN

III. INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

* * Complete this section before coming to lab. * *

Two resistors, one 50 W and one 100 W are place in series. 5 Volts from a power supply is
placed across them. In the space below, draw a schematic diagram of this circuit.

What is the current through each resistor?

I 50W =

I100W =

What is the voltage across each resistor?

V50W =

V100W =
1
Simple Resistive Circuits
What is the sum of the voltages across the two resistors?

V Total =

Two resistors, one 50 W and one 100 W are place in parallel. 5 Volts from a power supply is
placed across them. In the space below, draw a schematic diagram of this circuit.

What is the voltage across each resistor?

V50W =

V100W =

What is the current through each resistor?

I 50W =

I100W =

What is the total current from the power supply?

I total =

IV. EXPERIMENT DETAILS

A. Instrumentation Overview

You will use the following instrumentation: computer, 850 Universal Interface box, Capstone
software, current sensor, and several wires (a.k.a. leads) and resistors. A diagram of the
experimental setup is shown below. The two leads from the Output 1 section of the box will be
used to create a potential difference across the circuits. The two leads from Channel A (i.e., the
Voltage Sensor) will be used to measure electric potential differences across different parts of
various circuits that you will construct. Connected to Channel B is a current sensor that you
will use to measure current at different places in your circuits.

!#
Current sensor
+/-
ground !"

Voltage sensor !!

2
Simple Resistive Circuits
 B. Experimental Setup

Note: when making connections, make sure that all leads are firmly in their respective sockets
and that all resistor wires are firmly secured by the screw-down posts on their respective resistor
blocks.

1. Experimental hookup: There should be two leads from Output 1 of the interface box: a
black lead hooked up to the black left-hand-side terminal and a red lead hooked up to the red
right-hand-side terminal. If the leads are not already attached, hook them up now. Make sure
that Analog Channel A has voltage-sensor leads (red and black wires) hooked up to it and that
Analog Channel B has the current sensor.

2. Voltage supply setup: Turn on your interface box, start the computer, and launch Capstone.
Click the Signal Generator window. Make sure it is set to waveform DC. Set the DC Voltage
to 5.000 V. Click on the Auto button. Your Signal Generator window should now look
equivalent to the following picture.

3. Voltage sensor & current sensor setup: In the Hardware Setup window a Voltage Sensor
icon should be displayed for Analog Channel A. Add a Current Sensor to Analog Channel B
[click on Analog Channel B – type “c” – choose Current Sensor – close the Hardware Setup
window]. Add a Digits window by dragging the digits icon from the Displays palette to the
display area. Select Voltage, Ch A (V) as the measurement. This will display the voltage across
the voltage-sensor leads that are hooked up to Channel A. Make sure that three decimal places
are being displayed. If you need to increase them, click the Increase Digits Button (top left
button in the Digits window). Follow the same procedure to create a Digits window for the
Current Sensor.

C. Experimental Overview

In this experiment, you will first measure the resistances of three unknown resistors. You will
then measure the total resistance of these three resistors in series, followed by two of them in
parallel. You will then see how the measurements compare to your expectations of series and
parallel resistive circuits.

3
Simple Resistive Circuits
 V. MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS

A. Single resistors

You have three unknown resistors labeled !# , !" , and !! . Place !#

in series with the current sensor as shown with the voltage sensor
connected across !# . Select Continuous Mode in the Controls palette
and change it to Fast Monitor Mode, then click Monitor. In Table I
record the voltage across !# and the current through !# (remember,
because the current sensor is wired in series with !# , the current through
each is the same!). Click the Stop button.

Repeat the previous steps for !" and then !! .

From your voltage and current values use Ohm’s law to determine the resistances !# , !" , and !!
and record them in Table I.

Table I
Resistor Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)

!#

!"

!!

B. Series Resistors

Hook up your three resistors !# , !" , and !! in series with the

Voltage Output from the interface box. Because we want to
measure the current in this series circuit, the current sensor
should also be wired in series with these three resistors. Your
circuit should look like that shown in the diagram. The voltage
sensor is shown connected so as to measure the voltage across !# .

In the space below, draw a schematic diagram of this circuit

(don’t include the voltage sensor).

In this circuit, what is true about the current through all of the resistors? ___________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4
Simple Resistive Circuits
Select Monitor. Record the current in the circuit in Table II. Use the Voltage Sensor (Channel
A) to measure the individual voltages across the three resistors !# , !" and !! and record these
voltages below. Also, measure and record the total voltage across all three resistors (from point
a to b in the previous diagram). Click the Stop button.

Table II
measured quantity value

current (A)

voltage across !# (V)

voltage across !" (V)
voltage across !! (V)
voltage across !# , !" , and !! (V)

Calculate the sum of the individual voltages across !# , !" , and !! and record the value below.

Sum of voltages across !# , !" , and !! =

How should this compare to the measured voltage across all three resistors?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
!"#!$%!&'(!)*+,!&
Calculate the % difference between these two quantities [! !"#!$%!&
! × 100%].

% difference =

When in series the effective resistance of !# , !" , and !! should be the sum !# + !" + !! .
Record this value below, using the values recorded in Table I.

!# + !" + !! =

From the measured voltage across !# , !" , and !! (last line in Table II) and the measured current
in the circuit, calculate the effective resistance of !# , !" , and !! . Record the value below.

Effective resistance of !# , !" , and !! =

How do the last two numbers compare?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Calculate the % difference.

% difference =

5
Simple Resistive Circuits
 C. Parallel Resistors.

Hook up the two resistors !# and !" in parallel. Because

we want to first measure the total current from the power
supply, the current sensor should also be wired in series
with the two parallel resistors !# and !" . Your circuit
should now look like the diagram. The voltage sensor is
shown connected so as to measure the voltage across !# .

Note, because the resistance of the current sensor is very

small, you can think of the current sensor as just a piece of wire.
It is thus easy to see that essentially !# and !" are wired to the
power supply in parallel.

Measure and record the first three quantities indicated in Table III. Click the Stop button when
finished.

Table III
Measured quantity Value
voltage across !# (V)
voltage across !" (V)
current from power supply (A)

current through !# (A)

current through !" (A)

We also want to measure the current through each

individual resistor !# and !" . To do this we must
move the current sensor. Rewire the circuit so that
!# and !" are still in parallel, but so that the current
sensor is in series with !# only. Your circuit should now
look like the following picture. The voltage sensor is not
shown because you only need to measure the current at
this time.

Notice, again, that if you simply think of the current sensor

as a piece of wire that !# and !" are still simply wired in
parallel. Measure the current through !# and record its value
in Table III. Click the Stop button when finished.

Lastly, rewire the circuit one more time so that you can measure the current through !" .
Measure this current and record its value in Table III. Again, click the Stop button when
finished.

6
Simple Resistive Circuits
In a parallel circuit the voltage across each resistor should be the same. Is this true for your
circuit?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

In a parallel circuit the sum of the individual currents should equal the total current flowing into
the circuit. Is this true for your parallel circuit?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Calculate the % difference between your total measured current from the power supply and the
sum of the two measured individual currents.

% difference =

For your two resistors !# and !" in parallel, calculate the expected effective resistance

Expected effective resistance of !# and !" in parallel =

From your measurements of the voltage across the parallel circuit and the total current through
the circuit, use Ohm’s law to calculate the measured resistance of the two resistors in parallel.

Measured resistance of !# and !" in parallel =

How do these last two numbers compare?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Calculate the % difference.

% difference =

VI. FIVE QUESTIONS

Q1. Should a voltage sensor be connected in series or in parallel with the part of a circuit that it
is measuring the voltage across? _______________________

Consider the diagram below. You wish to measure the voltage across !" . Draw in the wires
from the voltage sensor (on the right side of the picture) to the correct locations on the circuit.

+ –
+
!! V
-
!# !"

7
Simple Resistive Circuits
Q2. If a current sensor is to be used to measure the current flowing in a particular branch of a
circuit, should it be connected in series or in parallel with that branch? ____________________

In the space below, draw a schematic of three resistors !# , !" , and !! hooked in parallel to a
power supply with a current sensor (or ammeter) wired in to measure the current through !" .

Q3. A) What quantity is the same for three resistors hooked up in series to a power supply?
___________________________________________________________________________

B) What does the sum of the individual voltages across each resistor equal?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Q4. A) What quantity is the same for three resistors hooked up in parallel to a power supply?
___________________________________________________________________________

B) What does the sum of the individual currents through each resistor equal?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Q5. Find the power dissipated by each resistor and the total power dissipated for each circuit.

A)
PR1 = ________ PR2 = ________ PR3 = ________

PTOTAL = ________

B)

PR1 = ________ PR2 = ________ PR3 = ________

PTOTAL = ________

Quit Capstone; do not save any changes.

Shut down the computer, and turn off the interface box.
8
Simple Resistive Circuits
 RC CIRCUITS
Updated December 2024

Note: Section III (INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS) should be completed before you come to lab.

I. INTRODUCTION

In this lab you will gain some experience with electrical circuits that contain resistors and
capacitors. You will investigate the charging and discharging of a single capacitor in a series
RC circuit. You will then study the effective capacitance of parallel and series combinations of
capacitors.

II. USEFUL EQUATIONS

N capacitors in parallel: Ceff = C1 + C2 +  + C N

1 1 1 1
N capacitors in series: = + ++
Ceff C1 C2 CN

Capacitor voltage when charging Vc (t ) = V0 [1 - exp(- t RC )]

Capacitor voltage when discharging: Vc (t ) = V0 exp(- t RC )

III. INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

* * Complete this section before coming to lab. * *

For a capacitor that begins charging at t = 0 the voltage across the capacitor as a function of time
is given by

Vc (t ) = V0 [1 - exp(- t RC )] .

Let’s briefly study this equation. For t = 0, what is the voltage V(t)?

V(t) =

As t increases, what happens to the voltage?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

1
RC Circuits
To get a feel for this equation fill in the table below using the following values: let V0 = 5 V, as
in the experiment, and let RC = 1 ms. You may use Excel if you want.

time t (ms) V (t ) while charging

0
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0

Notice that in the equation above the time t only appears divided by the time constant RC. Thus,
the amount of time that has passed is only important in terms of its relationship to the time
constant RC. From your table above, how many time constants long must t be before the voltage
equals the final voltage V0 to within ~2%? ______________________

For a capacitor that begins discharging at t = 0 the voltage across the capacitor as a function of
time is given by

Vc (t ) = V0 exp(- t RC ).

Let’s study this equation. For t = 0, what is the voltage V (t ) ?

V (t )=

As t increases, what happens to the voltage?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

As before, to get a feel for this equation fill in the table below using the following values:
let V0 = 5 V, as in the experiment, and let RC = 1 ms.

time t (ms) V (t ) while discharging

0
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0

From your table above, how many time constants long must t be before the voltage equals ~2%
of the initial voltage? ______________________

2
RC Circuits
 IV. EXPERIMENT DETAILS

A. Instrumentation Overview

You will use the following instrumentation: computer, 850 Universal Interface box, Capstone
software, a 50 Ω resistor, a voltage probe, 4 leads, and a circuit board that has, among other
components, two capacitors with nominal (or stated) values C1 = 100 µF and C2 = 330 µF. A
diagram of the experimental setup is shown below. The two leads from the Output 1 section of
the box will be used to create a potential difference across the RC circuits that you will put
together. The two leads from Channel A will be used as a Voltage Sensor.

B. Experimental Setup

1. Experimental hookup. There should be two leads from Output 1 of the interface box: a
black lead hooked up to the black left-hand-side terminal and a red lead hooked up to the red
right-hand-side terminal. If the leads are not already attached, hook them up now. Make sure
that Analog Channel A has voltage-probe leads (red and black wires) hooked up.

We will first look at a circuit with the 50 Ω resistor in series with C1 (nominally 100 µF). Wire
these in series and hook the combination up to Output 1 of the interface box, as illustrated in the
previous diagram.

2. Voltage supply setup. Consider the following circuit:

switch 1
R
switch 2
C

When switch 1 is closed and switch 2 is open, the voltage V0 is applied across the series RC
combination and the capacitor charges up (eventually to V0). If switch 1 is opened and switch 2
subsequently is closed, then zero volts is applied across the series RC combination and the
capacitor discharges (until its voltage equals the applied voltage of zero volts). To recharge the
capacitor, switch 2 is opened and switch 1 subsequently closed.
3
RC Circuits
In this lab the application of V0 volts (to charge C) and then zero volts (to discharge C) to the
series RC combination will be done with a square-wave waveform from Output 1 of the
interface box. We will now set up the interface box to put out a square wave that varies from 0
to 5 V.

Turn on your interface box, start the computer, and

launch Capstone. Select the Signal Generator icon and
click 850 Output 1. Set the Signal Generator to output
a Positive Square Wave. Set the Amplitude to 5.0 V
and the Frequency to 1.0 Hz, if they are not already set
to these values. Select Auto; this tells the interface box
to output voltage when you monitor or record data. Your
Signal Generator window should now look something
like the following picture.

Close the Signal Generator window by clicking on the

Signal Generator icon.

3. Voltage Sensor setup. Open the Hardware Setup window and check to see that a Voltage
Sensor is connected to Analog Channel A. Close the Hardware Setup window. Double click
the Graph icon in the Displays palette and select Voltage (V) as the measurement on the y-axis.
This will create a graph that will display the voltage across the Channel A leads as a function of
time. In the Controls palette at the bottom of the screen, adjust Sample Rate to 2.0 kHz (2000 Hz)
[press the up arrow repeatedly].

4. The square-wave waveform. Let’s

first look at the square-wave waveform
that is produced by the interface box.
Hook up the Channel A leads across
Output 1 of the interface box. Press the
Record button and collect data for about
3 seconds. Press the Stop button. Your
graph should look similar to the following
picture.

Notice that the Output voltage is fixed at either 0 V or 5 V and jumps very quickly between the
two voltage levels.

During which part of the square-wave will the capacitor be charging? _____________________
______________________________________________________________________________

During which part will it be discharging? ____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

4
RC Circuits
 C. Experimental Overview

In this experiment you will measure the voltage across the capacitor as a function of time as it
charges and discharges. You will then fit the discharging part of the data to determine the RC
time constant t = RC . From this you will determine an experimental value for the capacitance
C. You will carry out this experiment for each capacitor individually and then for the two
capacitors in parallel and then in series.

V. MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS

Important Note: when collecting any data set do not collect data for more than a few seconds,
or you may overflow the memory allocated to the program and cause the program to hang up.

A. 100 µF Capacitor

Delete the data that you measured above (use the Delete ALL Data Runs option in the drop
down menu next to Delete Last Run). Hook the Voltage Sensor leads across C1, the nominal
100 µF capacitor. Note: when hooking up the voltage probe leads across each component, make
sure that the black voltage probe lead is (electrically) closest to the black lead from the power
supply and the red lead is (electrically) closest to the red lead from the power supply.

Press the Record button and

collect data for about 2 seconds.
Press the Stop button. Your
graph window should look
similar to the following picture.
It looks similar to the output
voltage vs time, except that it
takes an appreciable amount of
time (a few time constants!) for
the capacitor voltage to reach
either the 5 V or 0 V level.

To get a better look at the

discharge, let’s zoom in on the
graph during the first voltage
decay from 5 V to 0 V.
Highlight the data near the first
drop in voltage [click the
highlight button – adjust the
size and position of the box]
then press the Scale Axes button
on the top left of the graph
window . Your graph should
now look like the following picture.

You can now readily observe the smooth decay in the voltage across the capacitor as it
discharges.
5
RC Circuits
Next you will fit the discharge portion of the data to determine the time constant RC. The
function that you will use to fit the data is referred to by the software as the Natural
Exponential Fit, which is the function

A exp(- Bt ) + y 0

The unknown parameters that will be fit are A, B, and y0. Compare this equation to the equation
for the voltage across a discharging capacitor:

Vc (t ) = V0 exp(- t RC )

Express the parameter B in terms of the time constant RC.

B=

Solve this expression for C.

C=

You now have an equation for the capacitance C in terms of the resistance R and fitting
parameter B. You will use this equation to calculate the experimental value of C.

It is now time to determine the RC

time constant. First highlight the
data during the voltage decay,
excluding the flat region where the
voltage is 5 V and including a good
part of the baseline, as shown in the
picture. Then, under the Fit
menu in the graph window,
select Natural Exponential. You
should get a fit that matches your
data. If the fit is obviously bad,
then try selecting a slightly different set of data points.

Once you have a good fit, record the fitted value of B in the appropriate place in Table I.

After recording your value of B, delete your data.

Table I
Fitted value Experimental Experimental Expected value
R (ohms) Capacitor
of B (s-1) value of RC (s) value of C (µF) of C (µF)

50 C1 100

50 C2 330

C1 and C2 in
50
parallel
C1 and C2 in
50
series

6
RC Circuits
 B. 330 µF Capacitor
Disconnect the Channel A leads from the circuit. Rewire the circuit so that the 330 µF capacitor
is in series with the 50 Ω resistor. Reconnect the Channel A leads across the capacitor. Repeat
your measurements and analysis for this circuit and record the value of B in Table I. Delete your
data.
C. Capacitors in Parallel
Again, disconnect the Channel A leads from the circuit. Then hook up the two capacitors in
parallel with each other and then hook this parallel combination of capacitors in series with the
50 Ω resistor. Note that one end of the two capacitors are already hooked together through a
wire on the circuit board. Reconnect the Channel A leads across the capacitors.

For this parallel combination of capacitors, do you expect the time constant RC to be larger or
smaller than for either one of them? ______________________

Thus, do you expect B to be larger or smaller? ______________________

Repeat your measurements and analysis for this circuit and record the value of B in Table I.
Delete your data.
D. Capacitor in Series
One more time disconnect the Channel A leads, rewire the circuit so the two capacitors are in
series with each other and in series with the resistor. Reconnect the Channel A leads across the
capacitors.

For this series combination of capacitors, do you expect the time constant RC to be larger or
smaller than for either one of them? ______________________

Thus, do you expect B to be larger or smaller? ______________________

Repeat your measurements and analysis for this circuit and record the value of B in Table I.
Delete your data.
Using your fitted values of B, fill in the next two columns of Table I, assuming R= 50 Ω. Also
fill in the last two entries in the last column; make sure that you use your experimental values of
C1 and C2 to calculate the expected values of the parallel and series effective capacitances. Note
that you need to convert F to µF before entering your C values in the table.
The nominal (or stated) value of a capacitor is typically within 10% of its true value. Calculate
the percentage difference between the nominal values of C1 and C2 and your measured values.

% difference for C1 =
% difference for C2 =

Are the nominal values and your measured values within 10% of each other? _______________
How close are your expected values of the effective capacitance for the parallel and series
combinations to your experimental values? Calculate percentage differences for both cases.

% difference for parallel combination =

% difference for series combination =

7
RC Circuits
 VI. FIVE QUESTIONS

Q1. A certain capacitor, when hooked up in series to a 1 Ω resistor, loses 80% of its charge in
5 seconds. When hooked up to a 2 Ω resistor, how long does it take for the capacitor to lose
80% of its charge? ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q2. In the space below draw a circuit diagram of one resistor hooked in series to 2 parallel
capacitors. Draw in a power supply that applies a voltage to the series circuit. Also draw in a
voltmeter that measures the voltage across the capacitors.

Q3. A person does an experiment similar to the one in this lab with a 50 µF capacitor and
determines the parameter B to be 56.5 s-1. What is the value of the resistor R?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q4. A 10,000 µF capacitor initially has 10 Volts across it. It is discharged through a 200,000 Ω
resistor. How long does it take for the voltage to drop to 1% of its initial value?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Q5. Draw a diagram of three 5 µF capacitors arranged so that the effective capacitance is
3.33 µF.

Quit Capstone; do not save any changes.

Shut down the computer, and turn off the interface box.
8
RC Circuits
 THE SERIES LCR CIRCUIT AND RESONANCE
Updated January 2024

Note: Section IV (INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS) should be completed before you come to lab.

I. INTRODUCTION
In this lab, you will investigate the behavior of a series LCR circuit driven by a sinusoidal
voltage source. In particular, you will study inductive and capacitive reactance and the phase
relationship between the current and voltage for an inductor and capacitor. You will also
study the resonant behavior of such a circuit.

II. USEFUL EQUATIONS

I-V relationships for resistor: V = IR , V0 = I 0 R

dV
I-V relationships for capacitor: I =C , V0 = I 0 X C
dt

dI
I-V relationships for inductor V =L , V0 = I 0 X L
dt

1
Capacitive reactance: XC =
2p f C

Inductive reactance: X L = 2p f L

Z = R2 + (X C - X L )
2
Series-LCR impedance:
2 , V0 = I 0 Z
æ 1 ö
= R + çç2
- 2p f L ÷÷
è 2p f C ø

1
Series-LCR resonant frequency f0 =
2p LC

III. INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

* * Complete this section before coming to lab. * *

The current-voltage relationship for a resistor is V = IR . If the voltage across the resistor is
given as V (t ) = V0 sin (2p f t ), then what is I (t ) ?

I (t ) =

1
LCR Circuits
Given this equation, what is the phase relationship between the current and voltage for a resistor?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

The current-voltage relationship for a capacitor is I = C dV dt . If the voltage across the

capacitor is given as V (t ) = V0 sin (2p f t ), then the current is given by I (t ) = 2p f CV0 cos(2p f t ).
What is the phase relationship between the current and voltage for a capacitor? [Hint: the
voltage either leads or lags the current by 90 degrees; which is it?]
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

The current-voltage relationship for an inductor is V = L dI dt . If the voltage across the

capacitor is given as V (t ) = V0 sin (2p f t ), then the current is given by
I (t ) = -(V0 2p f L )cos(2p f t ). What is the phase relationship between the current and voltage
for an inductor? [Hint: the voltage either leads or lags the current by 90 degrees; which is it?]
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

IV. EXPERIMENT DETAILS

A. Instrumentation Overview

You will use the following instrumentation: computer, 850 Universal Interface computer
interface box, Capstone software, 3 leads, 3 voltage sensors, and a circuit board that contains
the capacitor (100 µF), inductor (8.2 mH), and resistors (10 and 33 Ω) needed for this
experiment. You will use Output 1 of the interface box as an ac voltage source. You will also
use three analog channels as voltage sensors.

B. Experimental Setup

1. Turn on your interface box, start the computer, and launch Capstone.

2. Experimental hookup. There should be two leads from Output 1 of the interface box: a
black lead hooked up to the black left-hand-side terminal and a red lead hooked up to the red
right-hand-side terminal. If the leads are not already attached, hook them up now. Make sure
that the first three Analog Channels have voltage-probe leads (red and black wires) hooked up.

First hook up the voltage supply (Output 1) across the series combination of the 100 µF
capacitor, 8.2 mH inductor and 33 Ω resistor, as shown in the picture on the next page.
Remember, the white lines on the circuit board represent wires that already connect the
components on the board. Carefully look at the circuit and make sure that you see that the three
components are hooked in series to the power supply.

2
LCR Circuits
We now will hook up the voltage probe leads across each component in the circuit.

Important: When hooking up the voltage-probe leads, make sure that the black voltage-probe
lead is (electrically) closest to the black lead from the power supply and the red lead is
(electrically) closest to the red lead from the power supply.

Hook up Channel A across the resistor, Channel B across the inductor, and Channel C across
the capacitor as shown above.

3. Signal Generator Setup: Open the Signal Generator window. Select 850 Output 1 and set
it to output a Sine Wave. Set the Amplitude to 1.000 V and the Frequency to 100 Hz. Make
sure Auto is selected. Close the window.

4. Voltage Sensor Setup: Open the Hardware Setup panel

and check to see that there is a Voltage Sensor connected to
Analog Channels A, B and C. In the Hardware Setup panel click on the Output 1 area and
add an Output Voltage-Current Sensor. Close the Hardware Setup panel. Click and drag a
Graph icon from the Displays palette onto the worksheet. Select Output Voltage, Ch 01 (V) as
the measurement on the y-axis. This will create a graph that will display the Output Voltage as a
function of time. Select Output Voltage (V) on the y-axis again and go to Add Similar
Measurement. Make sure that each Voltage (V) is checked. This will create a graph that will
display the Output Voltage and the voltages that channels A, B, and C are measuring as a
function of time.

5. Sampling Option Setup: In the Controls palette at the bottom of the screen, select
Recording Conditions. Choose Stop Condition. Change Condition Type to Time Based and
type in 0.10 seconds. Press OK. At the bottom of the screen, set the Sample Rate to 20 kHz
(20,000 samples per second).

C. Experimental Overview

In this experiment you will measure the output voltage and the voltages across all three
components as a function of time for a variety of frequencies. You will investigate the behavior
at relatively low frequency, relatively high frequency and as a function of frequency between

3
LCR Circuits
these two extremes. You will also make a graph that shows the resonant behavior of a driven
series LCR circuit.

V. I-V PHASE RELATIONSHIPS: MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS

Press the Record button. The computer should collect 0.1 s worth of data, which will likely be
squeezed into the left-hand side of the graph. Click on the Scale to fit button in the upper
left-hand side of the graph window to expand the data to fill the graph. Your graph should look
something like the following picture.

The curve of each measured quantity is displayed in a different color on the graph. Identify each
curve and fill in Table I with the appropriate color.

Table I
Measured Quantity Color on Graph

Output Voltage

Channel A (resistor)

Channel B (inductor)

Channel C (capacitor)

These colors will correspond to the same measured quantities throughout the rest of the lab.

As with any series circuit, in your LCR series circuit the current through each component is the
same at all times.

Which component has a voltage that is in phase with this current? ________________________

Thus, which curve in your graph has the same phase as the current in the circuit? ____________
4
LCR Circuits
Study your graph.

Does the current lead the voltage across the capacitor by nearly 90 degrees? ________________

TIP: the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees if a peak in the current occurs 90 degrees before
a peak in the voltage.

Does the current lag the voltage across the inductor by 90 degrees? ______________________

You will probably find that this phase difference is significantly less than 90 degrees. Estimate
the phase difference as best you can by looking at the graph (don’t try to find it mathematically).

Estimated phase difference = __________________

This difference is because the coil has a significant amount of resistance in addition to its
inductance.

VI. FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS

The impedance for a series LCR circuit can be written as

2
⎛ 1
2
⎞
Z = R +⎜ − 2π f L ⎟ (1)
⎝ 2π f C ⎠

For very high frequencies which of the terms, R, 1/(2%&'), or 2%&), becomes much larger than
the other two terms? _________________________

Is this what you physically expect? Why? ___________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Across which component do you expect most of the applied voltage to appear at very high
frequencies? _________________________

For very low frequencies which of the terms, R, 1/(2%&'), or 2%&), becomes much larger than
the other two terms? _________________________

Is this what you physically expect? Why? ___________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Across which component do you expect most of the applied voltage to appear at very low
frequencies? _________________________

What does Eq. (1) simplify to at resonance? [Hint: at resonance XC = XL]

Z=

5
LCR Circuits
What is true about the voltage (as a function of time) across the capacitor and inductor at
resonance?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

What is true about the voltage across the resistor?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

VII. SERIES LCR RESPONSE:

MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS

A. High Frequency

Delete your data (you can select Delete ALL data Runs in the menu next to Delete Last Data
Run). In the Signal Generator window (not the sample rate at the bottom of the page) set the
frequency to 1000 Hz. Click the Record button to collect data at this frequency. Using your
measured curves, fill in the values in Table 2.

Table 2
quantity measured

peak applied voltage ( Vsource ) 1.0 V

peak voltage across resistor ( VR )

peak voltage across inductor ( VL )

peak voltage across capacitor ( VC )

Which component has the largest voltage across it? _________________________

Does this agree with your expectations at high frequencies? _________________________

B. Low Frequency

Delete your data. In the Signal Generator window set the frequency to 25 Hz. Click the
Record button to collect data at this frequency. Using your measured curves, fill in the values in
Table 3 on the next page.

6
LCR Circuits
 Table 3
quantity measured

peak applied voltage ( Vsource ) 1.0 V

peak voltage across resistor ( VR )

peak voltage across inductor ( VL )

peak voltage across capacitor ( VC )

Which component has the largest voltage across it? _________________________

Does this agree with your expectations at low frequencies? _________________________

C. Resonance in an LCR Circuit

For a mechanical system, resonance is defined as a large amplitude response (in oscillation) that
occurs when the driving frequency f is close to a natural frequency f 0 . The resonant response of
a system becomes larger as the dissipative force (usually proportional to the velocity) becomes
smaller.

Resonance can also occur in series LCR circuit. This is because an inductor and capacitor wired
in series (with no resistance) is mathematically equivalent to a simple harmonic oscillator, with
the resonant frequency given by:

1
f0 =
2p LC

Using the given values of L and C, calculate the resonant frequency for this circuit.

f0 =

For an LCR circuit the resistor provides the dissipation. Thus, the smaller the value of resistance
the larger the resonant response. We will thus replace the 33 Ω resistor with the 10 Ω resistor.
Rewire your circuit to make this change so the 10 Ω resistor is now in series with the inductor
and capacitor.

Delete your data and collect a new data set with the new circuit. Select the crosshair icon at
the top of your graph display and select Add Coordinates/Delta Tool. Using this tool, you can
find the coordinate value at any point on your curve. Record the peak voltage across the resistor
in Table 4. (It may be helpful to have a graph with only the curve measuring the voltage across
the resistor.)
7
LCR Circuits
Our goal in this last exercise is to collect data at a number of frequencies so that we can visually
see the relationship between the frequency and the peak current for this circuit. Repeat the above
procedure to collect data for each of the frequencies listed in Table 4 and record the
corresponding peak voltages.

Table 4
driving Peak voltage VR
Peak current in
frequency f across 10 Ω
circuit (A)
(Hz) resistor (V)
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
400
500
600
800
1000

Calculating Peak Currents: For an LCR circuit, the amplitude of the response can be thought
of as the peak current in the circuit. Thus, from your peak voltage readings for each frequency,
%
calculate the corresponding peak current in the circuit using Ohm’s Law (*!"#$ = !"#$&
).
Record these values in the last column in Table 4.

You will use Excel to make the plot of peak current vs

driving frequency for this data. Open Excel and enter
the frequency data and corresponding peak current data
in two consecutive columns. Highlight the two columns
and go to the Charts tab. Use an XY Marked Scatter
chart. Remember to label your axes with the appropriate
quantity and units. When done, you should have a graph
that looks something like the top curve in the figure.

8
LCR Circuits
If you had also done measurements using the 33 Ω resistor, you would have obtained a curve
similar to the lower curve in the graph. Notice how much flatter the curve is with more
resistance.
At what frequency does the maximum in the peak current curve occur? ____________________

Compare this to the resonant frequency you calculated. Are the two frequencies in agreement?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

VIII. FIVE QUESTIONS

Q1. The graph below plots the current I (t ) in an ideal series LCR circuit vs time. Draw the
curves that would correspond to VR (t ), VC (t ) , and VL (t ), with the amplitudes of each appropriate
to a relatively high driving frequency. Pay careful attention to the phases of the voltages.

Q2. The graph below plots the current I (t ) in an ideal series LCR circuit vs time. Draw the
curves would correspond to VR (t ), VC (t ) , and VL (t ) , when the system is driven at resonance.
Pay careful attention to the amplitudes of VC and VL .

9
LCR Circuits
Q3. There are two identical series LCR circuits, but one has R = 0.1 Ω and the other has
R = 10 Ω. What is the ratio of the peak current in each circuit at resonance?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q4. A series LCR circuit has components with the following values: R = 0.1 Ω, C = 2 µF, and
L = 3 mH. It is driven by a sinusoidal AC source with V0 = 1 V and f = 1000 Hz.
A) What is the value of the inductive reactance X L in the circuit?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

B) The capacitive reactance X C ?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Q5. Consider the same circuit as in Q4. Find the peak values of I, VR , VC , and VL .
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Is the system being driven above, below, or at resonance? _________________________

Quit Capstone and Excel; do not save any changes.

Shut down the computer, and turn off the interface box.
Disconnect the wires from the circuit board.

10
LCR Circuits
 REFRACTION AND THIN LENSES
Updated December 2024

Note: Section III (INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS) should be completed before you come to lab.

I. INTRODUCTION

In this lab you will investigate several geometrical optics concepts. You will first make
measurements of reflection and refraction at the interface between air and a dielectric material.
You will then study the properties of thin lenses.

II. USEFUL EQUATIONS

(1) Law of reflection: !! = !"

(2) Snell’s law: ## sin !# = #$ sin !$

! ! !
(3) Thin lens equation:
"
=# +#
! "
f > 0: converging lens
f < 0: diverging lens
d 0 > 0: real object
d 0 < 0: virtual object
d i > 0: real image
d i < 0: virtual image

$" #"
(4) Magnification: #= =−
$! #!

III. INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

* * Complete this section before coming to lab. * *

Draw a diagram that shows the variables in the law of reflection [Eq. (1)], and define each
variable.

Draw a diagram that shows the variables in Snell’s law [Eq. (2)], and define each variable.

Refraction and Thin Lenses

1
 III. EXPERIMENT DETAILS

A. Equipment Overview

For the reflection / refraction part of the lab, you will use an acrylic cube, laser, a protractor,
tape and paper. For the thin lens part of the lab, you will use an optical bench, light source,
screen, 1 diverging lens, 2 converging lenses, holders for the lenses, a table lamp, and a ruler.

B. Experimental Overview

You will first make some measurements of laser light (an excellent approximation of a light ray)
that reflects from and passes through an acrylic cube to investigate the laws of reflection and
refraction (Snell's law). You will then investigate the image-forming properties of thin lenses.

V. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION: MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS

!! WARNING !!

This exercise uses a laser. Laser light is intense and can do retinal damage.

NEVER LOOK DIRECTLY INTO A LASER BEAM.

NEVER POINT A LASER BEAM SO THAT SOMEONE ELSE CAN LOOK INTO IT DIRECTLY.

A. As shown in Figure 1a, draw a line

transmitte
d beam
the length of a sheet of paper. Tape the
beam

paper to the table. Turn on the laser

pointer and aim the beam so that it lies
along the line drawn. Once the beam is

line
properly aligned, be careful not to move
the laser. rear

B. As illustrated in Figure 1b, place the cube

acrylic cube on the paper midway down front

the line. Orient the cube so that it deflects reflected
beam
the light ray significantly from its
straight-line path, making sure that the ray Figure 1a Figure 1b
enters through the front face and exits
through the rear face without reflecting
from the side faces. Carefully trace the
position of the cube on the paper.

Figure 1: Geometry for the reflection / refraction experiment.

C. Locate the position of the reflected beam and mark it in several places with dots, as
illustrated in Figure 1b. You may need to turn out the lights to see the reflected beam.
Similarly, determine the position of the transmitted beam employing the same technique. The
dots you make in this case should fall along a line parallel to the original incident direction but
displaced to the right or the left (depending on how you oriented your cube).
Refraction and Thin Lenses
2
D. Turn off the laser pointer. Remove the cube. 3 4 2

E. Using a straight edge, draw a line through the dots along qT

the reflected beam (Trace 1 in Figure 2). Make sure this line
intersects the line marking the front edge of the cube and the
incident beam direction, all at the same point A (in Figure 2).
rear
B
F. Draw a line through point A that makes a right angle with
both front and rear edges of the cube (Trace 2 in Figure 2). A
Extend the line well past the rear edge, as shown. front

G. (a) Mark and measure the angle of incidence !! and

q
angle of reflection !" . qI

1
2 Figure 2
(b) What are their values?
Figure 2: Angles for the reflection /
refraction experiment.
!! = !" =

(c) Are your data consistent with the law of reflection? _________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

H. Align a straight edge along the dots defining the direction of the transmitted beam (Trace 3 in
Figure 2). Don’t draw a line, but mark where such a line would intersect the rear edge (B in
Figure 2).

I. Draw a line from A to B extending it well past the rear edge (Trace 4 in Figure 2). This line
lies along the direction of the refracted beam inside the cube.

Why is this true? _______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

J. Measure the angle of refraction ( qT in Figure 2). Use Snell’s law to determine the index of
refraction of the acrylic cube.

Index of refraction for the cube =

Does this value make sense? ______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Refraction and Thin Lenses

3
 VI. THIN LENSES: MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS

A. Images

You have been provided with three lenses. Lenses 1 and 2 are converging lenses (thicker near
the middle) and lens 3 is diverging (thinner near the middle). We will first investigate the
images formed by these lenses, and use these images to estimate the focal lengths of the
converging lenses. We will later refine these estimates with careful measurements, and will
determine the focal length of the diverging lens.

To investigate the images formed by each lens, place the light source at the end of the optical
bench, with the source located at the 0 cm position. Turn on the light source by plugging it in.
Stand or sit 1 or 2 meters from the other end of the optical bench, and look along the bench
toward the light source, while your lab partner places one of the lenses next to the source. As
your partner moves the lens slowly away from the light source along the optical bench, describe
how the size (larger/smaller) and orientation (upright/inverted) of the image changes. You may
need to move your head from side to side, or up and down, to keep the image centered. Your
partner should avoid moving the optical bench during this exercise. Repeat the exercise for the
other two lenses, and then change places with your lab partner so he / she can observe what
happens. Record your observations on the size and orientation of the image as a function of
distance, including estimates of the position of the lens when the image orientation reverses.

Lens 1 (converging):
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Lens 2 (converging):
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Lens 3 (diverging):
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Refraction and Thin Lenses

4
For converging lenses, an object (the light source) placed inside of the focal length f produces a
virtual, upright image, as shown in Fig. 3, and an object placed outside of the focal length f
produces a real, inverted image, as shown in Fig. 4. Are your previous observations consistent
with these properties?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Make rough estimates of the focal lengths f1 and f2 of the two converging lenses.

f1 = f2 =

Figure 3: The image formed by an object placed inside the focal length of a converging lens is virtual, upright, and magnified.

Figure 4: The image formed by an object placed outside the focal length of a converging lens is real and inverted. For the
experiments in this lab, the object is the light source located at the 0 cm position on the optical bench, the object distance do is
the position of the lens on this bench, and the real image is the position xi = do + di of the white screen that produces the sharpest
image. Here, ho is the object height (positive) and hi is the image height (negative, because the image is inverted).

For diverging lenses, an object always produces a virtual, upright, reduced image regardless of
its distance from the lens, as shown in Fig. 5 (on next page). Are your previous observations
consistent with these properties?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Refraction and Thin Lenses

5
 Figure 5: The image formed by a diverging lens is virtual, upright, and reduced.

B. Converging Lenses

We will now measure the focal lengths of the two converging lenses by forming real images on a
screen. Virtual images cannot be viewed on a screen, so we will place the light source outside of
the focal length to form real, inverted images as shown in Fig. 4.

Place the light source (the object) at 0 cm on the optical bench, and turn it on. Place Lens 1 at the
30 cm position on the bench. Adjust the position of the screen until a sharp image is formed.
Note: the position of the screen refers to the position of the FRONT of the screen. Record the
position xi of this screen and the corresponding image distance di = xi - do in Table I.

Use the ruler to measure the object height ho (the diameter of the circular pattern on the light
source, taken as a positive number) and record it below. Measure the image height hi (the
diameter of the inverted circular pattern on the screen, taken as a negative number) and enter it
into Table I. Enter their ratio hi/ho in the "magnification1" column of Table I.
h0 =
Use Eq. (3) to calculate the focal length and enter its value in Table I.

Calculate the negative ratio of the image and object distances and enter this ratio in the
"magnification2" column of Table I.

Readjust the lens position to 40 cm, 50 cm, and 60 cm, and repeat your measurements at each
position. Record your results in Table I.

Table I: Lens 1
lens position screen position image distance focal length image height magnification1 magnification2
do (cm) xi (cm) di = xi - do (cm) f (cm) hi (cm) m = hi/ho m = -di/do
30
40
50
60

Average focal length ± Std. Dev.

Calculate the average and standard deviation of your four measurements of the focal length, and
enter these at the bottom of the table. This is your measurement of the focal length of Lens 1.
Refraction and Thin Lenses
6
Place Lens 2 at the 30 cm position and adjust the position of the screen until you find a sharp
image for this lens. Make the needed measurements and calculations to fill in the Table.

Table II: Lens 2

lens position screen position image distance di focal length magnification1 magnification2
do (cm) xi (cm) = xi - do (cm) f (cm) m = hi/ho m = -di/do
30

Compare your measured focal lengths for Lens 1 and Lens 2 with the rough estimates that you
recorded on page 5.

How well do they agree? _________________________________________________________

Compare your measured focal length for Lens 1 with its nominal focal length of 10 cm, and
compare your measured focal length for Lens 2 with its nominal focal length of 20 cm.

How well do they agree? _________________________________________________________

Place your thumb and forefinger on opposite sides of each lens, and feel how its thickness varies
with distance from the center.

Which lens has the greater curvature? ______________________

Is this answer consistent with your measured focal lengths? ______________________

Why? ________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

According to Eq. (4), the magnification can be determined using two different methods
("magnification1" and "magnification2" columns in Tables I and II).

How well do the two methods agree? ______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

C. Diverging Lens

Lens 3 is a diverging lens, which by itself forms virtual images that cannot be shown on a screen.
To measure the focal length of Lens 3 precisely, we need a real image on a screen. We will
accomplish this by using Lens 3 in combination with Lens 1.

First, we will do some calculations for Lens 1 alone for an object distance do = 20 cm, object
height ho = 4 cm and focal length f = 10 cm (the nominal focal length for Lens 1). Use Eq. (3) to
predict the position di and then use Eq. (4) to predict the height of the image hi.

di =

hi =

Refraction and Thin Lenses

7
Now verify these predictions experimentally. Place the illuminated light source at 0 cm, place
Lens 1 at position 20 cm on the optical bench, and place the screen at your predicted position for
the image (20 cm + di cm). Verify that the image is sharp on the screen and verify your
prediction of the image height hi cm by measuring it with a ruler.

Were your predictions correct? ____________________________________________________

Now, with Lens 1 still at position 20 cm, place Lens 3 at position 30 cm, and use the image of
Lens 1 as the object for Lens 3 (you should have gotten position 40 cm and height –4 cm above).
With Lens 3 between Lens 1 and its image, the light rays that form this image do not actually
pass through it, and the image of Lens 1 therefore serves as a virtual object for Lens 3, with do =
–10 cm and ho = –4 cm. Find the screen position xi where a sharp image is formed by this two-
lens combination, determine the corresponding image distance di = xi – 30 cm, and measure the
height hi of this image.

Use these values, together with Eqs. (3) and (4), to complete Table III.

Table III: Lens 3

object dist. do screen position image distance focal length magnification1 magnification2
(cm) xi (cm) di = xi – 30 cm f (cm) m = hi/ho m = –di/do
–10

Does f have the sign (positive or negative) that you would expect for a diverging lens?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

How well does f compare with the nominal focal length f = –15 cm of Lens 3?
______________________________________________________________________________

How well do your two methods of calculating the magnification agree?

______________________________________________________________________________

Unplug the light source.

VII. FIVE QUESTIONS

Q1. A light ray in air is incident on a cube with index of refraction 1.77 at an incidence angle of
40 degrees,

What is the angle of reflection? ______________________

What is the angle of refraction? ______________________

Refraction and Thin Lenses

8
Q2. If a light ray passes through the front and rear faces of a cube without contacting its sides,
what can be said about the direction of the ray that emerges from the rear face of the cube,
compared with the direction of the incident ray? ______________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q3. An object with do > 0 and ho > 0 forms a real image through a converging lens.

Indicate the correct signs and relative distances by circling the correct answers.
f is positive or negative?
di is positive or negative?
hi is positive or negative?
do is larger or smaller than f ?

How do your answers change if the image is virtual?

f is positive or negative
di is positive or negative
hi is positive or negative
do is larger or smaller than f

Q4. An object with do > 0 and ho > 0 forms an image through a diverging lens.

What are the signs (positive or negative) of f, di, and hi? (Circle the correct answers.)
f is positive or negative
di is positive or negative
hi is positive or negative

Q5. An object of height 3 cm is placed a distance of 30 cm away from a converging lens of focal
length 20 cm.

Find the image distance, the image magnification, and the image height.

di =

m=

hi =

Is the image upright or inverted? ______________________

Real or virtual? ______________________

Magnified or reduced? ______________________

(Continued on next page.)

Refraction and Thin Lenses
9
Draw a diagram showing the object, lens, and image with the correct proportions.

Refraction and Thin Lenses

10
 DIFFRACTION
Updated January 2024

Note: Section III (INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS) should be completed before you come to lab.

I. INTRODUCTION

In this lab we will explore diffraction by single slits and by multiple slits.

II. USEFUL EQUATIONS

l æDö
Single-slit diffraction minima: sin (q n ) = n ; n = 1, 2, 3, … ; n £ ç ÷
D èlø
D = slit width
l æd ö
Multiple-slit diffraction maxima: sin (q m ) = m ; m = 0, 1, 2, … ; m £ ç ÷
d èlø
d = slit separation

III. INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS

* * Complete this section before coming to lab. * *

Consider this picture of the experimental setup.

How are the distances ! − !! and L related to
the angle #?
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________

If the angle # (in radians) << 1, then the approximations sin # ≈ tan # ≈ # are quite accurate.
Thus, we have the simplification
!−!0
#≈ #
(1)

Keep in mind that in this equation # is in radians. In the measurement that you will make
# << 1 will be valid. Thus, you may use Eq. (1) to determine # from measurements of ! − !!
and L.

The equation that describes the positions of minima in a single-slit diffraction pattern is

$
sin #" = + % ; + = 1,2,3, … (2)

Identify the symbols 3 and D in this equation.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Diffraction
1
 Again, for small angles we may approximate sin # by #, and thus Eq. (2) can be written as

$
#" = + % ; + = 1,2,3, … (3)

The equation that describes the positions of principle maxima in a multiple-slit diffraction pattern
is
$
sin ## = 4 & ; 4 = 1,2,3, … (4)

Identify the symbol d in this equation. _____________________________________________

IV. EXPERIMENT DETAILS

A. Instrumentation Overview

In this lab the following instrumentation will be used: computer, 850 Universal Interface
computer interface box, Capstone software, diode laser, single slit set, multiple slit set,
diffraction scanner, and table lamp. Diffraction patterns will be formed by sending laser light
from the semiconductor diode laser through a number of single and multiple slits. The
diffraction scanner combines a position sensor with a light sensor for scanning the diffraction
patterns. All components are mounted on an optical bench. The experimental setup is shown
below.

slit set

B. Experimental Setup
laser scanner
1. Diffraction Scanner Set Up: The diffraction scanner contains a slit aperture centered on a
white screen. Rotate the aperture selection knob on the back of the scanner to set the aperture to
0.2 mm. The screen lets you see the diffraction patterns. This screen should be at the 105 cm
position on the optical bench (notice that the base of the scanner is at a position slightly less than
105 cm because it sticks out beyond the screen).

The light sensor located behind the slit aperture of the diffraction scanner can be moved
perpendicular to the optical bench by rotating the crank. To aid in aligning the laser, adjust the
position the slit aperture so that it is over the center of the optical bench.

The diffraction scanner is connected directly to the computer with a USB cable.

Diffraction
2
Our first measurements will be of single-slit diffraction. Place the single-slit set so that the front
of the slit screen is at a position of 5 cm on the optical bench. The laser carriage should be at the
end of the optical bench.

Compare your setup to the schematic diagram. What is your value of L (in meters)?

L = ___________ m

2. Laser Beam Alignment: Turn on the laser. Rotate the single-slit set until the 0.08 mm wide
slit is in front of the laser beam. Use the adjustment screws on the back of the laser to center the
bright spot of the diffraction pattern on the aperture slit of the diffraction scanner.

3. Programming the Interface Box: The diffraction scanner will automatically be connected
to the Capstone software when it is launched.

4. Display Set Up: Drag a Graph icon from the Displays palette onto the worksheet. Create a
Light Intensity (%) vs Position (mm) graph by choosing Light Intensity (%) as the
measurement for the y-axis and Position (mm) for the x-axis.

In the Controls palette, change the Sample Rate from 20 Hz to 25 Hz (this will change the
sample rate for both the light sensor and the position sensor).

C. Experimental Overview

You will now qualitatively and quantitatively explore single-slit and multiple-slit diffraction.
You will first be asked to observe and note features of the diffraction patterns. You will then
make some measurements of the patterns to verify (hopefully!) the equations that describe the
diffraction.

V. OBSERVATIONS, MEASUREMENTS, AND ANALYSIS

A. Single-Slit Diffraction

It will be most helpful if the room lights are off at this point. Make sure that the D = 0.08 mm
slit is in front of the laser beam. In the space below, sketch the single-slit diffraction pattern that
you observe on the white screen of the diffraction scanner. Identify the minima in the pattern
and label the minima with the appropriate value of n.

Rotate the single-slit wheel and observe the patterns from the other slits, D = 0.02, 0.04, and 0.16
mm. What happens to the pattern as the slit width D decreases?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Diffraction
3
Let’s now make a quantitative measurement. Put the D = 0.08 mm slit back in front of the laser
beam. Rotate the crank counterclockwise to move the diffraction scanner to the left side of the
diffraction pattern. Click the Record button, then rotate the crank clockwise very slowly and
smoothly to move the diffraction scanner across the pattern. It is important that you move the
scanner very slowly or you will not observe the important features of the diffraction patterns.
Click Stop. Expand the data to fill the graph using the Scale to fit button: . You should now
have a graph of Light Intensity (%) vs Position (m), that looks similar to the following picture. If
your central maximum is saturated (cut off), then repeat the measurement with the smallest
aperture (0.1 mm) in front of the detector. If you cannot clearly observe at least 3 maxima to
each side of the central maximum (after expanding the y scale), you may need to repeat the
measurement with the next larger aperture (0.3 mm).

Notice that most of the wave intensity that passes through the slit lies within the central
maximum. Recall, when studying diffraction of sound waves, these first minima were identified
as the diffraction angle and their positions were simply given by Eq. (2) with n = 1.

Let’s see if the observed minima are located where they should be. To locate the x value of the
data points use the Coordinates-Delta Tool, which is activated with the button. Click the
button and a crosshair will appear. Drag the crosshair onto one of the data points; the cross hair
will snap onto the data point. You can now move the crosshair to different points on the data set
using the arrow buttons on the keyboard.

Diffraction
4
First, locate the position of the center of the diffraction pattern as shown in the following picture
– this is the position of x0 in the schematic found in Sec. IV. Note that the center of the
diffraction pattern may not be exactly at the data point with the maximum y value, but will be
located at the point where the vertical line of the crosshair most evenly divides the central
maximum. Record this value (converted from mm to m) in Table I (on the next page).

You will next locate the x-positions of the first 3 minima on each side of the pattern. Zoom in on
the lower portion of the diffraction pattern and use the crosshair to find the x value for each of
the minima. The picture below illustrates this for the n = 1 minimum on the left-hand side of the
graph. Record the position values of each minimum (converted from mm to m) in Table I.

From the x values, calculate x - x0 for each minimum and record these values.

Next, use Eq. (1) to calculate the angle q for each minimum (use the experimental value of L
recorded on page 2) and record these values.

Finally, use Eq. (3) to calculate the theoretical value of q n for each value of n (use the value for
l that is on the labels on your laser. If it says 660-680 nm then use 670 nm. If it says 650 nm
then use that value.) Record these results in Table I.

Diffraction
5
Table I
experimental angle theoretical angle
feature x (m) x - x0 (m) q n (radians) q n (radians)
x0
0 0 0
central maximum
n = 1 minimum
(left side)
n = 1 minimum
(right side)
n = 2 (left)

n = 2 (right)

n = 3 (left)

n = 3 (right)

How do your experimental and theoretical values of q n compare?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

B. Multiple-Slit Diffraction

Replace the single-slit set with the multiple slit set. You will use the Multiple Slits section of
this slit set. Place the N = 2 (N = number of slits) in front of the laser beam. Observe the
diffraction pattern on the white screen of the diffraction scanner. Carefully sketch what it looks
like in the space below.

Place the N = 3 in front of the laser beam. Observe the diffraction pattern and carefully sketch
what it looks like in the space below. You should notice several subtle, but significant
differences between the two patterns.

Switch back and forth between the N = 2 and N = 3 patterns. What differences do you notice
about the principle maxima? ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

What else is different about the diffraction patterns (Hint: are there any secondary maxima in
either pattern?) ________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Diffraction
6
Now observe the N = 4 and N = 5 patterns. Carefully sketch these patterns in the space below,
taking care to accurately draw both the primary and secondary maxima. Note the relationship
between N and the number of secondary maxima.

Comparing all four patterns, what can you conclude about the diffraction patterns as N increases?
You should observe differences in the intensity and width of principle maxima and the number
of secondary maxima as N increases. What do you observe?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Let’s make a few measurements of multiple-slit patterns. First, remove your single-slit data from
the experiment using the Delete All Data Runs option in the menu next to Delete Last Run.
Select the smallest aperture (0.1 mm) on the diffraction scanner and use Capstone to record the
diffraction pattern from 2 slits [start from the left side of the pattern, scan very slowly and
smoothly]. Remember to press the Stop button at the end of the measurement. Now, record the
pattern for N = 3, 4, and 5 [starting each time from the left side of the pattern]. Carefully
examine these patterns.

What differences do you see? _____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Do these measured differences agree with your previous visual observations? _______________

Can you see the secondary maxima? __________________

You should see a pattern between the number of slits and the number of secondary maxima. The
number of secondary maxima is equal to N – 2. If you didn’t notice this pattern, go back and
check!

Diffraction
7
 XI. FIVE QUESTIONS

Q1. Consider the two diffraction patterns shown above.

A) Are they from a single slit or multiple slits? _____________________________________

B) If taken with the same laser wavelength, which one corresponds to the narrower slit? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Q2. Assuming that the pattern on the right above question 1 was obtained with l = 670 nm
light and with a slit width D = 0.08 mm, what is the diffraction angle q1 ?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

What was the distance L for this pattern?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q3. Let q = 0.1 radians. Calculate sin q and tan q .

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

How close are they to q ? ________________________________________________________

Diffraction
8
Q4. Consider the two diffraction patterns above.

Are they from a single slit or multiple slits? __________________________________________

If multiple slits, what is N for each pattern? __________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q5. Consider the diffraction pattern on the right above question 4.

A) If L = 60 cm, what is q1 , the angle between the central maximum and the next maximum?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

B) Thus, if l = 500 nm, what is the spacing between the slits?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Quit Capstone; do not save any changes.

Shut down the computer; turn off the interface box.
Make sure the laser is turned off.

Diffraction
9
 Diffraction
10
 OPTICAL SPECTROSCOPY
Updated January 2024

Note: Section III (INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS) should be completed before you come to lab.

I. INTRODUCTION

In this lab, you will use an optical spectrometer to measure the wavelengths of visible light
given off by hot hydrogen gas.

II. USEFUL EQUATIONS

(1) Grating maximum equation: sin qm = ml / d; m = 0, 1, 2, ...

l = wavelength
d = spacing between grating lines

(2) Hydrogen electron energy levels: En = – 13.6 eV / n2; n = 1, 2, ...

n = principal quantum number

(3) Photon energy and frequency: Ei – Ef = hf = photon energy (eV)

f = photon frequency (Hz)
h = Planck's constant
Ei = -13.6 eV / ni2 = initial energy
Ef = -13.6 eV / nf2 = final energy

(4) Photon speed and wavelength: c=fl

c = speed of light (m/s)
l = photon wavelength (m)

hc æ 1 1 ö
(5) Hydrogen emission wavelengths: = 13.6 eV ç 2 - 2 ÷
l çn ÷
è f ni ø

(6) Planck's constant times the speed of light: hc = 1240 eV nm

Optical Spectroscopy
1
 III. INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS
* * Complete this section before coming to lab. * *

When light emitted by excited hydrogen gas passes through a diffraction grating a series of
principal maxima will be observed, as illustrated below, whose angular positions are given by
Eq. (1).

red
blue-green

grating violet
incident light
central maximum

violet

blue-green
red
Figure 2: Diffraction Pattern

With the spectrometer that you will be using in this lab, you will only determine the position of
the first violet, the first blue-green and the first red maxima on either side of the central
maximum. These maxima are all first order and thus m=1 for all of them.

Why is this? ___________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Now, solve Eq. (1) for l . We will use this later to find the wavelengths emitted by hydrogen.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

We will also need to know the spacing d between the slits of the diffraction grating that you will
be using. The diffraction grating is labeled 600 lines per mm. You can use this to find the
spacing d between each slit. (Hint: find the mm per line).
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Optical Spectroscopy
2
 IV. EXPERIMENT DETAILS

A. Instrumentation Overview

You will use the following instrumentation: an optical spectrometer (that uses a diffraction
grating to disperse the light), a hydrogen discharge tube, a bubble level, a magnifying glass and a
table lamp.
B. The Spectrometer

The main instrument that you will use is an optical spectrometer, which measures the angular
deviation of light diffracted by a diffraction grating. The essential parts of the spectrometer are
shown in Figure 1. In the following description of the instrument the numbers in parentheses
correspond to numbers by the side of the parts shown in the figure. Read through the description
and familiarize yourself with the spectrometer.

6 10 B
2
5
light 12
from
slit 4 11 1
source
3
13
10 A
8
7

vernier main
scale scale
9
Figure 1: Top view of the spectrometer

1. Telescope (1): This is an ordinary telescope with the addition of a crosshair in the eyepiece.
The telescope can be adjusted for clear images by turning a screw (2) provided at its side. It can
be fixed to a position by tightening a screw provided below it (not shown in figure). Fine
adjustments to the telescope are done through the fine screw (3).

2. Collimator (4): This consists of a slit whose width can be adjusted with the screw (5)
connected to it. The slit is placed in the focal plane of a convex lens. By adjusting the screw (6)
parallel rays of light can be made to emerge out of the collimator. A source of light illuminates
the slit.

3. Circular base: This base has a movable disc (7) mounted on top of a fixed disc (8). The
telescope and the mounting table are fixed atop the moveable disc but both of them can be
rotated independently. The moveable disc can be fixed by tightening the screw (9).

Optical Spectroscopy
3
4. Scales: Two circular scales (10 A & B) graduated in degrees can be seen through a window
on the moveable disc. These scales have a main scale (accurate to 1/2 degree), and a vernier
scale (accurate to 1/60th of a degree or 1 minute). The main scale ranges from 0˚ to 360˚, the
vernier scale ranges from 0 to 30 minutes. To simplify things, only scale B will be read in this
lab. Instructions for reading the scales are given below in section D.

5. Mounting table (11): Atop the moveable disc there is a circular table, which can be fixed
with the screw (13). The diffraction grating is fixed by sliding it into the grooves of a vertical
support (12) on the table.

6. Plane diffraction grating: The diffraction grating is a piece of glass with very fine lines
etched into it.

7. Light source: You will be using a hydrogen discharge tube, consisting of an evacuated tube
filled with hydrogen gas with two electrodes across the ends. A high voltage across the
electrodes produces an electric discharge that excites the electrons in the atoms, which
subsequently de-excite by emitting light.

C. Spectrometer Setup

Now that we know how the spectrometer works, it needs to be adjusted for accuracy.

1. Adjusting the crosshairs: Direct the telescope towards a bright source. Adjust the eyepiece
by pulling it out or pushing it in until you can see the crosshairs clearly. Rotate the eyepiece
until the crosshairs look like a +.

2. Adjusting for parallel rays: Direct the telescope towards a distant object. Turn the screw (2)
until you see a clear image of the distant object. At this point all the rays entering the telescope
are parallel to the axis of the telescope. NOTE: once the telescope is adjusted for parallel rays,
screw (2) should not be readjusted again throughout the experiment.

3. Adjusting the slit and collimator. Move the telescope until it is looking straight down the
collimator tube; at this point, they should be parallel. As you look through the telescope, adjust
the focal screw (6) until you can clearly see the slit. Tighten screw (5) until you see a fine slit.
The narrower the slit, the more accurate will be your measurements.

4. Leveling the mounting table: Mount the table on top of the movable disc and tighten it
through screw (13); it may already be mounted. Then using a level, ensure that the table is
horizontal by adjusting the three leveling screws provided in the mounting table.

D. Reading the Vernier Scale

The angular position of the telescope is determined by reading both the main and vernier scales.
The main scale value is the main-scale division that is just below the zero of the vernier scale.
The vernier scale value is the vernier scale division that is exactly in line with a division of the
main scale. The telescope position is then the main scale value (in degrees) plus the vernier
scale value (in minutes).

Optical Spectroscopy
4
Look at the picture below as an example. The zero of the vernier scale is just below 130 degrees
on the main scale. The aligned vernier scale value is 28 minutes. The telescope position is 130
degrees plus 28 minutes = 130 + 28/60 degrees = 130.47 degrees. Since the markings on the
scale are very fine, use the digital microscope to accurately make your readings.

E. Digital Microscope Instructions

1. Launch Plugable Digital Viewer from the dock.

2. Turn on the ring light using the power button on its cord.

3. The microscope should display a color picture. It tends to

be rather red. You can adjust this by pressing the color palette button
on the microscope once to change it to black and white.

4. Adjust the position of the microscope stand to center the vernier scale
in the picture. You don’t need to adjust the height of the ring light or
microscope. They are already set for you.

5. The microscope can be focused using the grey focuser on the side of the microscope.
It has been preset for you. Any further adjustments should be slight.

6. You can make the ring light brighter or dimmer and adjust its color hue
brighter
by pressing the appropriate buttons on its cord. color hue
dimmer
7. The card attached to the side of the ring light helps scatter light onto
the minutes scale making it easier to read.

8. The microscope has its own LEDs that can be turned on with the roll switch on its cord.
However, the light they provide isn’t very useful for what we are doing.

9. Turn the ring light off while looking through the spectrometer.

Optical Spectroscopy
5
10. You can dim and brighten the computer using the F1 & F2 keys if needed.

11. Since you will only be reading scale B, the microscope will not need to be moved.

13. Please leave everything set up for the next lab.

F. Practice Reading the Vernier Scale

Accurately reading the vernier scale is the most challenging part if this lab. As practice, move
the telescope to some position then read the scale. Convert the position to degrees, as in the
example in section D. If you are unsure of how to read the scale, get help from the lab instructor.

What is your measurement? _______________________

D. Experimental Overview

You will measure the wavelengths of visible light emitted by hydrogen. From these, you will
determine the associated initial and final principal quantum numbers ni and nf, the associated
initial and final energies Ei = -13.6 eV / ni2 and Ef = -13.6 eV / nf2, and the energy Ei – Ef of the
photon emitted when the hydrogen electron drops from the initial to the final state.

V. MEASUREMENTS – HYDROGEN EMISSION SPECTRUM

Turn on the hydrogen discharge tube. You may need to put the hydrogen discharge tube on the
plastic box so that the middle of the hydrogen tube is lined up with the spectrometer – otherwise
the spectra taken might be inaccurate. Mount the diffraction grating on the mounting table. The
grating should be in the center of the table. Adjust the table until the plane of the grating is
perpendicular to the light emerging from the collimator.

Look at the center of the hydrogen tube. What color is the light coming from it? ___________

1. Rotate the telescope until you can see the central maximum.

Is the central maximum the same color as the tube? ______________________

Why or why not? _______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. Now rotate the telescope slowly to one side. You should see three successive bright lines as
you rotate the telescope farther and farther from center. You might also see a fourth line that is
weaker than the rest.

Do you see a line that is the same color as the tube? ______________________

Why or why not? _______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Optical Spectroscopy
6
If you see a yellow line, or if the central maximum is not the same color as the tube, then raise or
lower the hydrogen discharge tube until the collimator is pointing directly at the middle of the
discharge tube.

3. Rotate the telescope back to the central maximum. Find the angular position of the central
maximum on the A or B scale and record it in Table I on the next page.

4. Turn off the hydrogen discharge tube.

5. Measure the angular positions of the three bright lines on either side of the central maximum
(make sure to use the same scale as you did above) and record them in Table I.

6. Now, find the angle q 1 of the first-order maximum for each of these lines as the difference
between the angular position of the central maximum and the angular position of the colored line
and record these values.

7. Finally, use the equation you derived in Sec. III to find the wavelength l of each line and
record these values.

Table I
angle on
wavelength l
feature scale B q1 (degrees)
(nm)
(degrees)

central maximum 0 --------

violet line

blue – green line

red line

VI. ANALYSIS – THE INITIAL AND FINAL ELECTRONIC STATES

Show that combining Eq. (3) with Eq. (4) gives Eq. (5).
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Optical Spectroscopy
7
Solve Eq. (5) for the wavelength λ of a photon emitted by a hydrogen atom as its electron drops
from an initial state ni to a final state n f , and insert Eq. (6).
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

You will use the equation you just derived to predict the photon wavelengths emitted for
different initial and final states. For spontaneous emission (the subject of this laboratory), the
value of ni must be larger than n f .

For example, calculate the wavelength of the transition with ni = 2 and n f = 1.

λ 2 to 1 =

What part of the electromagnetic spectrum is this wavelength in? (Circle the correct answer.)
infrared visible ultraviolet
It turns out that none of the wavelengths with n f = 1 are visible. The visible wavelengths that
you measured can't have n f = 1.

Let's try n f = 2. Copy your measured wavelengths from Table I into the second column of
Table II. Try various values of ni in your equation above until you find calculated wavelengths
that are close to your measured wavelengths for hydrogen. For each line, record your value of
ni in Table II. These are the famous Balmer emission lines, which are observed in emission
nebula scattered throughout the universe.

Table II: Balmer Emission Lines

measured wavelength calculated wavelength
feature l (nm) ni nf l (nm)

violet line 2

blue-green line 2

red line 2

Optical Spectroscopy
8
 VII. FIVE QUESTIONS
Table III
Q1. Use Eq. (2) to calculate the hydrogen electron energy levels
for n = 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 and enter these values into Table III. n En (eV)
Be sure to include the negative signs in your answers.
1
Does the ground state (n = 1) have the lowest energy? _______
2
Explain: ___________________________________________
___________________________________________________ 3
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________ 4
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________ 5

Q2. When the hydrogen electron drops from an initial energy Ei to a final energy E f , the atom
emits a photon whose energy is given by the difference between these energies. Copy the values
of the principal quantum numbers ni and nf for the three Balmer lines from Table II into Table
IV. Then copy the corresponding initial and final energies Ei and E f from Table III into Table
IV, and calculate the associated photon energies E i - E f .

Table IV

feature ni nf Ei Ef Ei – Ef

violet line

blue-green line

red line

Are the photon energies positive or negative? ______________________

Explain: ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q3. A) Which of the Balmer lines has the largest photon energy? ______________________

B) Which has the longest wavelength? ______________________

C) Which has the highest frequency? ______________________

Optical Spectroscopy
9
Use Eqs. (3) and (4) to justify your answers.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q4. The higher the photon energy and frequency [see Eq. (3)], the more dangerous the radiation.
Why are ultraviolet waves more dangerous than infrared rays?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q5. A certain grating has a slit separation of 1000 nm. If 600 nm light is passed through this
grating, which values of m are possible? HINT: the diffraction angle q must be less than 90˚.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Optical Spectroscopy
10