Lecture 32: Lift and Drag of Wings

AE 311 Spring 2025

Saxton-Fox
Wings

4/16/25 Lecture 32 1
 Inviscid flow models

Where Wings

are we? Up next:

Prandtl Lifting General wing
Elliptic wings
Line Theory theory

4/14/25 Lecture 32 2
Announcements
• Homework 8 due today
• Cheat sheet on lectures 25 – 28
• Homework quiz 8 today
• Homework 9 due next Wednesday
• Focused on reading and discussing an article that I posted on Canvas
• Start thinking about project 3

4/16/2025 Lecture 32 3
Summary so far
!"
"&/( )* !#
• Downwash along span: 𝑤 𝑦! = − ∫%&/(
#$ *$ %*
!&
" &/( )*
!#
• Induced angle of attack along span: 𝛼+ 𝑦! = ∫
#$,% %&/( *$ %*
• Effective angle of attack: 𝛼-.. (𝑦) = 𝛼(𝑦) − 𝛼+ (𝑦)
• Coefficient of lift along span:
• 𝑐/ 𝑦! = 2𝜋 𝛼-.. 𝑦! − 𝛼01! (𝑦! )
(2 *$
• 𝑐/ 𝑦! =
,% 3 *$

4/14/25 Lecture 31 4
 Combining findings from thin airfoil theory
and wing theory

• Thin airfoil theory (plus concept of effective angle of attack):

• 𝑐! 𝑦" = 2𝜋 𝛼#$$ 𝑦" − 𝛼%&" (𝑦" )
'( )!
• 𝑐! 𝑦" = *
" + )!

• Wing theory:
#$
, 0/' #% 2)
• 𝛼#$$ 𝑦" = 𝛼(𝑦" ) − ∫
-.*" /0/' )! /)

• Putting them together:

!"
" &/( !# )*
• 𝑐/ 𝑦! = 2𝜋 𝛼(𝑦! ) − ∫ − 𝛼01! (𝑦! )
#$,% %&/( *$ %*
4/14/25 Lecture 31 5
 Combining findings from thin airfoil theory
and wing theory

• Putting them together:

#$
, 0/' 2)
#%
• 𝑐! 𝑦" = 2𝜋 𝛼(𝑦" ) − -.* ∫/0/' ) /) − 𝛼%&" (𝑦" )
" !

• Writing in terms of circulation:

#$
'( )! , 0/' #% 2)
• *" + )!
= 2𝜋 𝛼(𝑦" ) − -.* ∫/0/' ) /) − 𝛼%&" (𝑦" )
" !
!"
2 *$ "&/( )*
!#
• 𝛼 𝑦! − 𝛼01! 𝑦! = + ∫
$,% 3 *$ #$,% %&/( *$ %*
• Only unknown is Γ 𝑦! and its derivative
4/14/25 Lecture 31 6
Fundamental equation of Prandtl lifting line
theory
!"
2 *$ " &/( !#
)*
• 𝛼 𝑦! − 𝛼01! 𝑦! = + ∫
$,% 3 *$ #$,% %&/( *$ %*

• You might want to solve this equation for Gamma

• Discuss
• What do the different variables in this equation mean?
• In what direction is y?
• Why might it be hard to solve for Gamma?

4/14/25 Lecture 31 7
 4/14/25

• Once we have Γ 𝑦" :

• 𝐿3 𝑦" = 𝜌𝑉4Γ(𝑦" )

Total lift 0/' 0/'

• 𝐿 = ∫/0/' 𝐿3 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑉4 ∫/0/' Γ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦

' 0/'
• 𝐶% = * ∫
5 /0/'
Γ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
"

Lecture 31 8
 4/14/25

• 𝐷63 = 𝐿3 sin 𝛼6 ≈ 𝐿3 𝛼6
0/'
• 𝐷6 = ∫/0/' 𝐿3 𝑦 𝛼6 𝑑𝑦
0/'
• 𝐷6 = 𝜌𝑉4 ∫/0/' Γ 𝑦 𝛼6 𝑑𝑦

Induced • 𝐶7 =
'
∫
0/'
Γ 𝑦 𝛼6 𝑑𝑦

drag
*" 5 /0/'

Lecture 31 9
 Elliptic wings
• Simple, efficient wing solution
• Like symmetric airfoils in that the general form will look like a correction to elliptic wing solutions

• Elliptic refers to the shape of the circulation distribution

"# "
• Γ(y) = Γ! 1 − $

4/5/23 https://web.stanford.edu/~cantwell/AA200_Course_Material/AA200_Course_Notes/AA200_Ch_12_Wi
Lecture 31 10
ngs_of_Finite_Span_Cantwell.pdf
Consider the distribution
• Is it physically realistic?
• Check the values at the middle and the tips of the wing
• y=b/2, -b/2 Synthesize:
Is this a realistic distribution?
& '
' '
• Γ = Γ" 1 − 0
=0

• y=0
'" '
• Γ = Γ" 1 − = Γ"
0
• So Γ! sets the maximum circulation, which is found at the center, and
there’s no circulation at the tips.
4/5/23 Lecture 31 11
Downwash on an elliptic wing
• What’s the downwash across the span for this type of distribution?
#$
, 0/' #% 2)
• 𝑤 𝑦" = ∫
-. /0/' )! /)

') '
• Γ = Γ" 1 − 0
(
/
2( 2 ') ' (! ') ' ' ') '
• = Γ" 1 − = 1− (−2
2) 2) 0 ' 0 0 0
2( -(! )
• =−
2) 0' '% '
,/ &

4/14/25 Lecture 31 12
 % $/" #
• 𝑤 𝑦! = − $"!& ∫'$/" 𝑑𝑦
"# "
#!'# )' $

Downwash on • Ugly. We’ll use a transformation to solve this equation

$
an elliptic • 𝑦 = " cos 𝜁
$
wing • 𝑑𝑦 = − " sin 𝜁 𝑑𝜉
$ $
• Boundary conditions: 𝜁 = 0, 𝑦 = " , 𝜁 = 𝜋, 𝑦 = − "
• This let’s one solve the integral
%
• 𝑤 𝜁 = − "$!

4/14/25 Lecture 31
4/5/23 13
Interpreting the downwash Synthesize:
What is special about w and alpha for
an elliptical distribution of circulation?

2$
•𝑤= −
(&
• This is a constant! Not a function of 𝜁 or 𝑦
• So if we can create an elliptic distribution of Gamma, it gives us a
constant downwash across the span
• This is not generally the case for other distributions of Gamma.
• This also means we have a constant induced angle of attack across
the span
J 2$
• 𝛼+ = − =
,% (&,%

4/14/25 Lecture 31 14
Lecture 31

• 𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉*∫ Γ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
"# "
• Γ(y) = Γ! 1 − $

$/" "# "

• 𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉* ∫'$/" Γ! 1 − $
𝑑𝑦
$
Total lift on an • 𝑦 = " cos 𝜉
$
elliptic wing • 𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉*Γ! + 𝜋
$
-.%%! & &
• 𝐶, = '
-." 0
" %
% $&
• 𝐶, = ".!
%0

4/14/25 Lecture 31
4/5/21 15
What about induced drag?
Di
• 𝐷+ ≈ 𝛼+ 𝐿 L
2$ &
• 𝐷+ ≈ 𝜌𝑉O Γ! 𝜋
(&,% #
$P2'$
• 𝐷+ =
Q

16
4/14/25 Lecture 31
Rework to get rid of dependence on Γ!
"1 #$
• 𝐶! =
%&2 '
• We can rewrite this as
%&2 ')3
• Γ( =
#$
+ "
• 𝛼* = − = 1
&2 %#&2
)3 '
• 𝛼* =
$#4
• Aspect ratio of a wing is defined as 𝐴𝑅 = 𝑏 % /𝑆, so this is also
)3
• 𝛼* =
$,-

4/14/25 Lecture 31 17
Drag induced by lift
• 𝐷+ = 𝛼+ 𝐿
• 𝐶R,+ = 𝛼+ 𝐶0
S(
• 𝛼+ =
$TU
S('
• 𝐶R,+ =
$VW

• Take-aways:
• Higher lift wings make much more induced drag
• Higher aspect ratio wings reduce induced drag (𝐴𝑅 = 𝑏 ' /𝑆)

4/14/25 Lecture 31 18
What type of wing creates this circulation
distribution?
• Let’s first assume that there’s no geometric twist and solve for the chord
• 𝑐. = 2𝜋 𝛼/00 − 𝛼!1(
!5 2
• 𝑐. = 6 44
4
3&2 2
!5 2
• 2𝜋 𝛼/00 − 𝛼!1( = 6
3& 4 4
4 2
2
!5 2
•𝑐 𝑦 = 4 5
$3&2 788 65391

• 𝛼/00 constant for elliptical circulation distribution

4/14/25 Lecture 31 19
Elliptical wing

Spitfire

4/5/23 Lecture 31 20
Summary of elliptic wings
') '
• Circulation distribution: Γ = Γ" 1 − 0
(!
• Downwash: 𝑤 = − (constant along the span)
'0
( 8
• Induced angle of attack: 𝛼6 = '0*! = .9:
)
(constant along the span, 𝐴𝑅 = 𝑏 ' /𝑆)
"
(! 0.
• Lift: C; =
'*" 5
8)'
• Induced drag: 𝐶7,6 =
.=>

') '
• Chord: 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑐" 1 −
0
(!
• 𝑐" = .* ?*++ /?),!
"

4/14/25 Lecture 31 21
What now?
• Have results for the elliptic wing, want more general solutions for
other shapes of wings
• But how can we generalize?
• Look to thin airfoil theory for inspiration
• Elliptic solution ∼ symmetric airfoil – simplest solution
• For symmetric airfoil we used a change of variables to see the solution as a
trig function
• To generalize, we added a sum of other, higher frequency trig functions to
change the shape

4/14/25 Lecture 32 22
Trig approach
• Going to use change of variables to describe the span using a trig
function
• TAT used a trig function to describe the chord
• Going to describe the circulation of elliptic wing using trig function of
new variable
• Going to use a sum of higher frequency trig functions to generalize shape of
circulation to other non-elliptic shapes
• Going to get the appropriate Gamma distribution, given a geometry

4/14/25 Lecture27 23
Change of variable
(* (
• Γ = Γ! 1 −
&
&
• Change of variables: 𝑦 = − cos 𝜁
(
• zeta is a parameterization of the spanwise coordinate
(&/(3XYZ (
• Plug in: Γ = Γ! 1 − = Γ! 1 − cos ( 𝜁 = Γ! sin( 𝜁 = Γ! sin 𝜁
&
• Γ = Γ! sin 𝜁 is another way of writing the elliptic wing circulation
distribution
• To generalize to other shapes, we can take this same form of an expression
and make it more complex.
4/14/25 Lecture27 24
Generalized circulation distribution
• Elliptic: Γ = Γ! sin 𝜉
• General: Γ = 2𝑏𝑉O ∑\ [1" 𝐴[ sin 𝑛𝜁 (Fourier series)
• Reminiscent of how we dealt with camber in thin wing theory
• Why is there a 𝑏𝑉4 term in this new general expression? What are the units
of the An’s?
• Can plug into the fundamental equation of Prandtl’s lifting line theory
#$
( )! , 0/' #% 2)
• 𝛼 𝑦" = .* + ) + 𝛼%&" 𝑦" + -.* ∫/0/' ) /)
" ! " !
2( 2( 2@ 2@
• = = 2𝑏𝑉4 ∑B
A&, 𝑛𝐴A cos 𝑛𝜁 2)
2) 2@ 2)

4/14/25 Lecture 32 25
Finding the right coefficients for a given wing
• Fundamental equation becomes:
'0 A9- CDE A@!
• 𝛼 𝜁" = ∑B B
A&, 𝐴A sin 𝑛 𝜁" + 𝛼%&" 𝜁" + ∑,
.+ @! CDE @!
• At each spanwise location 𝜁! , the only unknowns for an existing
wing are the N “An” coefficients.
• We know the geometric angle of attack, zero-lift angle of attack, and
chord along the span
• If we choose N spanwise locations, get N equations and N
unknowns and can solve the system of equations

4/14/25 Lecture 32 26
General wing shape solution for Gamma,
alpha_i from Prandtl Lifting Line Theory
• Γ(𝜁) = 2𝑏𝑉7 ∑:
819 𝐴8 sin 𝑛𝜁
• An are known from numerical solution to system of equations
• Use circulation distribution to get the downwash, induced angle of attack, lift,
induced drag
:;
9 #/% =2
:<
• 𝛼* 𝑦( = ∫
;$&2 6#/% 21 62
9 $ >?@ 8A
• 𝛼* 𝜁( = ∑: 𝐴 ∫ 𝑑𝜁
$ 819 8 ( >?@ A6>?@ A1
8,= @BC 8A1
• 𝛼* 𝜁( = ∑:9 @BC A1
• 𝑤 = −𝛼* 𝑉7
• These are both now functions of span – no longer constant!

4/14/25 Lecture 32 27
Lift Coefficient prediction
( &/(
• 𝐶0 = ∫ Γ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
,% ] %&/(
• Γ(𝜁) = 2𝑏𝑉4 ∑B
A&, 𝐴A sin 𝑛𝜁
(& ' $
• 𝐶0 = ∑\
[1" 𝐴[ ∫! sin 𝑛𝜁 sin 𝜁 𝑑𝜁
]
• Just like when we were doing cambered thin airfoil theory, the
integral is only nonzero when n = 1. When n = 1, the integral equals
pi/2
T) $& '
• 𝐶0 =
]
• 𝐶0 = 𝐴" 𝜋𝐴𝑅
4/14/25 Lecture27 28
Induced drag
% #/%
• 𝐶D,* = ∫ Γ 𝑦 𝛼* (𝑦)𝑑𝑦
&2 ' 6#/%
• Γ(𝜁) = 2𝑏𝑉7 ∑:
819 𝐴8 sin 𝑛𝜁
@A ( BCD @E
• 𝛼> 𝜁 = ∑?
) BCD E
%#4 $
• 𝐶D,* = ∫ ∑:
9 𝐴8 sin 𝑛𝜁 𝛼* 𝜁 sin 𝜁 𝑑𝜁
' (
%#4 $
• 𝐶D,* = ∫ ∑: :
9 𝐴8 sin 𝑛𝜁 ∑9 𝐴8 sin 𝑛𝜁 𝑑𝜁
' (
• The integral of the mixed terms will be zero – only the terms that are
squared will survive
%#4 $
• 𝐶D,* = ∑: %
9 𝑛𝐴8 = 𝜋𝐴𝑅 ∑: %
9 𝑛𝐴8
' %

4/14/25 Lecture 32 29
Challenge and approach from here
• There is no simple equation to get the An’s this time
• You have to solve the system of equations provided on slide 26
• Instead, people define “efficiency factors” that you can look up in
tables and plots

4/14/25 Lecture 23 30
Getting drag in terms of lift
S('
• For elliptic wings, we got a nice expression 𝐶R,+ =
$VW
• Let’s try to get an equivalent expression now for general wing shapes
• 𝐶R,+ = 𝜋𝐴𝑅 ∑\ " 𝑛𝐴[
(

• 𝐶0 = 𝐴" 𝜋𝐴𝑅
• Pull A1 out of the sum to get a CL term
• 𝐶R,+ = 𝜋𝐴𝑅 𝐴"( + ∑\ (
( 𝑛𝐴[
T* (
• 𝐶R,+ = 𝜋𝐴𝑅 𝐴"( 1+ \
∑( 𝑛
T)

4/14/25 Lecture 32 31
Getting drag in terms of lift
,= %
• 𝐶D,* = 𝜋𝐴𝑅 𝐴9% 1+ :
∑% 𝑛
,6
• 𝐶, = 𝐴) 𝜋𝐴𝑅
)34 : ,= %
• 𝐶D,* = 1+ ∑% 𝑛
$,- ,6
, %
• Define 𝛿 = ∑:
% 𝑛
=
,6
• 𝑒 = 1+𝛿 69 e Oswald’s efficiency factor

)34 )34
• 𝐶D,* = 1+𝛿 =
$,- $/GH

4/16/25 Lecture 32 32
Interpreting induced drag expression
S(' S(' Synthesize:
• 𝐶R,+ = 1+𝛿 = • What are delta and e? Why do
$TU $-VW
\ T* ( %"
we have both? How are they
•𝛿= ∑( 𝑛 ,𝑒 = 1+𝛿 related?
T) • How do we use them to
• 𝛿 ≥ 0 (sum of squared numbers) predict coefficient of induced
drag?
• Minimum drag is when 𝛿 = 0, 𝑒 = 1 • How are elliptical wings
S(' special?
• When 𝛿 = 0, 𝑒 = 1, 𝐶R,+ =
$TU
• This is exactly the result for elliptical wings
• Elliptical wings provide minimum induced drag for given quantity of
lift
4/14/25 Lecture 32 33
How close can we get without being
elliptical?
• For tapered wings
• 𝜆 = 𝑐F>G /𝑐HIIF
• For 𝜆 ≈ 0.3 − 0.4, we can get down
to 𝛿 ≈ 0.01 (depends on aspect ratio)
• But remember, aspect ratio also Chen & Katz “Induced Drag of High-Aspect Ratio
Wings” 2012

directly affects
4
coefficient of drag
)
CI,B = 3 https://eaglepubs.erau.edu/
introductiontoaerospaceflig
$/GH htvehicles/chapter/finite-
• Aspect ratio is generally more wing-characteristics/

important than closeness to elliptical

for induced drag

4/14/25 Lecture 32 34
 Drag polars
• Comparing lift versus induced drag

https://eaglepubs.erau.edu/introductiontoaerospaceflightvehic
les/chapter/finite-wing-characteristics/

4/16/25 Lecture 23 35
Lift slope
• For thin airfoils, cJ = 2𝜋 (𝛼 −
𝛼!1( ) so the ”lift slope” is 𝑎( =
2𝜋 • 𝐶! 1 + 2𝐴𝑅 = 2𝜋 𝛼 − 𝛼!1(
• For thin wings, 𝐶! = 2𝜋(𝛼/00 − • 𝐶! = 2𝜋 𝛼 − 𝛼!1( / 1 + 2𝐴𝑅
𝛼!1( ) and 𝛼/00 = 𝛼 − 𝛼* =)3 %$
• =
• 𝐶! = 2𝜋(𝛼 − 𝛼* − 𝛼!1( ) and 𝛼* =5 9K%,-
varies with lift / angle of attack L1
•𝑎= for elliptic wing
9KL1 /$,-
• So how do we define the lift slope L1
for wings? Is it still 2pi? •𝑎= for general
9K(L1 /$,-)(9KO)
=)3 wing
•𝑎= • 𝜏 generally ranges between 0.05 and
=5
) 0.25 and can be looked up in tables
• 𝐶! = 2𝜋(𝛼 − 3 − 𝛼!1( ) for
$GH
elliptic wings
4/14/25 Lecture 32 36
Interpreting lift slope
• 𝐶0 = 𝑎(𝛼 − 𝛼01! )
• a accounts for loss of lift due to
downwash / induced angle of
attack. Let’s you predict the
coefficient of lift of the wing just
from geometric wing behaviors
^$
•𝑎=
"_(^$ /$TU)("_`)

https://eaglepubs.erau.edu/introductiontoaeros
paceflightvehicles/chapter/finite-wing-
4/16/25 Lecture 32 37
characteristics/
Summary of general wings
• Lift
• 𝐶% = 𝑎 𝛼 − 𝛼%&"
F!
• 𝑎=
,G(F! /.9:)(,GJ)
• Look up tau in tables and figures for specific wing tapers
S(' S('
• 𝐶R,+ = 1+𝛿 =
$TU $-VW
• 𝑒 = 1+𝛿 /,

• Look up delta and / or e in tables and figures for specific wing tapers
• Or compute An’s
+! )
• 𝛿 = ∑*
) 𝑛 +"

4/16/25 Lecture 23 38