Lecture 01

Introduction to product design and

manufacturing

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
Thanks
Lecture 01
Introduction to product design and
manufacturing

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Introduction
 Design by evolution
 Design by innovation
 Production‐Consumption cycle
 Ideas and methods of product realization process
 Manufacturing, Logistics & Producibility
Introduction
What is product?
• In marketing, a product is anything that can be offered to
a market that might satisfy a want or need.

• In business, products are called merchandise.

• In manufacturing, products are bought as raw materials and

sold as finished goods.

• A service is another common product type.

Introduction
What is product design?
• Product design deals with conversion of dreams into reality in
order to fulfill human needs.
• A designer produces the prototype which is used as a sample
for reproducing the particular goods in order to satisfy
customers need.

Responsibility of a designer:
• If producer believes that sufficient number of customers will
be satisfied, then mass production may be taken up by
production cell.
• If there is an error in the design, he has to reiterate.
Major types of product design

• Design by evolution
• Design by innovation
Design by evolution

• Sprocket
• Wheels
• Frame
• Braking system
• Stand
• Handle
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 Design by evolution
• In the past, designs ‐ long span of time.
• Rapid technological changes reduced the risk of making major
errors ‐ CAD
• For instance, the saga of bicycle from a crank operated system to
today’s chain sproket system is one of the best example of design
by evolution.
• Disadvantages for Design by evolution:
• Unsuitability for mass production ‐ An evolved design is rather
crude, and is more oriented towards design by masses for
production of masses, rather than mass production.
• Difficulty in modification
• Inability to tap new technologies
 Design by innovation
• A new method of technical knowledge develops rapidly by following
a scientific discovery.
• It may ultimately tend to a complete deviation from the existing
trends.
• Every skill, which the designer can muster in analysis and synthesis,
is instrumental in a totally novel design.
• For example-Laser beam was a revolutionary invention in the field of
medical as well as engineering,
• Implementation of solid state electric product instead of outdated vacuum
tubes results in miniaturization electronic products.
Design by innovation

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Production‐consumption cycle

• Production‐consumption cycle is one of the most important

features of socio‐ecological systems.

It consists of these four steps‐

1. Production
2. Distribution
3. Consumption
4. Recovery
Production‐consumption cycle

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Thanks
Lecture 2
Fundamentals of manufacturing
towards product development

Cont…

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Introduction
 Capital circulation
 Manufacturing capability
 Mass Production
 Interchangeability
 Product Life Cycle
 S curve
 Design for Manufacturing
 Problem solving process
 Simultaneous or Concurrent
Engineering

• The limited or unsatisfactory functionality of a product does not

enjoy consumer faith. To tackle this, two primary criteria have been
recognized by product designer: functionality & performance.

• A designer must ideally deal with various market limitations such as

current technology for processing the materials, cost incurred and
time taken to perform the manufacturing activity i.e. the production
rate.

• To meet the above two criteria, design & manufacturing functions

must be associated and this association is often referred as
concurrent of simultaneous engineering.
Simultaneous or Concurrent Engineering
Under the simultaneous or concurrent engineering, the design of a
product is based on concurrent integration of the following major
activities:

• Design conceptualization and design axioms.

• Identification of product functions.

• Product modeling and CAD (graphical and analytical representation

of the product).

• Material selection (material properties and associated

manufacturing processes).

• Design for efficient manufacturing (minimizing positional

requirements and considering assembly).

• Specification of dimensions and tolerances (selection of

machinery).
 Design for Manufacturing
• The ultimate aim of a product designer is to design a product that
is coherent with the user expectations and over the life cycle of the
product has a good re‐sale value.

• The DFM concept includes careful & organized study of all the
various issues and mandates the integration of all the relevant
data.

• The DFM concept is much more than just manufacturing. It is an

effective collaboration of user and the market expectations,
processes, various assembling & disassembling methods,
consideration of socio‐economic factors & maintenance
requirements.
 Design for Manufacturing
DFM or design for ‘X’. The major activities included are:

1. Market & user expectations.

2. Good choice of design principles & concept designs for reference.
3. Recognizing materials & processes.
4. Design process analysis and rectifications.

5. Quality expectations.
6. Analysis of assembly and disassembly methods.
7. Engineering models and detailed engineering designs.

8. Economic analysis and production cost estimation.

9. Prototype development.

10. Engineering testing and redesign.

11. Design feasibility.

12. Production.
13. Control of production & distribution activity.
The Engineering Problem‐Solving Process

The basic engineering problem‐solving process, outlined by Krick

(1969), has five steps:

1. Formulate the problem.

2. Analyze the problem.

3. Search for alternative solutions.

4. Decide among the alternative solutions.

5. Specify the solution.

The Engineering Problem‐Solving Process

As good problem solvers, engineers must determine whether or not the

problem is worth solving i.e. to take in account the consequences of
ignoring the problem.

Next, quantitative & qualitative information should be gathered for

analyzing the problem for exhaustive understanding of the problem &
its challenges.

Once the problem has been clearly understood, one must seek
alternative solutions.

Finally, the solution should be properly documented by listing the steps

of the solution.
Thanks
Lecture 2
Fundamentals of manufacturing
towards product development

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Introduction
 Capital circulation
 Manufacturing capability
 Mass Production
 Interchangeability
 Product Life Cycle
 S curve
 Design for Manufacturing
 Problem solving process
Introduction
• Manufacturing by definition is the process of conversion of raw
materials into final products.

• Conversion process ‐ application of physical and chemical processes

• Manufacturing engineering ‐ group of various activities

• Design, planning, operation and manufacturing production.

• A manufacturing system is a an overall structure includes the

manufacturing processes and production activities but also the tasks
such as finance, marketing & accounting.
 Introduction
In this section we will discuss some basic concepts that are important
in the overall understanding of the process of product development,
design, and manufacture.

1. Capital circulation or the production turn.

2. Manufacturing capability.

3. Mass production.

4. Interchangeability.

5. Product life cycle.

6. The S curve or the technology growth cycle.

7. Simultaneous or concurrent engineering.

8. Design for ‘X’.

9. Engineering problem‐solving process.

Capital Circulation or the Production Turn

• Capital circulation is the context of modern manufacturing.

• It expects the manufacturing firm

• to invest capital (from either the profits generated in other

projects or taking loan from a bank) in the manufacturing
facility.

• produce goods by using the suitable manufacturing technology

and

• selling the finished products with the assistance of sales and

marketing strategy and generate profits.
Capital Circulation or the Production Turn

Some part of the revenue is used to settle the amount borrowed

and some part is retained as a operating profit.

The above cycle works very effectively when the cost of the
production of goods is minimum and profitability is maximum, i.e.
the goods are produced and sold without any time lag.

On the other hand, the cycle is obviously less efficient when

productions costs are high or the products cannot be easily sold,
leading to inventory build up.
Capital Circulation or the Production
Turn

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 Manufacturing Capability

• Manufacturing capability of a manufacturing unit is the limitations

on the physical aspects of the products, such as:

• the size and weight that can be processed in the particular

manufacturing unit,

• the technology available for the processing of raw material and

• the quantity that can be processed in a specified time period are

also constraints dependent on the manufacturing facility.
 Manufacturing Capability

Manufacturing plants have access to limited technology and

hence can process only a limited number of materials.

For instance, a manufacturing plant meant for automobiles

cannot manufacture medicinal products.

On the similar lines, machines have limitations too and can

process only the products of certain specified shape & size.
 Mass Production

• Mass production is defined as the production activity involving

production of large quantity of same kind of product for a long
period of time.

• Mass production is linked with high demand for a particular product

and the manufacturing plant is generally designed for production of
a single type of product.

• For example, Manufacturing of smartphones, automobiles &

laptops are few examples of mass production.
 Interchangeability
• Interchangeability is the defined as the process of ensuring that
the parts manufactured should be within a specific tolerance
limit so that if replacement is undertaken then it can be
performed without the need of doing any fitting adjustments.

• In simple words, the production process of any part should be

standardized:

• by minimizing the variations in size between parts and

• the variation should be acceptable in terms of the general

level of tolerance.
 Product Life Cycle

• Product life cycle is defined as the time period between conceiving a

particular product and the point at which it is not profitable for
further manufacturing.

• First of all the sales of a newly launched product is skyrocketed after

its introduction in the market.

• Once the customers are well versed with the product, sales increase
exponentially ( growth period ).
Product Life Cycle

The growth period is then followed by a maturity period, in this

the sales increase further.

Finally, when competitive products appear on the market, the

sales of product decline.

The market reaches a saturation point and the product is no

longer fresh, the sales & profits further decline and the product is
no more profitable to be manufactured.
 Product Life Cycle
• During the saturation period, the profits are maintained by tweaking
the product a little bit and re launching it as a improved version of its
predecessor.
• The understanding of this cycle is vital for designers & manufacturers to
maximize the profits, and efforts should be made to extend the
maturity period.

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The S Curve of the Technology Growth Cycle
Technological growth is an evolutionary process and it follows S
curve, the S curve comprises of three phases namely:

1. Slow Growth Phase

2. Rapid Growth Phase

3. Leveling off Phase

The S Curve of the Technology Growth Cycle

On plotting these three stages on a graph, they resemble the letter S

stretched to the right.

When the third stage is reached and the growth is exhausted, a

paradigm shift is observed and the advent of new technology takes
place.

It takes a considerable amount of time to master the new technology

but with experience, progress is made rapidly.

Once the technology is fully exploited and the exhaustion state is

reached, very little gain is made in performance (for new product
development) even with a large amount of efforts.
The S Curve of the Technology Growth
Cycle of Mobile Phones

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Task for students
Thanks
Lecture 3
Engineering Design Process
Contents
 Problem Confronting the Designers
 Steps of the Engineering Design Process
 Defining the Problem and Setting Objectives
Problem Confronting the Designers
• A product has certain properties. Some of the properties are
intrinsic, extrinsic, and physical form of the product.

• The challenge for a designer is to make product useful for

consumers and to change from function to form.

• It is always possible to make many products having equal set of

functions.

• Design methods can help but imagination and creativity are

important to transit from function to form.
Design Thinking

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Steps of the Engineering Design Process
• Hall (1968) gave a step wise method of designing-
• Problem definition : It is all about needs and surroundings .
• Value system design: It deals with aim and range.
• Systems synthesis: To generate other options.
• Systems analysis: To evaluate other options.
• Selecting the best system: evaluating alternatives according to
predefined ranges.
• Planning for action: It is about specifying the choices.
• These steps can be seen in many design processes. Actually
best method is to select best out of all alternatives.
Steps of the Engineering Design Process

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Steps of the Engineering Design Process
• Principles used for solution to sub functions are basically:
• scientific and
• engineering principle.
• Pahl and Beitz (1984) have given illustrations of solution
principles to sub functions.

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Defining the Problem and Setting Objectives

• A problem is the identification of the need that is unfulfilled.

To formulate a problem need must be clearly defined.
• Initial step is to clearly define the aim and also to elaborate it.
• When the needs changes from a vast goal to a specific goal,
objective also changes. whenever the change takes place it
must be clearly defined .

• The objective tree method is a good method to define goal.

• Intention should be to clarify all the objectives and sub
objectives.
Defining the Problem and Setting Objectives
The objective tree method:

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Defining the Problem and Setting Objectives
The objective tree method:
• Problem can be scaling, non scaling or in the form of
requirement ( e.g. Temperature can not exceed 300 degrees. )
• Comprehensive list should be maintained and a checklist
approach should be adopted for the objectives and sub
objectives.
• A list of 24 factors were given by Pugh (1990) for the checklist
format.
• Further these factors were summarized by Roozenburg and
Eekels .
• Performance • Target product cost
• Environment • Transportation
• Life in service • Packaging
• Maintenance • Quantity
Defining the Problem and Setting Objectives
• Manufacturing facilities • Shelf life and storage
• Size and weight • Testing
• Aesthetics, appearance, and • Safety
finish • Product policy
• Materials • Social and political
• Product life span implications
• Standards • Product liability
• Ergonomics • Installation and operation
• Quality and reliability • Reuse, recycling, and disposal
Establishing Functions:
Setting Requirements, and Developing Specifications

• A function analysis to know the exact demand of product must be

done. after reexamination and editing of objectives and sub
objectives.
• The designer must be aware of inputs and outputs of the product.
• Designer must be aware of functioning and requirements of
product and component of product.
• The component can be a person or a mechanical or electrical
devise .
• The function analysis must be done to analyze achievements of
product.
• Some appropriate limits bounded on product is called setting
performance specifications .
Establishing Functions:
Setting Requirements, and Developing Specifications

• Performance specifications should not be too narrow and also

it should not be too broad .

• One way to generate performance specification:

• The method requires using the “house of quality” interaction
matrix with product attributes as rows and engineering
charactistics as columns.
Thanks
Lecture 4
Product design morphology
Contents
 Developing Provisional Designs
 Evaluation and Decision‐Making
 The morphology of design (the seven phases)
Establishing Functions:
Setting Requirements, and Developing Specifications

• A weight, or relative importance is assigned to each

attribute.
• A value for the strength of the product can be got through
multiplying weight and relationship score.
• A target value for each parameter is set on the basis of its
importance and competitor's product.
Developing Provisional Designs

• Many innovative ideas can be attributed to chance. These

types of analogies are encouraged
• Direct analogies
• Personal analogies
• Symbolic analogies
• Fantasy analogies
• These are the tips for synaptic methods
• Define a problem
• Use a direct analogy
• Analyze the analogy
• Force a fit
• Generate ideas.
• Develop the ideas
Developing Provisional Designs
• The analytic methods are also called systematic methods.
A morphological chart is a summary of sub solutions to
sub functions.
• After completion of functional analysis, we have to
develop a matrix of sub functions as rows and possible
solutions as columns.
• The combination of chosen solutions to sub functions
should yield the design solution to the problem
• After development of number of alternatives best one
should be chosen by designer.
The morphology of design (the seven phases)

• The morphology of design is study of the chronological

structure of design projects.
• It is defined by the phases and their constituent steps.
• Of the seven phases,
• the first three phases belong to design, and
• the remaining four phases belong to production, distribution,
consumption and retirement.
• Phase I is Feasibility Study:
• A design project starts with a feasibility study; the purpose of
this is to get a set of helpful answers to the design questions.
• The first step in the study is to show that the original need is valid
or not.
The morphology of design (the seven phases)

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The morphology of design (the seven phases)
• Phase II is Preliminary Design:
• The purpose of preliminary design is to find best design alternative.
• The preliminary design phase starts with the set of useful solutions
which were developed in the feasibility study.
• The purpose of preliminary design is to establish which of the
preferred alternatives is the best design concept.
• The surviving solution is tentatively accepted for closer examination.
• Next, project type studies are undertaken to know as to how the
solution will be feasible in future.
The morphology of design (the seven phases)
• Phase III is Detailed Design:
• After preliminary design Other studies examine the extent to which
forces from surroundings or internal forces will affect the stability of
the system.
• The goal here is to furnish the engineering description of a examined
design.
• Great flexibility is shown up to this point in designing.
• Preliminary design is developed as a master layout. With this as a
basis, the detailed design or specification of components is carried
forward.
The morphology of design (the seven phases)
• Phase IV is Planning the Production Process:
• Above mentioned 3 phases are in field of engineering design but
phase 4 and further are also related to management.
• Every part requires a detailed process planning, sub assembly and the
final assembly. process sheets are used to display information.
• Operations analysis on the process sheets develops this design work.
• Planning, specifying or designing new production and plant facilities is
in phase 4.
• This step is particularly important, because design features that lead
to difficulties in production are revealed.
The morphology of design (the seven phases)
• Phase V is Planning for Distribution:
• Transportation costs can effect outer design of product.
• To facilitate handling special strapping and palletizing may be needed.

• Major decisions taken in this phase are:

• Designing the packaging of the product.
• Planning the warehousing systems.
• Planning the promotional activity.
• Designing the product for conditions arising in distribution
The morphology of design (the seven phases)
• Phase VI is Planning for Consumption:
• Consumption is the third process in the production‐consumption cycle.
• Its influence on design so design is important
• Design for consumption includes following factors:
• Design for operational economy
• Design for reliability
• Design for convenience in use
• Design for safety
• Design for aesthetic features
• Design for maintenance
• Design for adequate duration of services
• To get service data that can give a basis for product improvement, for
next‐generation designs, and for the design of different, but related to
products.
The morphology of design (the seven phases)
• Phase VII—Planning for Retirement:
• The fourth process in the production‐consumption cycle is the
disposal of the retired product.
• For large and semi‐permanent installations, the mere removal may
pose difficult engineering problems.

• Designing for retirement must consider the following aspects:

• Designing to reduce the rate of obsolescence

• Designing physical life to match anticipated service life.

Task for students
Thanks
Elements of Visual Design

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Aesthetic Design
 Design Principles
 Product Message
 Visual Design
 Elements of Visual Design
Aesthetic Design

Aesthetic Design is concerned with use of principles of beauty

and psychological expectations of the user.
Factors affecting Aesthetic Design

1. Forms/Shapes (psychology, model making, ease of production etc.)

2. Form Transition( Product theme)
3. Proportions (phi, fractals etc.)
4. Colors (Contrast, similar, graduation, separation etc.)
5. Textures (Contrast, Similar, Graduation, Separation)
6. Product Graphics( Time Style, Basic Psyche)
7. Inclined Curved Lines/Surfaces
Design Principles
1. Function (basic functionality etc.)
2. Concept (logo , modular design, theme etc.)
3. Balance( sym, asym., radial etc.)
4. Direction/Emphasis/Contrast (dominance, fractals etc.)
5. Juxtaposition (unity, variation, pattern, discord etc.)
6. Rhythm (Contrast, Similar, Graduation, Separation)
7. Ratio/ proportions
8. Inclined Curved Lines/Surfaces
Product Message
1. Form follow function (basic functionality etc.)Concept
2. Lightness/ Weight (balance, base, shape, size, color etc.)
3. Stability ( lines, balance etc.)
4. Speed/Motion (direction, dominance etc.)
5. Power/Strength
6. Dominance
Visual Design
• A new method of technical knowledge develops rapidly by
following a scientific discovery.
• Visual Design is an applied art, whereby the principles of visual
communication are used for effective design of product
• Basic element of visual design are form, content, arrangement,
light, and color
• The emotions that drive visual communication are seduction -
conviction – inspiration.
• Visual Techniques Scale, Cropping, Juxtaposition, Abstraction/
magnification, Orientation, typography
Basic Elements of Design
• Point
• Line
• Color
• Shape
• Size
• Mass
• Change
Point
• This is the most basic of elements, manifested in the material
world with just slightly more gusto than a mathematical point.
• Atomic Component of visual Work
• Dimensioning perspective
• A region for the FOCUS for eyes of the viewer
• More no of points creates a shape

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Line
• A line is a mark made by a moving point and having
psychological impact according to its direction, weight, and the
variations in its direction and weight.
• Function in both visual and verbal ways.
• It can act as a Symbolic Language
• Lines can be combined to give form & Shapes

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Colour
• Colour: General terms for the quality of colour, Hue, intensity
and value observed.
• Hue: Name of the colour like red, green and blue etc.
• Chroma: Intensity, strength, or saturation of color,
distinguishing the chromatic colors from black and white.
• Saturation: degree of vividness of a hue from its concentration;
used synonymously with Chroma.
• Value: range from light to dark, including white, grays, and
black; colours can be evaluated on this scale. 0-BLACK 10-
WHITE.
Generally, high values are considered to be light, and low
values dark
Elements of Visual Design continued

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
Colour
• Terminology :
A "tint" is a given hue with added white.
A "tone" is a given hue with added black.
A "shade" is a given hue with added complement.

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Color
Representation using hue:
• Cool Colour Meanings (calming): Blue, Green, Turquoise, Silver
• Warm Color Meanings (exciting): Red, Pink, Yellow, Gold,
Orange
• Mixed Cool/Warm Color Meanings: Purple, Lavender, Green,
Turquoise
• Neutral Color Meanings (unifying): Brown, Beige, Ivory, Gray,
Black, White
Colour
Colour Wheel:
• Primary Colours
• Secondary Colours
• Complimentary Colours
• Contrasting Colours
• Similar Colours

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Shapes
• Geometric: It represents the shape of the product made from
typical geometric shapes like triangular, square and circular etc.
(Emotionally passive, esthetically decorative, spatial active)

• Natural: The shapes available in the natural shapes and are

used to make the products (Emotionally Active, esthetically
dynamic, spatial depth)

• Abstract: An indicative or abstract shape showing the product

characteristics like logo, cartoons etc (Indicator, Symbol)

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Shape Form
• Aspect of Perception (Vertical/Horizontal lines, standard angle)
• Gestalt (German Psychologist), gave the basic principles of
form/shape (Read Gestalt logics )
• Positive-negative space (Theory of Perception)

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Size
Increasing size:
1. loftiness, beyond human measure
2. Feeling of specialty/dominance
3. Relative, can be obtained by colour and contrast

Creates illusion:
1. Produce a feeling of depth
2. Feeling of Strength/weight
3. Feeling of power

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Mass
Aspect of Perception:
1. Mass is implied rather than actual
2. Size implies normally weight Each piece has got its own weight
and then individually weight in the total component
3. To accommodate normal size restraints or expectations
4. To convey a mood or provide emphasis
5. To create contrast

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Change
• Change determine the way how the forms/shape, size or mass
are changing with-in the product
• Change can be actual as in case of graphics etc. or it can be
virtual like in cartoons illustrations etc.
• The principles of “Tempo” or “Rhythm” guides the use of change
• Change can be in term of Shape/form, Size, color or value etc.

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Task for students
Elements of Visual Design continued

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Balance
 Proportions
 Emphasis
 Juxtaposition
 Rhythm
 Unity
The Principles of Visual Design
• The principles of design represent the most general classes of
tools available for determining the ideal arrangement of the
elements of design for any given visual work.

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The Principles of Visual Design

PROPOR- JUSTA-
BALANCE EMPHASIS
-TIONS -POSITION

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

RHYTHM CONCEPT FUNCTION EPILOGUE

Balance
• It is a principle of design that places elements in such a way
that these elements are evenly distributed. The concept of
balance is fundamental to well-formed design.
• Most of the principals work opposite to each other, hence this
principle basically try to balance
• Three kinds of basic visual design
• Symmetric Balance
• Asymmetric Balance
• Radial Balance

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Balance
Symmetric Balance:
A balance which is created through the mirror image about an
axis or plane or about two axis or planes etc.
they are further divided into-
1)Horizontal Balance
2)Vertical Balance
3)Horizontal & Vertical Balance

Rules of thirds, visual center and grid must be considered.

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Balance
Asymmetric Balance:
A balance which is created through the odd or mismatched
figures of elements they are further divided into-
1)All over balance
2)Asymmetric Tension

Radial Balance:
• A balance which is created through the a balance axis
point/Visual Centre/Balance Centre they are further divided
into-
1)Same shape
2)Different shapes

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Balance Examples

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Proportion/Ratio
 It defines the relative size and ratio of the various elements
used in design and hence the relative size of the objects in the
product
 Where as ratio define the overall size with respect to its
surrounding
 The relative sizes of things can be adjusted for the purposes of
creating a perspective illusion, exaggerating comparative
apparent attributes, as a message or metaphor, or simply to
achieve a balanced layout in terms of the distribution mass and
space.

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Proportion/Ratio
• Maintaining proportions
• Surrounding Factor factor (home and public places)
• Over proportions may ruin the basic configurations (Over-
crowded flowers on gown) very standard human body, so all
proportions can be taken by taking this as the reference.
• Use of Golden Ratio and rule of thirds
• Using some visual tension in the product make it more
appealing
• Using Fractals and products similarity concepts

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Proportion/Ratio
• Golden Ratio: A standard ratio that has initiated from old Greek
time and actually a thumb rule for Aesthetics

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Proportion Examples

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 Proportions
• Self-similarity meaning the building unit contained in the pattern is
the same as the overall completed shape

• Fractals - a shape that is self-similar and has a fractional dimension.

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Proportions Examples

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Direction/Emphasis/Contrast
• The course or path a viewer's eye will take through a
composition is shaped by actual or implied lines, and actual
or implied geometric shapes
• There are certain points, lines, curves, areas and volumes,
which need utmost attentions from the customers and hence
must be made different or distinct
• A point or area in a product need to be different or separate
from the other, Which can be done with CONTRAST of size,
shape or colour etc.

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Emphasis

• Emphasis, also called focus in some schema, is the act of causing

some regions of an image to seem more important than others.
Creating a balanced series of emphases.

SHAPE COLOUR SIZE

COLOUR SIZE
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Contrast

• Viewer's eye To contrast is to set elements in definite opposition,

in order to highlight differing attributes

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Juxtaposition/Proximity
Producibility:
• It reflects the ease with which a product can be made, which is a
measure of how easily a product can be manufactured to
engineering designs, with a premium quality and low investment
in order to maximize profits.
• It contains the flavour of one of the early contributions during
the development of the Product Development process,which
includes the following guidelines:
• Reduction in the number and types of parts and part
features.
• Selection of components having preferred sizes, weights,
materials, near net shapes, etc.
• Ensuring testability and reparability by using pre-built test
methods, modularity, test points,and accessibility.
• Testing on the basis of development to assure improvement
in quality, and performance during environmental stress
screening.
 Juxtaposition/Proximity
• Repetition, process of creating identical instances of an
element or assemblage of elements.

• Variation, is the process of creating non-identical instances

of an element or assemblage of elements by adjusting
one or more attributes

• Pattern, are regular assemblages of repeated and/or

varied elements

• Discord Uses large, contrasting intervals between

Boston
elements to maximize tensions and heighten recognition.

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Juxtaposition Examples

Variation
Repetition

Pattern
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Rhythm/Tempo/Harmony
• Rhythm is the variation of the duration of sounds/visual
elements or other events over time
• When governed by rule, it is called meter
• In a harmonious composition, even the elements that stand in
opposition share enough common attributes with their
surroundings to seem a part of the whole.
• Harmony in design is about finding a kind of visual rhyme-
scheme, expressed through any single attribute or sets of
attributes;
• Too much variation and/or too much contrast between elements
can ruin an image's sense of harmony
Rhythm/Tempo/Harmony Examples

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Unity/Belongings
• Unity is defines the basic concept with the help of which the
whole product or item is seen as a single unit.
• The basic concept defines (basic idea, basic Shape, Basic Size or
colour and texture which has been the first food for thought of
the product )
• Visual sense of oneness. Each element of art is arranged to
contribute to the composition. Too much variety (opposite)
creates chaos however too much order creates boredom.
• The elements and principles can be selected to support the
intended function of the designed object; the purpose of the
object unifies the design
Inclined Lines and Curves
• Inclined lines and curves are used to generate a unity concept in
the form of shapes of the products

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Unity Examples

FORM & COLOUR

FORM
CONNECTEDNESS

CURVES

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Variety
• Variety is defines the variation in the product layout in one way
or the other so that boredom associated with much unity can be
accommodated
• By varying the components of a visual design, the artist creates
interest and avoids monotony.
• A way of accomplishing this is to establish an approach which
involves theme and variations-repeating the same image, but in
different sizes, colors, values and shapes.

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Function
• Function suggests “NO ART for ART SAKE”
• In the real life world problems, things have to work: Design
should serve the purpose
• No matter how beautiful it is, but if it is not functionally efficient.
That design would be discarded

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Task for students
Thanks
Lecture 8
Translating Customer Needs

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
QFD and the House of Quality
The regions of the house of quality are:

Objective:
• Express the goal of the item

List of characteristics:
• Get a rundown of qualities of the item as characterized by the
customers.
• Whenever possible, the customer requirements ought to be
gathered at their largest.
• These customer requirements are additionally used to assess the
applicant ideas produced to fulfill each functional requirement.
QFD and the House of Quality
Importance ratings:
• Customer importance ratings are the weighted numbers acquired.
• They are doled out to the item's attributes demonstrating their
relative significance as showed by the customers.

The quantities required to achieve the product’s characteristics:

• These are the building qualities communicated and are quantified
as far as possible.
• Although it isn't standard to do as such, it is proposed that the
designing attributes be assembled by their functional attributes.

Correlation matrix:
• A correlation matrix demonstrates the level of communication
among the item's building qualities.
• It gives some thought of the level of grouping that will exist when
endeavouring to fulfill the designing qualities.
• It also demonstrates the level of grouping as often as possible
realized by the physical laws representing the item's designing
attributes.
QFD and the House of Quality
Target values:
• Target values for each of an item's building qualities are often
decided from benchmarking information.
• This helps to from a free evaluation of how firmly the qualities
affect the item's execution traits and highlights.

Relationship matrix:
• A relationship matrix is an efficient means for recognizing the
levels of impact and impact between each designing trademark
and the customer’s necessities.
• This nonlinear values helps in the identification of those quantities
having the highest absolute importance.
QFD and the House of Quality
Customer competitive assessment:
• It is an outline of the main a few competitive items' qualities in
correlation with the item being created.
• On the off chance that the organization does not have a current
item, at that point it demonstrates how the present items are
seen by the purchasers.
• This appraisal is inconsequential to the customer significance
rating, to the qualities that are doled out to the relationship
framework, and to the objective esteems.

Technical competitive assessments:

• Technical competitive assessments think about the competitors'
particulars for each of the item's designing qualities to those for
the proposed specification.
• Each of these determinations should meet or surpass each of the
contenders' qualities.
QFD and the House of Quality
Absolute importance:
• Absolute importance is the aggregate of the product of the
numerical value of each element in a column of the relationship
matrix with its corresponding customer importance rating
• This is the preliminary step in obtaining the final results.

Relative importance:
Relative importance is the assurance of the level of the add up to
numerical score for each engineering characteristics.
High value elements here are the characteristics that are to be
worked on.
These high value or high ranking elements directly related to the
customer requirements.
The recourses, time and money should be allocated to these high
leverage elements.
QFD and the House of Quality

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Product Design Specification
• Amid the way toward finishing the house of quality, the
Product Development group ought to likewise be creating
data that will shape the product design specification (PDS).
• The PDS contains every one of the certainties identifying with
the item's result.
• It is a list of functions what the item needs to do and is the
central control system and fundamental reference hotspot for
the whole item improvement movement.
• The product definition should state the following:
1. The product title.
2. What purpose or function the product is to perform.
3. Against what types of product it will be competing
and who makes them.
4. What market it will serve.
5. Why there is a need.
6. The anticipated demand and target price.
7. Product identity.
8. Relationship to the company’s current product lines.
Product Design Specification

Adapted from Magrab (2010)

Four phases of QFD/HOQ

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 QFD/HOQ example Θ
Legend
Strong Relationship 9
Chocolate Chip Cookies: Ο Moderate Relationship 3
▲ Weak Relationship 1
Customer Req's vs Functional Req's ┼┼ Strong Positive Correlation
┼ Positive Correlation
▬ Negative Correlation
▼ Strong Negative Correlation
▼ Objective Is To Minimize
▲ Objective Is To Maximize
x Objective Is To Hit Target

Column # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Direction of Improvement: Competitive Analysis
Minimize (▼), Maximize (▲), or Target (x) (0=Worst, 5=Best)
Quality Characteristics
Max Relationship Value in Row

Our Company
(a.k.a. "Functional

Density of Chocolate Chips

Avg. Hedonic Scale Rating
Requirements" or "Hows") Mrs. Fields

Tensile Ulimate Strength

Tensile Yield Strength
Girl Scouts
Weight / Importance

Cost per Cookie

Relative Weight

Starbuck's

Size (diameter)

Girl Scouts
Cinnabon

Mrs. Fields
Demanded Quality

Starbuck's
Thickness

Cinnabon
(a.k.a. "Customer Kebler

Weight

Kebler
Row #

Requirements" or
"Whats") Color
0 1 2 3 4 5
1 9 5.0 Good Texture 5 2 3 5 0

2 9 10.0 Generous Portions 4 3 4 4 1

3 9 25.0 Tastes Good 5 4 3 4 2

4 9 20.0 Low Price 1 1 0 2 5

5 9 15.0 Appetizing Appearance 5 2 4 3 2

(Hdecimal RGB)

+ Sample Size)
Target or Limit
.01 MPa

.02 MPa
#FFC125

2 oz.

5 psi
7 (100
Value 0.3 "
5"

$1
Difficulty
(0=Easy to Accomplish, 10=Extremely Difficult)
Max Relationship Value in
Column Weight / Importance
Relative Weight

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 Legend
Θ Strong Relationship 9

QFD/HOQ example Ο
▲
┼┼
Moderate Relationship
Weak Relationship
Strong Positive Correlation
3
1

Chocolate Chip Cookies: ▬

┼ Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation

Functional Req's vs. Production Attributes ▼

▼
Strong Negative Correlation
Objective Is To Minimize
▲ Objective Is To Maximize
x Objective Is To Hit Target

Column # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Direction of Improvement:
Minimize (▼), Maximize (▲), or Target (x)
Max Relationship Value in Row

(Length of Time Since Baked)

Use of Flavorful Ingredients

Ratio of Chocolate Chips

Length of Wet Ingredient

Length of Dry Ingredient

Quality of Ingredients
Order of Ingredients

Use of "Crispening"
Weight / Importance

Cost of Ingredients

Use of "Softening"
Age of Ingredients

Cost of Packaging
Quality

Exposure to Air
Relative Weight

Characteristics

Age of Cookie
Baking Temp
Baking Time
(a.k.a.

Mixing Time

Mixing Time

Shortening
Demanded

Shortening
Quality "Hows")

to Flour
Row #

(a.k.a.
"Whats")

1 9 180.0 Color
2 3 60.0 Tensile Yield Strength
3 1 60.0 Tensile Ulimate Strength
4 13.3 Weight
5 1 120.0 Size (diameter)
6 9 40.0 Thickness
7 9 300.0 Avg. Hedonic Scale Rating
8 9 240.0 Cost per Cookie
9 9 60.0 Density of Chocolate Chips

Gourmet Cooking
Recommended
Wet ingredients
followed by dry

Top 3 Rated in
Manufacturer

Gourmet Quality

$0.60 per cookie

350 F - constant

$.02 per cookie

Shelf Life
ingredients
12.5 minutes

30 seconds

Guide
2 minutes

1 to 1
1 day

4 hrs
Target or Limit Value
Difficulty
(0=Easy to Accomplish, 10=Extremely Difficult)

Max Relationship Value in Column

Weight / Importance
Relative Weight

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 QFD/HOQ example Legend
Chocolate Chip Cookies: Θ
Ο
Strong Relationship
Moderate Relationship
9
3

Production Attributes vs. Parts/Materials ▲

┼┼
Weak Relationship
Strong Positive Correlation
1

┼ Positive Correlation
▬ Negative Correlation
▼ Strong Negative Correlation
▼ Objective Is To Minimize
▲ Objective Is To Maximize
x Objective Is To Hit Target
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Column #
Direction of Improvement:
Minimize (▼), Maximize (▲), or Target (x)
Max Relationship Value in Row

Shortening Type (Margarine)

Shortening Type (Vegetable
Quality
Characteristics
Weight / Importance

Chocolate Chip Brand

(a.k.a. "Hows")

Baker Experience /
Relative Weight

Shortening Type

Container Brand
Vanilla Type

Shortening)

Ingredients
Oven Type

Flour Type

Egg Grade
Demanded Quality

Education

Shelving
(Butter)
Row #

(a.k.a. "Whats")

1 9 13.7 279.5 Baking Time

2 9 13.7 279.5 Baking Temp
3 9 12.4 251.6 Order of Ingredients
4 9 1.4 28.0 Length of Wet Ingredient Mixing Time
5 9 1.4 28.0 Length of Dry Ingredient Mixing Time
6 4.1 83.9 Age of Cookie (Length of Time Since Baked)
7 9 4.1 83.9 Age of Ingredients
8 9 12.4 251.6 Quality of Ingredients
9 3 9.9 201.2 Cost of Ingredients
10 1 1.1 22.4 Exposure to Air
11 3.3 67.1 Cost of Packaging
12 9 5.5 111.8 Use of "Softening" Shortening
13 9 1.6 33.5 Use of "Crispening" Shortening
14 9 12.4 251.6 Use of Flavorful Ingredients
15 9 3.0 61.5 Ratio of Chocolate Chips to Flour
(as opposed to imitation)

Margarine

Food Storage
Cake Flour

Tupperware
10 yrs.

Butter

Shortening

Ghirardelli
Convection

Shelving
Vegetable

Target or Limit
"Real"

Value

Difficulty
(0=Easy to Accomplish, 10=Extremely Difficult)
Max Relationship Value in Column
Weight / Importance
Relative Weight

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To recapitulate:
• How could we describing Voice of the Customer?

• What is Quality Function Deployment (QFD)?

• What is House of Quality?

• What are elements of the House of Quality?

• How can we get Product Design Specifications?

• Four phases in QFD.

Task for students:
Thanks
Lecture 09
Value Engineering: an introduction

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Assistant Professor
National Institute of Technology,
Jalandhar, India.
Contents
•What is Value?

•Types of Value

•Value Engineering

•Value Engineering milestones

•Cost Reduction vs Value Engineering

Value :
“The lowest cost to reliably provide the required functions or
service at the desired time and place and with essential quality”.
Mudge( 1971)
Value :
• Aristotle, in the year 350 BC classified value in seven classes, which
are still recognized today, these are‐
1. Economic
2. Moral
3. Social
4. Political
5. Aesthetic
6. Religious
7. Judicial
Value:
• The economic value consists of subjective and objective qualities. It
comprises four specific kinds as follows:‐

1. Use Value – Properties, features and qualities that accomplish a use,

work or service.

2. Esteem value ‐ Properties, features and qualities that make ownership of

an object desirable.

3. Cost Value ‐ Properties, which are the sum of labor, material, overhead
and other costs required to produce something.

4. Exchange Value – Properties that make it possible to procure other items

by trading.
Use value:
• Use value (German: Gebrauchswert) or value in use is the utility of
consuming a good—the want‐satisfying power of a good or service in
classical political economy.
Cost value:
• The term replacement cost or replacement value refers to the amount
that an entity would have to pay to replace an asset at the present
time, according to its current worth.
Esteem value:
• Esteem value is defined as the subjective value a client
attributes to the product that makes them feel good about
owning the product.
Exchange value:
• Exchange Value is the quantified worth of one good or service
expressed in terms of the worth of another.
Value Engineering:
• Value Engineering is one of the most effective, promising and rewarding
modern technique available to identify and eliminate unnecessary costs
in design, testing, manufacturing, construction, operations,
maintenance, procedures, specifications, and practices.

• The Value Engineering is very well stated in its definition by SAVE

(Society of American Value Engineers).

“It is the systematic application of recognized techniques which identify the

function of a product or service, establish a monetary value for that
function and provide the necessary function reliably at the lowest overall
cost.”
Value Engineering
• VE improves value

• The methodology does more than curtail costs but benefits to improve
• time,
• performance,
• quality,
• as well as determine the type of work performed.
Value Engineering Milestones:

• World War II: At General Electric, substitutions for critical materials

dictated by shortages resulted in products that accomplished their
function at reduced cost.

• 1947: Mr Lawrence D. Miles, General Electric Staff Engineer, was

assigned to the purchasing division to study a new proprietary concept
where he succeeded in developing an amazing new package of
techniques he named Value Analysis.

• 1954: U.S. Navy Bureau of Ships applied VA to cost avoidance during

design, calling it Value Engineering. First government organization to
use this new technique.
Significant Value Engineering Milestones:
• 1960s: Mr Charles Bytheway, developed a tool used during Value
Engineering analysis called the Function Analysis Technique (FAST)
diagramming.

• 1970s: General Services Administration (GSA) began its building‐

contractor VE program and started use of incentive clauses.

• 1980s: US Department of Defence estabilshes honorary ‘Value Engineer

award’.

• 1990s: Value Engineering boom in construction industry.

• 2000 onwards: Value Engineering Synergies with Management

techniques
Value Engineering Milestones:

• INVEST established in October 1977.

• INVEST organizes awareness training programs and workshops

conducted by Certified Value Specialists.

• INVEST conferences provide an exciting forum for exchange of

knowledge.
Breaking down 'Value Engineering‘:
• Value engineering is the review of new or existing products during
the design phase to reduce costs and increase functionality in order
to increase the value of the product.
• The value of an item is defined as the most cost‐effective way of
producing an item without taking away from its purpose.
• Therefore, reducing costs at the expense of quality will simply be a
cost‐cutting strategy.
Need of Value Engineering:

• Lagging productivity

• Changing business environment

• Evolving industry and business practices

• Changing customer expectations

• Mis‐alignment of business requirements and supporting applications

Cost Reduction versus Value Engineering:
• Value analysis concept is quite different from conventional cost reduction.
S. No. CONVENTIONAL COST REDUCTION VALUE ANALYSIS

1. Item oriented Function oriented

2. Convergent ideas Divergent‐Convergent ideas
3. Usually individual oriented work Team work approach, multidiscipline

Applies innovative approach

Follows past practices and
4. (a) Exercises maximum creativity
analytical in approach
(b) No criticism of ideas

Cost visibility
Cost visibility
(a) Process
5. (a) Basic function
(b) Material
(b) Secondary function
Task for students
Thanks
Lecture 10
Value Engineering Methodology (part 1 of 3)

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Assistant Professor
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar (India)
 Contents
 Why poor Value?
 The Value Engineering Methodology
 Information phase
 Function Phase
 Creativity Phase
 Evaluation Phase
 Development Phase
 Implementation Phase
Why Poor Value?

• Poor communication

• Lack of consensus

• Outdated design standards

• Incorrect assumptions

• Resistance to change

• Honest wrong beliefs

 The Value Engineering Methodology
The Value Engineering methodology, also referred to as the Job
Plan, is divided into these phases.

Information

Function analysis

Creative

Evaluation

Development

Implementation
Information Phase

• Determine user needs

• Data collection

• Team work

• Broad Use Function

• Make a visit

• Finalize the problem

Information Phase

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Information Phase

https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20150929007032/en/Upgraded‐Components‐iPhone‐6S‐Costs‐Apple‐Extra
Function Phase

• Specific purposes or Intended use of an item.

• Determine by considering the user’s actual needs

• Primary functions

• Secondary
Function Phase

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Function Phase

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Function Analysis System Technique

• The Function Analysis System Technique aids in thinking about the

problem objectively.

• The organization of the functions into a function‐logic.

• The FAST diagram can be used to verify if, and illustrate how, a proposed
solution achieves the needs of the project.
Task for students
Thanks
Lecture 11
Value Engineering Methodology, (part 2 of 3)
FAST diagramming

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Assistant Professor
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar (India)
 Contents
 Why poor Value?
 The Value Engineering Methodology
 Information phase
 Function Phase
 Creativity Phase
 Evaluation Phase
 Development Phase
 Implementation Phase
Function Analysis System Technique

• The Function Analysis System Technique aids in thinking about the

problem objectively.

• The organization of the functions into a function‐logic.

• The FAST diagram can be used to verify if, and illustrate how, a proposed
solution achieves the needs of the project.
Function Analysis System Technique

http://www.valueanalysis.ca/fast.php
Function Analysis System Technique

Step 1: Determine the highest‐order function.

Step 2: Identify the basic functions

Step 3: Expand the FAST diagram.

Step 4: Identify the supporting functions.

Step 5: Verify the FAST diagram.

FAST Diagramming of Pen
FAST Diagramming of Pen
Is there a "correct" FAST Diagram?

• There is no 'correct' FAST diagram but there is a valid method of

representing the logic in a diagram.

• The validity of a FAST model for a given situation is dependent on

knowledge and scope of the workshop participants.

• The FAST diagram aids the team in reaching consensus on their

understanding of the project.
Thanks
Lecture 12
Value Engineering Methodology (part 3 of 3)

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Assistant Professor
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar (India)
 Contents
 The Value Engineering Methodology
◦ Creativity Phase
◦ Evaluation Phase
◦ Development Phase
◦ Implementation Phase
 Creative Phase

• The Creative phase develops ideas for alternative ways to

perform each function selected for further study.

• The two approaches to solving a problem are

• analytical and

• creative.
 Creative Phase

• Brainstorming.

• Gordon technique.

• Checklist.

• Morphological analysis.

• Attribute listing.
Evaluation Phase

The Evaluation phase selects and refines the best ideas to develop into
Specific value improvement recommendations.

1. Eliminate Low‐Potential Ideas

2. Ideas grouping

3. Select appropriate idea

4. List the Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Idea

Development Phase
The Development phase determines the “best” alternative(s) for
presentation to the decision maker.

1. Conduct a Life‐Cycle Cost Analysis

2. Determine the Most Beneficial Alternatives

3. Develop Implementation Plans

Implementation Phase
1. Prepare Report

2. Enhance the Probability of Approval

3. Monitor Progress

4. Expedite Implementation
Range of Application

• VE applies to almost everything

• VE can be applied at any point of the design or process.

• VE is a problem solving technique.

• VE can be used as a technique for developing design criteria.

When should Value Engineeirng applied:

https://www.wbdg.org/resources/value‐engineering
Task for students
Thanks
Lecture 13
Value Engineering, a case study

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Assistant Professor
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar (India)
 Contents
 Select a Product
 Apply Value Engineering
Problem formulation:

• The value improvement project of a foot operated air pump.

Objective of Study:
• The objective of the study was to improve the value of a foot
operated air pump by cost reduction, using seven phases of value
engineering.

General Phase:

1) Use of good human relations

2) Inspire teamwork

3) Apply good business judgement

Selection of Product:

1) It should have at least three different subassemblies or groups of

actions.

2) It should have eight to sixteen components or actions.

3) It should be in current usage or planned usage.

4) No major changes in the item should be under study or in process.

5) It must be something on which changes can be made after the

submission of recommendations.

6) Its purpose or functions should be definable and understandable.

Information Phase:
Determining the cost and specifications:
The use of this technique is to determine the cost of various
components of the product so that the VE team can identify the poor
value / high cost areas in function phase for analysis.
Information Phase:
Information Phase:
Bill of Materials and Cost of Parts (Before VE)
Part Material
No. Qty. Part Name Material Cost(Rs.) Cost/Piece(Rs) Total Cost(Rs)
1 1 Base Plate Mild Steel 25 32 32
2 2 Foot Lever Part Mild Steel 12 15 30
3 1 Cylinder Mild Steel 21 73 73
4 1 Cylinder Cap Mild Steel 16 22 22
5 1 Piston Rod Sts.Steel 9 13 13
6 1 Piston Rod Pivot Mild Steel 6 9 9
7 1 Piston Rod Spring Spring Steel 2 2
8 1 Bucket Washer Mild Steel 2 2
9 1 Metallic Bucket Mild Steel 3 4 4
10 1 Plastic Bucket BOP 8 8
11 1 Bucket Ring Rubber 5 5
12 1 Foot Pedal Cast Iron 19 20 20
13 1 Cylinder Pivot Housing Mild Steel 2 3 3
14 1 Cylinder Pivot Mild Steel 3 5 5
15 1 Foot Lever Pivot Mild Steel 4 10 10
16 1 Locking Hook Mild Steel 1 1
17 1 Lever Spring Support Pin Mild Steel 3 6 6
18 1 Lever Spring Spring Steel 10 10
19 1 Pressure Gauge BOP 60 60
20 1 Pump Connection BOP 25 25
Hex. Bolt 5/16 Inch(Foot
21 2 Pedal) Mild Steel 1 2
22 1 Gauge Adapter Mild Steel 2 2
Hex. Nut 5/16 Inch(Foot
23 2 Lever Hinge) Mild Steel 0.5 1
Hex. Nut 5/16 Inch(Foot
24 2 Pedal) Mild Steel 0.5 1
Hex. Nut 1/4 Inch(Piston
25 1 Rod) Mild Steel 0.5 0.5
26 1 Company Sticker BOP 4.5 4.5
Total Cost 351
Function phase
• In function phase, the functions of the components under study are
defined.

• Function is which makes a product ‘work or sell’.

• Functions are classified as ‘Primary Functions’ and ‘Secondary

Functions’ at the part level as well as assembly level.
Function phase
Defining the Functions:

• The functions of all the parts of the pump are defined

• Rule 1. The function should be accomplished in two words, a verb
and a noun. E.g. in the Function ‘Join Parts’, Join is a verb, Part is a
Noun.

• Rule 2. All functions should be divided into two levels of

importance, primary and secondary.
• A. Primary Function: It expresses the primary purpose, which is
only one for a part or for a product.

• B. Secondary Function: It expresses the purpose that support the

primary function but does not directly accomplish it or it is resulted
from a specific design approach.
Function phase
Function Definition Function Location
S. No Part Name Part Assembly
Verb Noun
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
1 Base Plate Provide Support √ √
Provide Location √ √
Withstand Impact √ √
Provide Clearance √ √
2 Foot Lever Provide Support √ √
Provide Location √ √
Facilitate Movement √ √
Join Parts √ √
Withstand Impact √ √
Transmit Motion √ √
Provide Alignment √ √
3 Cylinder Provide Reservoir √ √
Generate Pressure √ √
Facilitate Movement √ √
Provide Alignment √ √
Join Parts √ √
Provide Location √ √
Transmit Pressure √ √
Withstand Impact √ √
4 Cylinder Cap Facilitate Movement √ √
Join Parts √ √
Provide Location √ √
Permit Flow √ √
Provide Alignment √ √
Facilitate Lubrication √ √
Function phase
Function Definition Function Location
S. No Part Name Part Assembly
Verb Noun
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
5 Piston Rod Join Parts √ √
Generate Pressure √ √
Withstand Impact √ √
Restrict Movement √ √
6 Piston Rod Pivot Join Parts √ √
Provide Location √ √
Facilitate Movement √ √
Withstand Impact √ √
Facilitate Fitment √ √
7 Piston Rod Withstand Impact √ √
Spring Provide Location √ √
Provide Clearance √ √
8 Bucket Washer Facilitate Fitment √ √
Permit Retention √ √
9 Metallic Bucket Permit Retention √ √
Permit Flow √ √
Provide Location √ √
10 Plastic Bucket Permit Retention √ √
Function phase
Evaluation of Functions:
• For evaluation of functional relationships, there is need to
determine the relative importance of various functions.

Numerical Evaluation of Functional Relationship:

• All the functions of all the parts under study are considered from the
Functional Definition Worksheet
• These listed functions are then allotted with key letter from A to T.
Function phase
• To decide the importance of a function, following weight factors are
considered and allotted to the function depending on the difference of
importance between them.

• Weight Factors ‘1’ Minor difference in importance

‘2’ Medium difference in importance
‘3’ Major difference in importance

• As function B is important from function A by minor difference,

therefore in the cell, it is written as ‘B1’.
• In the similar way all the functions are compared with each other.
Hence, the table is completed and total weight factor for each function
is calculated.
• Then adjusted weight is calculated by adding ‘1’ in the total weight
factor because no function could have zero weight as in case of
function S.
 B AC2 B1
B2 C2
E3 A1
F2 E3
G2 F2
H2 G2
B1 H2
J1 A2
B1 J2
L3 A2
M2 L3
N2 M2
B1 N2
B1 O1
B1 A1
R2 A1
B2 R2
B1 A311 A2 1212 3.270
13 3.542

Function phase
C BC3 C2
C1 B2
C1 E3
G1 F2
C2 G2
C2 H2
C2 B1
C2 J1
L2 B1
C1 L3
N1 M2
C2 N2
C2 B1
C3 B1
R1 B1
C3 R2
C2 B230 B1 3111 8.447
12 3.270
D CE2 C3
F2 C1
G3 C1
H1 G1
I2 C2
J2 C2
K2 C2
L3 C2
M1 L2
N3 C1
O1 N1
P1 C2
D2 C2
R3 C3
D1 R1
D1 C3 4 C2 530 1.362
31 8.447
E DE1 E2
E1 F2
E2 G3
E2 H1
E2 I2
E2 J2
L2 K2
E1 L3
N2 M1
E2 N3
E2 O1
E3 P1
R2 D2
E1 R3
E1 D128 D1 294 7.902
5 1.362
F EF1 E1
F2 E1
F3 E2F2 E2F1 E2L2 F3
E2 N2
L2 F2 N2
E1 F1 E2F3 E2 R1 E3 F2 R2 F1 E1 27 E1 2828 7.629
29 7.902
B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T T. Weight Adj. Wt. %age Adj. Wt.
G FG2 F1G2 G2
F2 G1
F3 F2L2 G2
F1 G2
L2 G1 N2
F3 G1 F2G2 F1 G2 F3 G3 R1 G3 F2 31 F1 3227 8.719
28 7.629
A B1 C2 A1 E3 F2 G2 H2 A2 J2 A2 L3 M2 N2 O1 A1 A1 R2 A3 A2 12 13 3.542
H G H1 G2J2 H1
G2 G2L3 M1
G1 N2
L2 H1 G2
G2 P2 G1H1 G1 R1 G2 H1 G2 H1 G310 G3 1131 2.997
32 8.719
B C2 B2 E3 F2 G2 H2 B1 J1 B1 L3 M2 N2 B1 B1 B1 R2 B2 B1 11 12 3.270
I HJ3 K2
H1 J2L3 M2
H1 N3
L3 O2 N2
M1 P2 H1 I1 P2R3 H1 I1 R1 I2 H1 6 H1 710 1.907
11 2.997
C C3 C1 C1 G1 C2 C2 C2 C2 L2 C1 N1 C2 C2 C3 R1 C3 C2 30 31 8.447
J IJ2 J3L2 J2
K2 N2
L3 M2J2 N3
P1 O2 J2 P2R2 I1J2 R3 J1 I1 21 I2 226 5.995
7 1.907
D E2 F2 G3 H1 I2 J2 K2 L3 M1 N3 O1 P1 D2 R3 D1 D1 4 5 1.362
K JL2 M1
J2 N2
L2 KI N2
J2 P2 J2K1 P1 R2 J2 K1 R2 K2 J2 9 J1 1021 2.725
22 5.995
E E1 E1 E2 E2 E2 E2 L2 E1 N2 E2 E2 E3 R2 E1 E1 28 29 7.902
L KL2 L1
L2 L2
M1 N2 L2 KIL3 L2
P2 L3 L3
K1 R2 K1 K2 45 46 9 12.534
10 2.725
F F1 F2 F3 F2 F1 L2 F3 N2 F2 F1 F3 R1 F2 F1 27 28 7.629
M LN2 M1 L1
L2 P2 L2M2 L2 M2 L3M2 L2 M2 L3 18 L3 1945 5.177
46 12.534
G G2 G2 G2 G1 L2 G2 G2 G1 G1 G2 G2 G3 G3 31 32 8.719
Key Letter Function N MN2 N2N1 M1N3 P2 N2 M2 N2 M2 N2 M235M2 3618 9.809
19 5.177
H H1 J2 H1 L3 M1 N2 H1 P2 H1 R1 H1 H1 10 11 2.997
A Provide
Key LetterSupport
Function O NP2 N2 O1 N1 R3 N3 O1 N2 O2 N2 8 N2 935 2.452
36 9.809
I J3 K2 L3 M2 N3 O2 P2 I1 R3 I1 I2 6 7 1.907
B Provide
A Location
Provide Support P OP3 P2 R3 O1 P1 R3 P1 O117 O2 188 4.905
9 2.452
J J2 L2 J2 N2 J2 P1 J2 R2 J2 J1 21 22 5.995
C Withstand
B Load Location
Provide Q PR3 P3 Q1 R3 Q1 P1 2 P1 317 0.817
18 4.905
K L2 M1 N2 KI P2 K1 R2 K1 K2 9 10 2.725
D Provide
C Clearance
Withstand Load R QR2 R3 R2 Q132 Q1 332 8.992
3 0.817
L L2 L1 L2 L2 L3 L2 L3 L3 45 46 12.534
E Facilitate
D Movement
Provide Clearance S RT1 R2 0 R2 132 0.272
33 8.992
M N2 M1 P2 M2 M2 M2 M2 18 19 5.177
F JoinEPartsFacilitate Movement T S 1 T1 20 0.545
1 0.272
Key Letter Function N N2 N1 N3 N2 N2 N2 35 36 9.809
G Transmit
F Motion
Join Parts T 3671 100.00
2 0.545
A Provide Support O P2 O1 R3 O1 O2 8 9 2.452
H Provide
G Alignment
Transmit Motion 367 100.00
B Provide Location P P3 R3 P1 P1 17 18 4.905
I Provide
H Grip Provide Alignment
C Withstand Load Q R3 Q1 Q1 2 3 0.817
J Facilitate
I Fitment Grip
Provide
D Provide Clearance R R2 R2 32 33 8.992
K Restrict
J Movement
Facilitate Fitment
E Facilitate Movement S T1 0 1 0.272
L Generate
K PressureMovement
Restrict
F Join Parts T 1 2 0.545
M Provide
L Reservoir
Generate Pressure
G Transmit Motion 367 100.00
N Transmit
M PressureReservoir
Provide
H Provide Alignment
O Provide
N Flexibility
Transmit Pressure
I Provide Grip
P Permit
O Retention
Provide Flexibility Evaluation Weight Factor
J Facilitate Fitment
Q Facilitate
P Lubrication
Permit Retention (Difference in importance)
Evaluation Weight Factor
K Restrict Movement
R Permit
Q Flow
Facilitate Lubrication 1 Minor difference
- (Difference in importance)
L Generate Pressure
S Provide
R Identification
Permit Flow 2 - Medium
1 - difference
Minor difference
M Provide Reservoir
T Measure
S Pressure
Provide Identification 3 - Major
2 -difference
Medium difference
N Transmit Pressure
T Measure Pressure 3 - Major difference
O Provide Flexibility
Function phase
• To confirm that the Numerical evaluation is correct, following checks of
consistency are carried out as given by Mudge (1971), and found them
satisfactory –

• 1. The data obtained from numerical evaluation should match the

customer’s requirements.

• 2. Weight factor of least important function must be zero i.e. Function

S.

• 3. No two functions should have equal weights.

• 4. No loop formation should be there.

Function phase
14

12

N
10
R
G
C
% age Weight Factor

E
8 F

J
6 PF SF 1 SF2
M
P

4 A
B
H
K
O
I
2 D
Q
T
S

0
L N R G C E F J M P A B H K O I D Q T S
Functions
Function phase

• 1. High Point (L):- This indicates the basic function of the object
studied.

• 2. First major Drop (L-N):- Isolation of basic and secondary – level

functions.

• 3. First leveling effect (N, R, G, C, E, F):- It includes the secondary

functions that are in the project to meet specification and
requirements.

• 4. Second major Drop (F-J):- Separation of two types of the

secondary functions.

• 5. Second and Third leveling effect (J, M, P and A, B, H, K, O, I, D, Q,

T, S):- It includes the secondary functions that are in the project
because of the present approach.
Function Cost matrix and VIP index:
• After the relative importance of each function is identified, now it is
essential to determine as to how much is it costing to provide
particular function

• The cost of components is distributed to the functions performed by

them and hence, total cost of accomplishing each function and the
percentage cost of each function in assembly is calculated.

• Next step is to divide the percentage costs of functions by

percentage importance (Weight Factor)

• This gives Value Improvement Potential (VIP) Index for each

function. Functions having VIP Index more than ‘1’ are ‘poor Value’
Functions.
 Function Cost matrix and VIP index:Table 3.4 Function Cost Matrix and VIP Index

Facilitate Lubrication

Provide Identification
Facilitate Movement

Restrict Movement
Provide Alignment

Transmit Pressure
Provide Flexibility
Provide Clearance

Generate Pressure
Withstand Impact

Provide Reservoir

Measure Pressure
Facilitate Fitment
Provide Location

Transmit Motion

Permit Retention
Provide Support

Provide Grip

Permit Flow
Join Parts
Qty. Part Name T.Cost(Rs.) A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

1 Base Plate 32 12 10 05 05

2 Foot Lever 30 02 02 05 02 02 15 02

1 Cylinder 73 03 06 04 04 05 36 08 07

1 Cylinder Cap 22 03 03 04 05 02 05

1 Piston Rod 13 06 01 02 04

1 Piston Rod Pivot 09 04 01 02 01 01

1 Piston Rod SPring 02 0.5 0.5 01

1 Bucket Washer 02 1.5 0.5

1 Metallic Bucket 04 02 01 01

1 Plastic Bucket 08 06 01 01

1 Bucket Ring 05 01 03 01

1 Foot Pedal 20 04 10 06

1 Cylinder Pivot Housing 03 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.5

1 Cylinder Pivot 05 01 01 01 02

1 Foot Lever Pivot 10 01 02 02 05

1 Locking Hook 01 0.25 0.25 0.5

1 Lever Spring Support Pin 06 04 02

1 Lever Spring 10 04 01 01 02 02

1 Pressure Gauge 60 60

1 Pump Connection 25 10 15

2 Hex. Bolt 5/16"(Foot Pedal) 02 0.5 0.5 01

1 Gauge Adapter 02 0.5 01 0.5

6 Hex. Nuts 03 0.5 0.5 1.5

1 Company Sticker 4.5 05

Total Cost 351 14 36 41 06 19 34 17 12 06 07 02 43 08 22 02 08 02 09 05 60

% Cost 3.977 10.298 11.719 1.705 5.256 9.659 4.830 3.409 1.705 1.847 0.568 12.216 2.273 6.250 0.568 2.131 0.568 2.415 1.278 17.045

% Weight 3.542 3.270 8.447 1.362 7.902 7.629 8.719 2.997 1.907 5.995 2.725 12.534 5.177 9.809 2.452 4.905 0.817 8.992 0.272 0.545

VIP Index 1.123 3.150 1.387 1.251 0.665 1.266 0.554 1.137 0.894 0.308 0.209 0.975 0.439 0.637 0.232 0.434 0.695 0.269 4.692 31.278
Function phase

Indifference chart:
For the foot operated air pump, following are the poor value
functions:-
1. A-Provide Support
2. B-Provide Location
3. C-Withstand Impact
4. D-Provide Clearance
5. F-Join Parts
6. H-Provide Alignment
7. S-Provide Identification
8. T-Measure Pressure

• Now the foundation had been laid for application of various

techniques to generate every possible solution to the problem.
 Indifference Line

20

18

16

14
%age Weight of Functions

12

10

8 C
F
6

4
A B
H
2
D
0 S T
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
%age Cost of Functions
Creativity Phase
Creative Worksheet No.1
Parts: Base Plate, Piston Rod Pivot, Lever Spring Support Pin, Foot Lever
Pivot, Lever Spring

Functions: Provide Support, Provide Location, Withstand Impact, Provide

Clearance, Join
Parts
Ideas:

1. Use 25.4 mm square for base plate, round bar for piston rod pivot, cotter
pins in the foot lever pivot, search new suppliers for lever spring.

2. Use round bar for piston rod pivot, cotter pins in the foot lever pivot and
rectangular pipe 50.8 x 25.4 x 2 mm³ for base plate.

3. Use Ms Angle 25.4 x 25.4 x 3.175 mm³ for base plate, cotter pins in the
foot lever pivot and round bar for piston rod pivot.
Creativity Phase
Creative Worksheet No.1 continued

4. Use solid MS square 25.4 mm for base plate, cotter pins in the foot
lever pivot and round bar for piston rod pivot. Search new suppliers for
lever spring.

5. Use casting process for base plate, cotter pins in the foot lever pivot
and round bar for piston rod pivot.

6. Use brown belly wood for base plate, round bar for piston rod pivot
and cotter pins in the foot lever pivot.

7. Use sheet metal fabrication process for base plate, round bar for piston
rod pivot and cotter pins in the foot lever pivot. Search new suppliers for
lever spring.
Creativity Phase
Creative Worksheet No.2
Parts: Foot Pedal, Foot Lever, Gauge Adapter, Cylinder Pivot

Functions: Withstand Impact, Provide Location, Provide Support, Provide

Alignment, Join Part

Ideas:

1. Use solid MS square 25.4 mm for foot lever and foot pedal, two pipe
pieces for cylinder pivot.

2. Use MS Angle 25.4 x 25.4 x 3.175 mm³ for foot lever and foot pedal,
two pipe pieces as cylinder pivot.

3. Use rectangular pipe 50.8 x 25.4 x 2 mm³ for foot pedal and foot lever, two
Ms rod pieces for cylinder pivot.
Creativity Phase
Creative Worksheet No.2 continued

4. Use sheet metal fabrication process for foot lever and foot pedal and
threaded cylinder pivot.

5. Use casting process for foot lever and foot pedal, cylinder pivot consisting of
two Ms rod pieces.

6. Use 25.4 mm Ms square for foot lever and foot pedal, cylinder pivot
consisting of two rod pieces
Evaluation phase:
• The objective of the evaluation phase of the Value engineering Job Plan
is to analyze the results of the creative phase

• The skillful application is triggered at, for the prevention of unnecessary

cost and development of value alternatives

• In order to guard these possibilities, this phase employs following

techniques.
• Establish cost on all ideas
• Evaluate by comparison
Evaluation phase:
Establishing cost of ideas:

• The cost on all feasible ideas is established. For this purpose ideas
are rated in the following manner: -
• ‘A’ ---------- An acceptable idea
• ‘U’---------- An Unacceptable idea

• Now, cost for acceptable ideas is estimated and allocated and

reasons for unaccepting an idea are given.
Evaluation phase:
Function Evaluation Worksheet No.1
Parts: Base Plate, Piston Rod Pivot, Lever Spring Support Pin, Foot Lever Pivot, Lever Spring
Functions: Provide Support, Provide Location, Withstand Impact, Provide Clearance, Join Part
Present Design Cost=Rs32 (Base Plate) + Rs9 (Piston Rod Pivot) + Rs6 (Lever Spring Support Pin) +
Rs10 (Foot Lever Pivot) + Rs10 (Lever Spring) = Rs 67
S. No. Idea Status of Idea ‘A’ Cost if ‘A’ Reason if ‘U’
or ‘U’
1. Use 25.4 mm square for base plate, ‘A’ Rs 60 (Base Plate) +
round bar for piston rod pivot, Rs8 (Piston Rod Pivot) + Rs1
cotter pins in the foot lever pivot, (Cotter Pins) +
search new suppliers for lever Rs8 (Lever Spring) = Rs77
spring.

2. Use round bar for piston rod pivot, ‘A’ Rs (Piston Rod Pivot) + Rs1
cotter pins in the foot lever pivot (Cotter Pins) +
and rectangular pipe 50.8 x 25.4 x 2 Rs90 (Base Plate) +
mm³ for base plate. Alternate Rs8 (Lever Spring) = Rs107
suppliers for lever spring.

3. Use Ms angle 25.4 x 25.4 x 3.175 ‘A’ Rs50 (Base Plate) +

mm³ for base plate, cotter pins in Rs1 (Cotter Pins) +
the foot lever pivot and round bar Rs8 (Piston Rod Pivot) + Rs8
for piston rod pivot. Search new (Lever Spring) = Rs67
suppliers for lever spring.
Evaluation phase:
Function Evaluation Worksheet No.1
4. Use solid Ms square 25.4 mm for ‘A’ Rs 200 (Base Plate) +
base plate, cotter pins in the foot Rs1 (Cotter Pins) +
lever pivot and round bar for Rs8 (Piston Rod Pivot) + Rs8
piston rod pivot. Search new (Lever Spring) = Rs217
suppliers for lever spring.

5. Use casting process for base plate, ‘A’ Rs 75 (Base Plate) +

cotter pins in the foot lever pivot Rs 1 (Cotter Pins) +
and round bar for piston rod pivot. Rs 8 (Piston Rod Pivot) + Rs 8
Alternate suppliers for lever spring. (Lever Spring) = Rs92

6. Use brown belly wood for base ‘A’ Rs 100 (Base Plate) +
plate, round bar for piston rod Rs 8 (Piston Rod Pivot) + Rs 1
pivot and cotter pins in the foot (Cotter Pins) +
lever pivot. Alternate suppliers for Rs 8 (Lever Spring) = Rs117
lever spring.

7. Use sheet metal fabrication process ‘A’ Rs 28 (Base Plate) +

for base plate, round bar for piston Rs 8 (Piston Rod Pivot) + Rs 1
rod pivot and cotter pins in the foot (Cotter Pins) +
lever pivot. Search new suppliers Rs 8 (Lever Spring)=Rs45
for lever spring.
Evaluation phase:
Function Evaluation Worksheet No. 2
Parts: Foot Pedal, Foot Lever, Gauge Adapter, Cylinder Pivot
Functions:Withstand Impact, Provide Location, Provide Support, Provide Alignment, Join Part
Present Design Cost=20(Foot Pedal)+30(Foot Lever)+2(Gauge Adaptor)+5(Cylinder Pivot)= Rs 57
S .No. Idea Status of Idea ‘A’ Cost if ‘A’ Reason if ‘U’
or ‘U’
1. Use solid MS square 25.4 mm for foot ‘A’ 160(Foot Lever)+40(Foot
lever and foot pedal, two Ms rod Pedal)+10(Cylinder
pieces for cylinder pivot. Pivot)=Rs210
2. Use MS angle 25.4 x 25.4 x 3.175 mm³ ‘A’ 40(Foot Lever)+9(Foot
for foot lever and foot pedal, two rod Pedal)+10(Cylinder Pivot)=Rs59
pieces as cylinder pivot.
3. Use rectangular pipe 50.8 x 25.4 x 2 ‘A’ 75(Foot Lever)+9(Foot
mm³ for foot pedal and foot lever, Pedal)+10(Cylinder Pivot)=Rs94
two Ms rod pieces for cylinder pivot.
4. Use sheet metal fabrication process ‘A’ 22(Foot Lever)+4(Foot
for foot lever and foot pedal and Pedal)+9(Cylinder Pivot)=Rs35
threaded cylinder pivot.
5. Use casting process for foot lever and ‘A’ 42(Foot Lever)+20(Foot
foot pedal, cylinder pivot consisting of Pedal)+10(Cylinder Pivot)=Rs72
two Ms rod pieces.
6. Use 25.4 mm Ms square for foot lever ‘A’ 55(Foot Lever)+12(Foot
and foot pedal, cylinder pivot Pedal)+10(Cylinder Pivot)=Rs77
consisting of two rod pieces
Evaluation phase:
Evaluation by comparison:
• After allocating the cost to the ideas, the ideas are evaluated by
comparison by using appropriate criteria of evaluation, for selecting the
final acceptable ideas.

Criteria of evaluation:

• The evaluation criteria suitable for this study are:

• A – Cost Savings
• B – Durability
• C – Ease of implementation
• D – Ease of operation
Evaluation phase:
B C D T. Wt Adj. Wt.

A A2 A3 A1 6 7

B B2 B1 3 4

C D2 0 1

D 2 3

Decision matrix:

• The decision matrix is made to finally selecting the suitable alternative by

ranking.
• Ideas are ranked by finding value scores of ideas using weights from numerical
evaluation of criteria and a five point scale mentioned as under.

Excellent = 5 point
Very Good = 4 point
Good = 3 point
Fair = 2 point
Poor = 1 point
• The technique used to assign points to each idea for each criterion is
consulting with the experts (experienced manufacturers, customers
and workers engaged in manufacturing pumps).

Cost Savings Points

• No Savings -0
• Less than 5% -1
• Between 5% to 10% -2
• Between 10% to 15% -3
• Between 15% to 20% -4
• More than 20% -5
 Decision matrix 1:
Evaluation phase: Parts: Base Plate, Piston Rod Pivot, Lever Spring Support Pin, Foot Lever Pivot, Lever 5 Point Scale Total Score
Spring Excellent = 5
Functions: Provide Support, Provide Location, Withstand Impact, Provide Clearance, Very Good = 4
Join Part Good = 3
Fair = 2
Poor = 1
Proposal Desired Criteria A=7 B=4 C=1 D=3
(Idea No.) (with weight) (Points) (Points) (Points) (Points)
Score Score Score Score
Use 25.4 mm square for base plate, round bar for (0) (3) (3) (2)
piston rod pivot, cotter pins in the foot lever pivot,
search new suppliers for lever spring. 0 12 3 6 21
Use round bar for piston rod pivot, cotter pins in the (0) (4) (4) (3)
foot lever pivot and rectangular pipe 50.8 x 25.4 x 2
mm³ for base plate. Alternate suppliers for lever 0 16 4 9 29
spring.
Use Ms angle 25.4 x 25.4 x 3.175 mm³ for base plate, (0) (3) (2) (2)
cotter pins in the foot lever pivot and round bar for
piston rod pivot. Search new suppliers for lever 0 12 2 6 20
spring.
Use solid Ms square 25.4 mm for base plate, cotter (0) (5) (1) (1)
pins in the foot lever pivot and round bar for piston
rod pivot. Search new suppliers for lever spring. 0 20 1 3 24

Use casting process for base plate, cotter pins in the (0) (3) (2) (2)
foot lever pivot and round bar for piston rod pivot.
Alternate suppliers for lever spring. 0 12 2 6 20
Use brown belly wood for base plate, round bar for (0) (4) (3) (3)
piston rod pivot and cotter pins in the foot lever
pivot. Alternate suppliers for lever spring. 0 16 3 9 28

Use sheet metal fabrication process for base plate, (5) (4) (4) (4)
round bar for piston rod pivot and cotter pins in the
foot lever pivot. Search new suppliers for lever 35 16 4 12 67*
spring.
 Decision matrix 2:
Evaluation phase: Parts: Foot Pedal, Foot Lever, Gauge Adapter, Cylinder Pivot 5 Point Scale Total
Functions: Withstand Impact, Provide Location, Provide Support, Provide Excellent = 5 Score
Alignment, Join Part Very Good = 4
Good = 3
Fair = 2
Poor = 1
Proposal Desired Criteria A=7 B=4 C=1 D=3
(Idea No.) (with weight) (Points) (Points) (Points) (Points)
Score Score Score Score
Use solid Ms square 25.4 mm for foot lever (0) (5) (1) (1)
and foot pedal, two Ms rod pieces for cylinder
pivot. 0 20 1 3 24
Use Ms angle 25.4 x 25.4 x 3.175 mm³ for foot (0) (3) (2) (2)
lever and foot pedal, two rod pieces as
cylinder pivot. 0 12 2 4 18
Use rectangular pipe 50.8 x 25.4 x 2 mm³ for (0) (4) (1) (2)
foot pedal and foot lever, two Ms rod pieces
for cylinder pivot.
0 16 1 6 23
Use sheet metal fabrication process for foot (5) (5) (4) (5)
lever and foot pedal and threaded cylinder
pivot. 35 20 4 15 74*
Use casting process for foot lever and foot (0) (3) (3) (3)
pedal, cylinder pivot consisting of two Ms rod
pieces. 0 12 3 9 24
Use 25.4 mm Ms square for foot lever and foot (0) (3) (2) (2)
pedal, cylinder pivot consisting of two rod
pieces 0 12 2 6 20
Implemenation phase:

• The proposals finalized after evaluation are brought forward to

investigation phase for combining the changes made in same parts
in the different groups of parts which has been made during
creativity phase.

• It is observed that most of the final proposals involved different

parts, except the foot pedal which is there in the final proposals in
group 2 (decision matrix 2) and group 6 (decision matrix 6).
Implemenation phase:
Presentation cost:

• The new bill of materials is prepared showing modifications,

additions and also eliminations of some parts after value analysis.

Presenting Specifications:

• The drawings are prepared showing the details of the modified and
new added parts for clarification of the proposals which will be used
during implementation.
 Table 4.1 Bill of Materials and Cost of Parts (after VA)

Material Cost/Piece Total

Part No. Qty. Part Name Material Cost (Rs.) (Rs) Cost (Rs)
1 2 Base Plate Part Mild Steel 18.5 12 24
2 2 Base Plate Clamp Mild Steel 2.5 2 4
3 2 Foot Lever Part Mild Steel 17 11 22
4 1 Cylinder Mild Steel 28.5 43 43
5 1 Cylinder Cap Mild Steel 4.75 7 7
6 1 Piston Rod Sts.Steel 9 13 13
7 1 Piston Rod Pivot (Modified) Mild Steel 6 8 8
8 1 Piston Rod Spring Spring Steel 1 1
9 1 Bucket Washer (Eliminated) Mild Steel
10 1 Metallic Bucket Mild Steel 3 4 4
11 1 Plastic Bucket (Modified) Mild Steel 3 5 5
12 1 Bucket Ring Rubber 5 5
13 1 Foot Pedal (Modified) Mild Steel 3 4 4
14 1 Cylinder Pivot Housing (Modified) Mild Steel 1.5 2.5 2.5
15 1 Cylinder Pivot (Modified) Mild Steel (Zn) 4 9 9
16 1 Foot Lever Pivot (Modified) Mild Steel 3 5 5
17 1 Locking Hook Mild Steel 1 1
18 1 Lever Spring Support Pin Mild Steel 3 6 6
19 1 Lever Spring Spring Steel 8 8
20 1 Pressure Gauge BOP 55 55
21 1 Pump Connection BOP 18 18
22 2 Hex. Bolt 5/16 Inch (Foot Pedal) Eliminated Mild Steel 0 0
23 1 Hex. Nut 3/8 Inch (Piston Rod) Mild Steel 1 1
24 2 Hex. Nut 1/4 Inch (Cylinder Pivot) Mild Steel 1 1
25 2 Hex. Nut 5/16 Inch (Foot Pedal) Eliminated Mild Steel 0 0
26 1 Hex. Nut 1/4 Inch (Piston Rod) Mild Steel 0.5 0.5
27 1 Company Sticker (Eliminated) BOP 0 0
28 1 Cylinder Cap Bush (New Added) Mild Steel 2 2
29 1 Gauge Adapter Mild Steel 2 2
30 2 Cotter Pin (New Added) Mild Steel 0.5 1
Total Cost 252
Implemenation phase:
Cost Savings

• Cost savings after VA = Cost before VA – Cost after VA

= Rs 351 – Rs 252
= Rs 99 per pump
• Percentage savings = (Rs 99/Rs/Rs 351)*100
= 28.2% per pump
• The company on an average has of sale of 200 pumps per month
(2400 pumps per annum) which implies
Average annual savings = Rs 99 * 2400
= Rs 2, 37, 600
Limitations of the study:

• New pump has almost all parts as sheet metal fabricated.

•
• The pump manufacturer company has to be dependent on the
manufacturer for the production because in-house production will
necessitate the installation of a new plant equipped with required
machines.

• Many criteria like time for implementation, resistance of employees

etc. which although are not so significant but might have given more
rigorous results are not considered.
Task for students
Thanks
Lecture 14
Material Selection (part 1 and 2)

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
Contents

• Importance of material selection

• Factors affecting the material selection process
• Material selection procedures
• Design Recommendations
Importance of material selection

• For the successful functioning and the feasible low‐cost

manufacture of any product, the choice of material is a major
determinant.
• It is widely accepted that the final cost of a manufactured
product is determined largely at the design stage.
• The prime selection of material that is used to construct or
make the product should lead to
• essential properties
• least overall cost
• ease of fabrication or manufacturability of the component or
structure, and
• environmentally friendly.
Importance of material selection

Adapted from Mangonon, 1999

Factors affecting the material selection
process:

Mital et al., 2008

Factors affecting the material selection
process:
1. Physical factors:

• Size, shape, and weight of the material needed and

• the space available for the component.

2. Mechanical factors:

• The capacity to withstand stress and strain is determined by these

factors.
• Strength, ductility, modulus, fatigue strength, and creep, are some
mechanical properties that influence what material needs to be
used.
Factors affecting the material selection
process:
3. Processing and fabrication factors:
• The capacity to form or shape a material falls under the processing
and fabrication factors.
• Casting and deformation processing are commonly used.

4. Life of component factors:

• The factors that relate to the life of the materials along which they
perform the intended function.

5. Cost and availability:

• With reduced lead times from design to market, there is a tendency
to jump to the first material that fits the selection profile.
Material Selection Procedures

Grouping Materials in Families

• The range of materials can be subdivided into
• families,
• classes,
• subclasses, and
• members.

• Each member is characterized by a set of attributes: its properties.

Material Selection Procedures

adapted from Ashby, 2005

Material Selection Procedures
Grouping Materials Based on Process Compatibility.
• Usually screening, ranking, and cost optimization processes are used
to arrive at the best combination of materials.
• Screening and ranking diminishes candidates that cannot do the job
because one or more of their attributes lies outside the limits
imposed by the design.

Mital et al., 2008

Thanks
Lecture 15
Material Selection (part 2 of 2)

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
Contents

• Importance of material selection

• Factors affecting the material selection process
• Material selection procedures
• Design Recommendations
Design Recommendations

Minimize Material Costs (a few tips)

• Commercially available mill forms should be used to minimize in‐
factory operations.
• Standard stock shapes, gauges, and grades or formulations should
be used rather than special ones whenever possible.
• Material should be selected based not only on the operating
environment but also the temperature to which the product is
exposed during manufacturing process.
Design Recommendations

Adapted from Bralla, 1998

Design Recommendations

Ferrous Metals, Cold‐Finished Steel

• Avoid holes, grooves, and the like.
• Avoid undercuts, as they are more
expensive.

• Use standard rather than special shapes.

• Avoid sharp corners, as they are more difficult to manufacture and may create
assembly problems.
Design Recommendations
Classification of ferrous metals

http://www.iica.org.in/ferrous.html
Design Recommendations
• Grooves deeper than 1.5 times the width of the part are not feasible
unless the bottom radii are generous .
• Avoid abrupt changes in the section thickness as they introduce local
concentration; for example, cutting a credit card by bending it.
Design Recommendations

Nonmetals
• Thermosets and Thermoplastics
• Shrinkage on cooling and curing of thermoset plastics must be taken
into consideration while designing parts.
• Internal and external undercuts should be avoided.
Design Recommendations

• The minimum and maximum shrinkage rates during molding for

various plastics.

Adapted from Brainbridge, 1998

Design Recommendations
Ceramics and Glass

• Ceramic part edges and corners should have generous radii or chamfers to
prevent chipping and stress concentration points.
• Outside and inside radii should be at least 1.5 mm and 2.4 mm, respectively.

Adapted from Mohr, 1998

Design Recommendations

Rubber
• Holes should be shallow and as wide as possible, consistent with the
functional needs.
• Avoid through holes of small size.
• If necessary, through holes should be at least 0.8 mm in diameter
and 16 mm in depth.
Design Recommendations

Adapted from Sommer, 1998

Design Recommendations
Nonferrous Metals
Aluminum
• Largest possible bend radii should be done, when forming, to avoid
tearing.
• When attaching to other metal parts, the facing surface should be
insulated to avoid galvanic corrosion (use zinc chromate or zinc
phosphate).
Design Recommendations
Copper and Brass
• Avoid machining.
• Use extrusion and press forming to avoid loss of material.
• Use stock sizes requiring minimum processing.
Design Recommendations
Titanium
• When bending titanium sheets, generous bend radii should be
provided.
• Cross‐section thickness should be 16 mm or more.
• Provide generous draft angles, at least 5–7 degrees.
• Rib widths should be 10 mm or more, and the rib height should not
exceed four times the rib width.
• The fillet radius of the ribs should at least be 25% of the rib height.
Design Recommendations

Zinc and Its Alloys

• Bends in regular commercial rolled zinc should be at right angles to
the grain or rolling direction.
• The bend radius should at least be equal to the material thickness.
• For forging zinc, use combination of zinc and magnesium, with up to
25% magnesium.
Engineering Materials

Adapted from Bralla, 1998

Task for students
Thanks
Lecture 18
Product Costing

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Introduction
 Cost and Price Structure
 Information Need Sources
 Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs
 Design and Manufacturing Costs
 Ways to Model Manufacturing Costs
Introduction
•The ratio of perceived quality to its cost is called the value of a
product.

•Thus, the goals of design activities are to create a product that

satisfies the customers’ requirements and to maximize profit.

•The difference between the price at which the product is sold and
the cost of providing the product to the customer is called as Profit.

•Profit is required for a business enterprise to remain viable.

•As Cost is the most accessible and universally understood measure of

resource consumption so Cost is also important.

•Cost can be readily used as an important metric on which to base

engineering design decisions.
Introduction
Engineering Economics and Cost Analysis

•Engineering economics is the application of accumulated knowledge

in engineering and economics.

•It is used to identify alternative uses of resources and to select the

best course of action from an economics point of view.

•The cost analysis is necessary for determining the manufacturing and

life cycle costs of specific products.

•Cost estimation, and thereby profitability, is necessary for determining

the economic advantage of the business, which determines the ability
of a company to be competitive.
Cost And Price Structure
• Direct Labour Cost + Materials = Prime Cost/Operational Cost.

• Direct labour cost : cost of actual labour used to produce the

product.
• The direct materials cost comprises the cost of raw or semi‐
finished materials that can be directly attributed to the product.

• Factory Overhead + Prime Cost = Cost of Goods Manufactured /

Manufacturing cost

• Overhead Cost:
• Indirect materials cost (factory supplies and lubricants),
indirect labour costs (cost of supervision and inspection and
the salaries of factory clerks), and fixed and miscellaneous
costs such as rent, insurance, taxes, depreciation,
maintenance and repair, utilities, and small tools.
Information Needs and Sources
• Accurate estimation of costs requires reliable information.
• The flow of information should be uninterrupted, timely, consistent,
thorough, and simple.

• Usually, three kinds of information are important:

• historical,
• measured, and
• policy.

• The information from internal reports is historical and typically

included in accounting reports.
• Measured information generally is in dollar or time dimensions, such
as material quantities calculated from drawings.
• Policy information is fixed in nature and includes information such as
union‐management wage settlements, Social Security tax, and liability
insurance.
Sources of Information

Internal
• Accounting Department
• Personnel Department
• Operating Departments
• Purchasing Department
• Sales and Marketing

External
• Government Agencies
• International Agencies
• Business Firms
• Trade Associations
• Publications
Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs
• Structuring cost information: It is a process of grouping like facts
about a common reference on the basis of similarities, attributes,
or relationships.

• Once the cost information is classified, it is summarised.

• Sometimes, a master list of cost codes are used.

• Materials, supplies, equipment costs, and the like are assigned

costs from the original documents and given the appropriate code
number.
Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs
Direct Labour Costs

• Two things are required to determine the direct labour cost:

1. The time it takes to complete the task and
2. The wage rate

• The procedure used in determining time it takes to complete the task

is described in the next slide.
Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs

Observe the task being performed and record the time it takes to complete the
entire cycle of the task.

Time for number of task cycles is recorded and averaged and this average cycle
time is called observed time.

Normal Time = Observed Time x Rating (pace at which the operator being observed
works)

Standard Time/Job Standard = Normal Time + Allowances (personal needs,

unavoidable delays and fatigue)
Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs

• The PDF allowances are the fraction of the normal time devoted to
personal needs, unavoidable delays, and recovery from fatigue.

• The standard time may be expressed in seconds, minutes, or hours.

• The standard time may be used to determine output per hour in

terms of number of pieces as follows:
 Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs
• From the preceding, the direct labour cost can be calculated as
follows:

• NOTE: Wage rate may or may not include the cost of fringe benefits.

• If such cost is not included, the wage rate must be modified to

accommodate it. The actual wage rate in that case is
Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs
Where
F = FICA fraction
U = Unemployment compensation fraction
W = Workers compensation fraction
H = Health and other insurance compensation fraction

Sometimes, it is necessary to modify the time per unit to account for

the effect of learning. This may be done as follows:

Where
P = Cumulative production
T0 = Time to make the first unit
n = The learning rate
Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs

Direct Material Costs

•The bill of materials is essential for determining the quantities of
materials required, as it generally contains the pounds, cubic or
square yards, board feet, square feet, gallons, or linear feet of the
required materials.

•The next step is to apply the appropriate material unit price or

cost to this quantity to develop the material cost as follows:
Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs
Where
W = Weight in pounds for a unit, or in dimensions compatible to
price P
P = Price per pound of material, or per unit length or volume
R = Unit price of salvaged material per unit ($)
L1 = Losses due to scrap, in fractions
L2 = Losses due to waste, in fractions
L3 = Losses due to shrinkage, in fractions

To determine the material cost, one can use several rules: first
in/first out cost; last in/first out cost; current cost; or actual cost.

The actual price method requires calculating equivalent cost and

works as follows:

where i (the lot number) = 1 to n;

and A is the unit in dimensions compatible to cost C
Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs
Overhead or Indirect Costs

• Overhead costs are the portion of the costs that cannot be clearly
associated with particular operations, products, or projects
• It must be prorated among all the product units on some basis.
• Overhead costs include:‐
1. Labour costs for persons who are not directly involved with a
specific manufacturing process such as managers and secretaries
2. Various facilities costs such as utilities and mortgage payments on
the buildings
3. Noncash benefits provided to employees such as health
insurance, retirement contributions, and unemployment
insurance;
4. And other costs of running the business such as accounting, taxes,
furnishings, insurance, sick leave, and paid vacations.
Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs
Overhead or Indirect Costs
• When overhead is allocated based on direct labour hours, it is
often called a burden rate and is used to determine either the
overhead cost COH or a burdened labour rate LRB as, respectively,

Where
b = Labour burden rate (typical range: 0.3 ≤ b ≤ 2)
LR = Labour rate (often expressed in dollars per hour), which, when
converted to an annual basis, is an employee’s gross annual wage
Estimating Direct and Indirect Costs
Hidden Costs

•Hidden costs are those costs that are difficult to quantify.

•Examples for Hidden Costs include:
1. Product’s gain or loss of market share.
2. Company’s stock price changes.
3. Position in the market for future products.
4. Impacts on competitors and their response.
5. Future value of engineering, manufacturing, and support
experience associated with using new technologies or
materials in the current product.
6. Long‐term health, safety, and environmental impacts that may
have to be resolved in the future.
Design and Manufacturing Costs
Manufacturing Costs
• Manufacturing costs form the basis for determining the actual
recurring cost of making a product.
• Manufacturing costs are generally the sum of the costs from
four primary sources:‐

1. Recurring labour costs:‐ Labour costs refer to the cost of the

people required to perform specific activities. The labour cost per
unit associated with an activity performed during manufacturing is
determined from either
or
or
where
NL = Number of people associated with the activity: it can have a
value < 1
T = Length of time taken by the activity
Np = Number of units that can be treated simultaneously by the
activity
Design and Manufacturing Costs
Design and Development Costs
• Design and development costs are referred to as nonrecurring
costs as they are a one‐time charge no matter how many units of
the product are manufactured.
• The specific elements of design and development costs that must
be included are:‐
1. Development of the product specification.
2. Conceptual design.
3. Intellectual property acquisition and protection such as licensing
costs and patent filing costs.
4. Design of the product including the creation of engineering
drawings.
5. Software development.
6. Creation of prototypes.
7. Functional testing.
8. Environmental testing to determine or verify reliability.
9. Product qualification and certification.
Design and Manufacturing Costs
Manufacturing Costs
2. Recurring material costs:‐The cost of the materials associated with
an activity is given by

where
UM = Quantity of the material consumed as indicated by its count,
volume, area, or length
Cm = Unit cost of the material per count, volume, area, or length

3. The allocation of nonrecurring tooling:‐

Tooling costs are nonrecurring costs associated with activities that
occur only once or only a few times.

Examples of tooling costs are programming and calibration costs for

manufacturing equipment, and training of people
Some other examples may be the purchase or manufacture of
product‐specific tools, jigs, stencils, fixtures, masks, etc.
Design and Manufacturing Costs
Manufacturing Costs

4. Capital Costs

Capital costs are the costs of purchasing and maintaining the

manufacturing equipment and facilities. In general, capital costs
associated with an activity are determined from

where
T = Length of time taken by the activity
Np = Number of units that can be treated simultaneously by the
activity
Ce= Purchase price of the capital equipment or facility
Top = Operational time of the equipment or facilities expressed as the
number of hours per year
Td= Depreciation life in years
Ways to model manufacturing costs
Process Flow Model:‐
• Manufacturing processes can be modelled as a sequence of
process steps that take place in a specific order.

• The steps and their order are referred to as a process flow.

• In process flow models, a product unit accrues cost as it moves

through the sequence of process steps.

• Each process step starts with the state of the unit after the
preceding process step.

• The current step then modifies the unit and its output is a new
unit state, which forms the input to the next process step.
Ways to model manufacturing costs
Cost of Ownership (COO) Model:‐
• COO calculates an effective total cost of ownership for each piece
of equipment in the manufacturing process and then charges
each unit a fraction of that cost based on the portion of the
lifetime of the equipment used up by the unit.

Activity Based Cost (ABC) Model:‐

• Activity‐based costing is a method of assigning an organization’s
resource costs through activities to the products and services
provided to its customers.
• Once activities and their associated cost drivers are identified, an
activity rate AR (with units of cost per activity) is determined from
the relation
Ways to model manufacturing costs

where the activity cost pool is the total amount of overhead

required by the activity during some period of time and the activity
base is the number of times the activity was performed on all
products during that period of time.

The total cost of the ith activity for a single product is determined by

where NAi is the number of times the activity must be performed to

manufacture one unit of a product. The product ARi NAi in the above
equation is the overhead allocated to one unit of the product by the
activity.
The sum of CAi over all activities associated with the manufacture of
a product gives the manufacturing cost of one unit of the product.
Ways to model manufacturing costs
Parametric Cost Model:‐
• Parametric cost models form the basis for many top‐down cost
models that seek to establish an estimate of the cost of a product
from high‐level design parameters that define the product’s
performance, functionality, and physical attributes.
• The relationship between design parameters and costs is called a
cost estimating relationship (CER).
Ways to model manufacturing costs
Technical Cost Modeling (TCM):‐
• The process of predicting the primary cost contributions from
the physical parameters associated with a manufacturing
process and product‐specific details is called technical cost
modeling (TCM).

• Technical cost modeling can be used in conjunction with any of

the modeling approaches that have been discussed so far.
Task for students
Thanks
Lecture 19
Designing for Manufacturing

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
Contents

• Design For Manufacturing

• Design review
• Why DFM?
• How to perform DFM?
• Design for manufacturing guidelines.
Design for manufacturing
Definition
• Design for manufacturing (DFM) is a design technique for
manufacturing ease of an assortment of parts that would constitute
the final product after assembly.

• Design for manufacturing focuses on minimizing the complexities

involved in manufacturing operations as well as reducing the overall
part production cost.
Design for manufacturing

Design for manufacturability

Design for Manufacturing is also the process of proactively designing
products to:
1. Optimize all the manufacturing functions:
• fabrication,
• assembly,
• test,
• procurement,
• shipping,
• delivery,
• service, and
• repair,
Design for manufacturing

Design for manufacturability

Design for Manufacturing is also the process of proactively designing
products to:

2. Assure the best

• cost,
• quality,
• reliability,
• regulatory compliance,
• safety,
• time‐to‐market, and
• customer satisfaction.
Design Review
The purpose of a design review is:
• to provide a systematic and thorough product‐process
analysis,
• a formal record of that analysis,
• feedback to the design team for product and process
improvement.

Some commonly associated problems with the implementation of

the design review process are:
• Unevenly matched skills and knowledge among the design
review team.
• Lack of communication between product developers and the
related departments.
• No time to make design‐review‐based changes.
• Lack of design review experience.
• Each department considers design review a separate stage and
not included in the initial design process.
Design Review
Design Review
Soft‐Hard Review:
• The soft‐hard (SH) review addresses the need to design a
product for safety, that is, in terms of the real‐world
conditions.
• The soft reviews look into the careless misuse of products by
users, beyond normal wear and tear.

Failure Mode and Effects Analysis;

• The basic method is to describe the parts of a system and list
the consequences if each part fails.
• In most formal systems, the consequences then are evaluated
by this criteria and associated risk indices:
• severity (S),
• likelihood of occurrence (O) or
• probability of occurrence (P), and
• inability of controls to detect it (D).
Design Review
Experimental Design:

• The objective is to determine those variables in a process or

product that form critical parameters and their target values.
• By using formal experimental techniques, the effect of many
variables can be studied at one time.

There are six basic steps of the same‐

1. Establish the purpose.

2. Identify the variables.
3. Design the experiment.
4. Execute the experiment.
5. Analyse the results.
6. Interpret and communicate the analysis.
Why DFM?

• The DFM methodology allows for new or improved products to be

designed, manufactured and offered to the consumer in a shorter
amount of time.
• DFM helps eliminate multiple revisions and design changes that
cause program delays and increased cost.
• With DFM the design is often more comprehensive, efficient to
produce and meets the customer requirements the first time.
How to Perform DFM?
• Many companies today are integrating the DFM and DFA practices
through design and manufacturing teamwork.
• The Design for Manufacturing (DFM) and Design for Assembly (DFA)
techniques are two different classifications.
• DFM techniques are focused on individual parts and components
with a goal of reducing or eliminating expensive, complex or
unnecessary features which would make them difficult to
manufacture.
• DFA techniques focus on reduction and standardization of parts,
sub‐assemblies and assemblies.
• The goal is reduce the assembly time and cost.
Design for Manufacturing guidelines:

Minimize number of components:

• Assembly costs are reduced.
• The final product is more reliable because there are fewer
connections.
• Disassembly for maintenance and field service is easier.
• Reduced part count usually means automation is easier to
implement.
• Work‐in‐process is reduced, and there are fewer inventory control
problems.
• Fewer parts need to be purchased, which reduces ordering costs.

Use standard commercially available components:

• Design time and effort are reduced.
• Design of custom‐engineered components is avoided.
• There are fewer part numbers. Inventory control is facilitated.
• Quantity discounts may be possible.
Design for Manufacturing guidelines:

Use common parts across product lines:

• There is an opportunity to apply group technology.
• Implementation of manufacturing cells may be possible.
• Quantity discounts may be possible.

Design for ease of part fabrication:

• Net shape and near net shape processes may be feasible.
• Part geometry is simplified, and unnecessary features are avoided.
• Unnecessary surface finish requirements should be avoided;
otherwise, additional processing may be needed.
Design for Manufacturing guidelines:
Design parts with tolerances that are within process capability:
• Tolerances tighter than the process capability should be avoided;
otherwise, additional processing or sortation will be required.
• Bilateral tolerances should be specified.

Design the product to be foolproof during assembly:

• Assembly should be unambiguous.
• Components should be designed so they can be assembled only one
way. Special geometric features must sometimes be added to
components to achieve foolproof assembly.

Minimize use of flexible components:

• Flexible components include parts made of rubber, belts, gaskets,
cables, etc.
• Flexible components are generally more difficult to handle and
assemble.
Task for students
Thanks
Design for Maintenance

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
Contents
• Introduction
• Importance of Design for Maintenance
• Factors Affecting Ease of Maintenance
• Maintenance elements and concepts
• Corrective (Reactive) Maintenance
• Preventive (and Predictive) Maintenance
• Maintenance of a Degrading System
• Total productive maintenance
• Design Review for Maintainability
Design for Maintenance

Introduction:

• When a system fails to perform as required it is said to be repairable

or maintainable, it can be maintained by a suitable methodology, be
it repair, overhaul, or replacement either manually or by an
automated action.
• It is important, therefore, that every effort be to reduce
maintenance requirements for newly introduced systems and
equipment.

Source :http://www.dotcomcreations.biz/website_re-Design_and_maintenance.php
 Maintenance and Planning Scheduling

Source :https://www.lifetime-reliability.com/cms/faqs/maintenance-planning-and-scheduling/faq-designing-a-maintenance-planning-process/
Design for Maintenance

Importance of Designing for Maintenance:

• Maintainability is “the degree of facility with which an equipment or
system is capable of being retained in, or restored to, serviceable
operation.
• It is a function of parts accessibility, interval configuration, use and
repair environment and the time, tools and training required to
effect maintenance.
• The U.S. Department of Defense defines maintainability as “a
characteristic of design and installation which is expressed as the
probability that an item will conform to specified conditions within a
given period of time when maintenance action is performed in
accordance with prescribed procedures and resources” .
Design for Maintenance

Factors Affecting Ease of Maintenance:

• As far as designing equipment for maintenance is concerned, it has

been practiced more as an art than as a science, to the extent that it
has evolved to a greater extent as a result of common sense than by
means of scientific investigation (Oborne, 1981).
• It is worth noting in this context that maintenance perhaps is the
most expensive of all human-machine system activities.
• This is because of the increasing need to perform maintenance
activities and the high and ever increasing cost of human labor.
Design for Maintenance

Factors Affecting Ease of Maintenance:

Source : http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/maintenance-management-of-electrical-equipment-condition-monitoring-based-part-3
Maintenance elements and concepts

Maintenance Elements:
• Maintenance elements describe the maintenance concepts and
requirements for any system.
• This also includes the analysis and verification of customer
requirements.
• The priority selection of each element depends on particular
requirements.
• Maintenance elements have interconnections among them.
Maintenance elements and concepts

Maintenance Concepts:
Corrective (Reactive) Maintenance-
• Corrective maintenance is reactive in nature.
• Every time a product or system fails, repair or restoration must
follow to restore its operability.
• The following steps constitute corrective maintenance:
• Once the failure has been detected, it must be confirmed.
• If the failure is not confirmed, the item generally is returned to
service.
• This no-fault-found problem leads to a considerable waste of time
at significant cost.
Corrective (Reactive) Maintenance-

Reiche (1994)
Corrective (Reactive) Maintenance-
Interrelationship between different maintenance elements

Reiche (1994)
Corrective (Reactive) Maintenance-
Interrelationship between different maintenance elements

Reiche (1994)
Corrective (Reactive) Maintenance-

• The item is prepared for maintenance if the failure is confirmed and

then the failure report is completed.
• Localization and isolation of a failed part in the assembly is the
natural next step in corrective maintenance.
• The failed part is removed for disposal or repair.
• The item may be reassembled, realigned, and adjusted after repair.
It is checked before being put back to use.
Preventive (and Predictive) Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance Predictive Maintenance
Imagine you purchased a new Now imagine, you own a
economy car three months ago. luxury car. Maybe it’s a BMW
To get around, you alternate that is equipped with
between riding a bike, walking,
and driving your new car. So in condition-based service
the three months since you’ve indicators for your engine oil
owned the car, you’ve driven and air filters among other
about 1,000 miles on it. parts. You drive the car six
However, the car’s manual says
to get the oil replaced every months, put around 5,000
three months or 3,000 miles. miles on it, and then an alert
Since it’s been three months, comes on that says you have
you dutifully take your car to 500 miles left before you
the shop for a costly oil change
that is supposed to keep your must change the oil. This is
car running in great condition. an example of predictive
This is an example of preventive maintenance.
maintenance.
How maintenance is triggered?

• Preventive maintenance is triggered by:

• time,
• events, or
• meter readings.

• On the other hand, predictive maintenance is based on:

• the actual condition of the equipment rather than
time or
• age factors.
Preventive (and Predictive) Maintenance

Source :http://www.martechnicltd.com/2014/11/reliability-centered-maintenance/
Preventive (and Predictive) Maintenance
Benefits Limitations
• Full product visibility • Requires Condition
Monitoring equipments
• Cost effective
• Skilled staff is requires
• Predicts when will faliure occur

• Improve product life cycle

• Downtime is only before

catastrophic faliure
Preventive (and Predictive) Maintenance
Benefits Limitations
• Saves energy and resouces • Product wear is not
considered, causing
excessive maintenance in
• Cost effective some cases.

• Efficient productivity • Time is consumed in

scheduling and assigning
• Improve product life cycle tasks

• Reduce unplanned downtime

Maintenance of a Degrading System

• Most systems operate with some sort of degradation occurring

throughout their useful lives.
• A review has to be done periodically to determine what actions
need to be taken to enable the maintenance of such systems.
• To optimize the maintenance schedule, it has been suggested that
the level of degradation be monitored instead of time.
• This approach enables the addition of factors such as maintenance
costs and distribution of degradation.
Aggressive maintenance
• Aggressive maintenance implies a much more aggressive and far
seeking maintenance philosophy than preventive maintenance.

• An aggressive maintenance strategy seeks to improve overall

equipment operation, drawing on the concept of total productive
maintenance (TPM).
Total Productive Maintenance
• Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a system of maintaining and
improving the integrity of production and quality systems through
the
• machines,
• equipment,
• processes, and
• employees
that add business value to an organization.
Total Productive Maintenance
Total Productive Maintenance

Source :https://www.quality-assurance-solutions.com/Total-Productive-Maintenance.html
Design Review for Maintainability

• It is defined as “the quantitative and qualitative examination of a

proposed design to ensure that it is safe and has optimal
performance with respect to maintainability, reliability and
performance variables needed to specify the equipment”
(Thompson, 1999).

• It is useful and necessary to undertake a review at four principal

levels of deign:
• Design specification review, including market need in product
design.
• System review.
• Equipment (functional unit) evaluation.
• Component analysis.
Review of Design Specifications
• The objective of the design specifications review is to make certain
that all parts and specifications are understood at the outset and the
importance of different statements is appreciated.
Structured Design Review Procedure

Thompson, 1999
System Review

• For planning a System Review, a peer reviewer obtains an

understanding of:
• the firm’s accounting and auditing practice, such as the
industries of its clients, and
• the design of the firm’s system, including its policies and
procedures and how the firm checks itself that it is complying
with them.

The reviewer assesses the risk levels implicit within different

aspects of the firm’s practice and its system.
Task for students
Thanks
Design for Environment

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
Contents
 Product Design for Environment
 Three R’s
 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
 Sources of waste
 Waste Reduction
 Implementing a DfE process
Product Design for Environment

 Product Design for the environment is a very contemporary

topic.

 Several researchers all over the world are busy attempting to

design products that minimize the impact on environment.

 The present chapter is an attempt to motivate young research

workers to pursue Green Product Design.
Introduction
 Product Design for the environment is a design approach for
reducing the impact of products on the environment.

 Products can have adverse impact on the environment through

polluting processes and the consumption of large quantities of raw
materials.

 The impact can be adverse also due to the consumption of large

amounts of energy and difficulties during disposal.

 Because of this, one must consider a product’s entire life cycle,

from creation through use through disposal.

 In this life cycle, there are many events of creating pollution and
many opportunities for recycling, remanufacturing, reuse, and
reducing environmental impact.
Stages of Product Life Cycle
1. To meet this challenge, designers must understand the process of
life cycle assessment that adopts a total view by analyzing the
entire life cycle of a product, process, package, material, or
handling activity.

2. Life cycle stages encompass extraction and processing of raw

material manufacturing, transportation, and distribution;
use/reuse/maintenance; recycling and composting; and final
disposition.
Importance of DfE
 Design for the environment is an important activity for a design
team because environmental damage is greatly influenced in the
early design phases.

 80% of the environmental damage of a product is established after

20% of the design activity is complete. The design for environment is
essentially due to three factors:
1. Customer demand
2. Government Pressure
3. ISO Requirements
Importance of DfE
1. Customer demand
 From the business viewpoint, the reason a design team should
choose to complete design for the environment is that modern
customers are now demanding products with least environmental
impact.
 The world’s population is becoming aware of society’s influence;
society is attempting to minimize its impact.
 Creating a product that impacts the environment less becomes a
market advantage.
For Example :
Xerox; Xerox has a commitment to be a waste‐free company; as apart
of its operations and its products, it will generate no waste material that
cannot be recycled or remanufactured (Xerox,2000) Xerox aims at 100%
recyclable product.
 Importance of DfE
2. Government Pressure

 Government agencies also enforce reduced environmental impact

standards for products.
 Such regulatory pressure will only grow with time.
 Many countries now have for products such as packaging computers
and transportation vehicles, complete with required recycling of the
components.
Importance of DfE
3. ISO Requirements

 Standards are also being developed to support design for the

environment as a practice.

 Underlying all of these activities are the market forces that demand
design for the environment as a necessary part of modern product
development.
Environmental Factors
 It is important to understand pollution types, their range of impact,
and what can be done in product development to reduce the impact
of pollution.

 There are many guidelines developed to help industry understand

and deal with its impact on the environment.

 Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies (CERES), as the

CERES Principles establishes objectives and guidelines to help
companies maintain good environmental performance.

 These principles were adopted by the Exxon Corporation (March 24,

1989) and later adopted by hundreds of companies.
Outline of the Objectives :
 Companies will reduce the release of pollutants that endanger the
earth.

 Consistency of use of resources: Companies will use raw materials

at a level where they can be sustained.

 Companies will minimize waste wherever possible. When waste

cannot be avoided, recycling will be adopted.

 Companies will use environmentally safe energy and invest in

energy conservation.

 Companies will minimize health risk to employees and the

community.
Outline of the Objectives :
 Companies will sell products that minimize environmental impact
and are safe for consumers to use.

 Companies will take responsibility through cleanup and

compensation for environmental harm.

 Companies will disclose to employees and the community incidents

that cause environmental harm or pose health and safety hazards.

 At least one member of a company’s board will be qualified to

represent environmental interests, and a senior executive for
environmental affairs will be appointed.
Outline of the Objectives :
 Companies will conduct annual self‐evaluations of progress in
implementing these principles and make results of independent
environmental audits available to the public.

 Pollution can be organized by the scope of their environmental

impact, from global to regional to local impacts.
Scope of Environmental Impact
1. Global Issues

 There are pollution problems which exist on a global scale. These

include concern over climate change, ozone depletion, and
biodiversity loss.

 The concern over climate change is because of the probable

consequences of possible large changes in the earth’s climate due to
increase in greenhouse gases.

 This is due to burning of fossil fuels which increase carbon dioxide

levels in the atmosphere. From the product design point of view,
developing products that use less energy will help mitigate this
problem.
Scope of Environmental Impact
1. Global issues

 Another global pollution concern is the depletion of the ozone layer.

The ozone layer is a thin layer in the upper atmosphere that blocks
ultraviolet radiation from reaching the Earth’s surface.

 Fluorocarbon gases, from our industrial society, may also react with
and reduce the ozone gas in this layer. From a product design
viewpoint, developing products that do not make use of or release
these harmful chemicals, either in use, manufacture, or disposal,
will help to solve this problem.
Scope of Environmental Impact
2. Regional and local issues

 Other environmental problems exist on a more regional level. These

include problems of acid rain, where pollution by products in one
region can cause acid rain in another region.

 Air pollution and smog also are regional problems. Water pollution,
either in the ground water, river, bay, or ocean, is also a regional
problem, often caused by herbicides and pesticides, in addition to
suburban and urban street water run‐off.

 Other contaminants can enter through streams and landfills as

water pollution. Herbicides and pesticides are typical problem
compounds whose amounts introduced to a regional area must be
controlled.
Three R’s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)
 It's the mantra recognizable by its distinct the arrows in the
triangular pattern.

https://www.suntory.com/csr/activity/environment/reduce/resources/recycle/
Three R’s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)
Reduce your waste

 Closely monitor your inventory supply and look for ways to improve
your process.

 Research is key!
 Can you switch to a water based, or less toxic ingredient?
 Can you switch to synthetic oil and extend the time between oil changes
just a bit?

 Buy only what you need so that you do not have to worry about
expired unused chemicals.
Three R’s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)

http://rethinktires.ca/5‐eco‐friendly‐tips‐to‐follow‐to‐reduce‐waste/#sthash.QOkBLWl6.dpbs
Three R’s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)
Reuse what you can

 Again, do your research!

 I read that you can extend the life of buffered hydrogen fluoride (BHF) in
semiconductor manufacturing with ammonia and water evaporated
from the BHF.
 The etch rate can be maintained and the BHF is reused when it was
previously only used once per application. Do your research, there is
information out there that pertains to you.
Three R’s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)
Recycle is the golden child of the three

 There is recycling in the traditional sense, where

you might send your spent oil for fuels blending
and it is recycled as a fuel.
 Or perhaps you send your fluorescent light
ballasts/electronics to a facility where it is
dismantled and the parts are recycled separately.
 However, there are other wastes, that are not
hazardous wastes, that also have the ability to be
recycled.
 I have a client who sells the crushed glass from
flawed products on their line to another
consumer who makes something new out of
their waste. http://www.leegov.com/solidwaste/residential/recycling
Three R’s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)
Recycle is the golden child of the three
• For example,

• One three‐shift soft drink bottling plant can easily generate 20 million
gallons of line lubrication wastewater per year. However, there are
technologies that enable substantial gains in sustainability by reducing
water for lubrication from hundreds of gallons per shift down to mere
ounces.

• A leading producer of biscuits, cookies and crackers implemented a

technology that allowed for less adhesive in sealing packages for multiple
lines of cookies and biscuits, reducing adhesive consumption by 70%. As
result, the company saved 35 barrels of oil, a significant amount of energy
to run the line, and more than 260,000 gallons of water previously used
for traditional package glue.
Life Cycle Analysis
 Regardless of the name, the primary aim of life cycle analysis is to
identify the environmental impact of the materials and resources
used in the manufacture and use of a product.

 This is similar to a procedure that financial managers call sources

and uses . Large publicly traded companies will include a “sources
and uses of funds” statement in their annual reports.

 The resource in this case is money — where it is obtained, its source,

and how it is used to carry out the activities of the business.
Life Cycle Analysis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life‐cycle_assessment
Life Cycle Analysis
 Individuals and institutions that are contemplating lending money to
a startup company look for a sources ‐ and – uses worksheet
because it is an excellent summary of the ‘new venture’ financial
plan. In a similar manner an LCA can be viewed as a sources ‐ and ‐
uses statement.

 Most LCAs include a comprehensive listing of the inputs, the

resources.

 The output defines how effective the facility is in converting these

resources into products while minimizing waste.
Life Cycle Analysis

http://www.franciscoblaha.info/blog/2017/3/10/the‐use‐of‐life‐cycle‐assessment‐lca‐in‐fisheries
Life Cycle Analysis
 Inputs include all raw materials, stocks, and resources that are used
for the creation of the product.

 Resources include energy demands (electricity, gas, oil, coal, etc.)

and water. In some special instances land use might be included.

 While land is not considered a consumable in the creation of a stock

or product, there could be a circumstance that would make the land
unusable for a period of time.

For Example : Strip Mining

Life Cycle Analysis
• The sequence of manufacturing

Source :Improving Profitability Through Green Manufacturing By David R. Hillis And J. Barry Duvall.
Life Cycle Analysis
 This format includes the most common steps in the manufacturing
sequence plus extraction of raw materials and repair or service.

 The outputs of course include the product as well as everything else,

which is defined as waste. The major waste categories are water and
water effluents; airborne emissions; solid waste; and recyclables.

 An item that is often overlooked in the analysis of manufacturing

waste is packaging. This is not the case in LCA.

 A major source of waste in the distribution step of an LCA is single‐

use packaging.

 The LCA, like the manufacturing sequence, addresses material in the

first two steps. On the left side of above Figure these steps are
identified as Stage 1.
Life Cycle Analysis
 In the first two steps of an LCA (extraction of raw materials; creation
of the stock) the industry carries the name of the material being
converted to a stock.
For Example :
when someone says “ the steel industry ” what comes to mind? In
most cases an image of a steel mill will pop up in our mind ’s eye.

 However, when it becomes a coil of cold‐rolled steel it is a stock that

will be used to manufacture a product.

 So, beginning with the third step (Stage 2 in above figure) of the LCA,
the industry name changes from the material name to the product
name.
Life Cycle Analysis
 Steel would be replaced by a product name such as auto or
appliance.

 It is apparent that completing an LCA on just one group of materials

or a single industry such as the appliance industry is a major
undertaking involving hundreds of companies.
 Life Cycle Analysis
 However, it is the approach that the analysis uses that is valuable.
Measuring and quantifying the costs of all the materials and
resources required to create a product is a basic part of
manufacturing.

 Cost accountants have been allocating direct and indirect costs to

specific products and work centers for more than a century.

 An example of a direct cost is the amount of a stock used to create a

product. These direct costs and their proper allocation to a product
are relatively easy to calculate.

 Indirect costs are more difficult to assign. They are expenditures that
are not apparent by examining the bill for materials or the list of
operations used to make the product.
 The classic example of an indirect cost is the person who sweeps the
aisles when a shift is over.
Life Cycle Analysis
A Life cycle analysis model

Source :Improving Profitability Through Green Manufacturing By David R. Hillis And J. Barry Duvall.
 Life Cycle Analysis
 The general approach of the LCA would be useful for building a new
plant.
 It is not difficult to list the activities at each of the seven steps of a
manufacturing sequence for constructing a manufacturing plant.
 You can list the stocks and processes used to construct the building
and the assembly operations to put in the electrical distribution
system, the HVAC, the plumbing, and so on that are needed to
complete the facility.
 Servicing the building and its final disposal can also be handled
effectively.

 Therefore, the LCA is an excellent technique for assisting

management in costing and designing an environmentally effective
manufacturing facility.
Potential for Waste and Value Added
 Each of the seven major activities in the manufacturing sequence
offers manufacturers opportunities for creating value and waste.

 Table below lists these opportunities along with their potential for
creating waste. This potential will vary for each of the seven steps.

 For instance, an assembly operation may generate some waste but

generally the environmental impact will be minimal.

 However, in some of the other steps the waste and environmental

costs can be quite high. As an example for the extraction of raw
materials a large part of all waste will be environmental costs.
Potential for Waste and Value Added
Potential for creating waste compared with the value‐added potential

Source :Improving Profitability Through Green Manufacturing By David R. Hillis And J. Barry Duvall.
Potential for Waste and Value Added
True or not, he eventually concluded that effective large‐volume
manufacturing has four principles:

1. The product uses interchangeable parts; no custom fitting or

modifications should be required.

2. The product moves to each workstation at a predetermined rate;

this was the introduction of continuous flow manufacturing.

3. The work to manufacture the product should be broken into a

sequence of simple easy‐to‐learn tasks.

4. Reducing or eliminating waste of all kinds is an ongoing effort.

Waste and its unexpected sources
 Too often companies feel that the most effective way to differentiate
their product and maintain sales levels is through price, specifically
price reduction.

 After the price is reduced the company then looks for ways to
reduce its manufacturing costs so that it can remain or once again
become profitable.

 Too often organizations try to reduce cost by taking away value from
the product. That is wrong.
 Reducing value by eliminating features, service life, or functionality
is placing the burden of cost reduction on the customer when it
should be the organization’s responsibility.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The First Source of Waste

 The first major source of waste originates in the way the company
makes its products.
 Much waste is due to the product design and the manufacturing
processes used in the plant.

 Certainly the type of materials a company uses, which is a function

of the product design, will dictate the plant design and the
processes.

 Each material and the associated manufacturing processes have

their own set of waste parameters that defines the facility.

 But some of the waste occurs due to the organization of the facility
and the operation norms that have been established.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The First Source of Waste

The following are examples of items that would contribute to this

source of waste:

 Resources . The fuels needed to operate the processes machines,

and equipment used in the manufacturing sequence. This would
also include plant and office heating, lighting, and air conditioning.

 Water . This also includes the associated costs of sanitary and storm
sewer services.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The First Source of Waste

 Supplies . The secondary materials that are required to complete a

manufacturing operation or process but do not become part of the
product. An example might be cutting tool coolant/lubricant, towels,
cleaners, copy paper, etcetera. These are waste materials that are “
accepted ” as being part of the manufacturing operation or process.

 Wages paid . Payment to individuals and to contractors or suppliers

who do not add value to the product. This is one of the most difficult
categories to control.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The Second Source of Waste

 The second source of waste comes directly from manufacturing

operations.
 This source has received the most attention since factories were
established to produce products.

 Over the past few decades the people involved in controlling this
source of waste now include manufacturing operations and
engineering; human resources; and training and development.

 There are a lot of names and acronyms for programs, techniques,

and tactics used to reduce waste in manufacturing.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The Second Source of Waste

 The concept of lean manufacturing has become the most

comprehensive approach for waste reduction now being employed.

 In general a lean manufacturing program works to reduce eight

types of waste: A starting point for reducing waste is to conduct a “
check ‐ up ” not unlike the way a physician conducts an annual
physical.

 There are tests to be conducted and information to be gathered

along with a physical examination.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The Second Source of Waste
 The manufacturing facility has to be examined in a similar manner. A
helpful approach is to use a checklist for developing a diagnosis —
an assessment of the problems from the eight sources of waste:

1. Waste from Overproduction : More products are produced than

required by the customer.

2. Waste from Transportation . There may be excessive movement of

the product or its components during the production process.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The Second Source of Waste

2. Waste of Motion . Waste of motion occurs when the operator has

to look for tools or information, to make adjustments o repairs, to
free jams, or to fill out incentive tickets or routing sheets.

4. Waiting . Time may be wasted, for example, waiting for setup to be

completed, materials to arrive, or equipment to be repaired.

5. Work‐in‐process . Work ‐ in ‐ process (WIP) includes all stocks,

components, and subassemblies in the manufacturing system.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The Second Source of Waste

6. Handling . After manufacturing the handling of the finished

product is done and it also becomes the source of waste when it
takes more space and time.

7. Defects . This includes spoiled or rejected parts, subassemblies,

finished goods, returns, warranty work, and product recalls.

8. Scrap . Material stocks are turned into scrap because of the

product design or manufacturing process. Examples include paint
overspray, punchings, trimmings, and end‐of‐reel fragments.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The Third Source of Waste

 The third major source of waste is the materials and activities that
are part of the value ‐ added operations and processes used to
manufacture the product.

 To minimize this source of waste requires the designers of the

product and the manufacturing engineers and technicians to
optimize the materials and processes needed to produce a product.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The Third Source of Waste

 This source of waste is controlled by three groups of people.

1. The first group specifies the product’s characteristics and
function .
2. The second group uses this specification to design the
product and works with
3. The third group to specify how it will be manufactured.

 These three groups (functions) of people involved in this activity are

the following: marketing; product design and engineering; and
manufacturing engineering and operations.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The Third Source of Waste

 They are the ones who will select the materials and processes used
to manufacture the product.

 A basic precept in design states that the selection of a material

defines the manufacturing processes that will convert the material
stocks into a product.

 Therefore for a new product the reduction of waste and emissions

begins with material selection.

 Of course someone will be quick to point out that there are several
manufacturing processes that can perform a specific operation for a
given material.
Waste and its unexpected sources
The Third Source of Waste

 For example, suppose the product design requires that a metal

plate must be cut in half. The basic process is called separating .

 There are several ways to carry out this process but we’ll consider
just three ways; sawing, shearing, and flame cutting.

 Of these three, shearing would probably result in virtually no

material waste, minimal energy use, and no primary emissions.
Waste and its unexpected sources
A new product, first phase for waste reduction

 For a new product the first phase of waste reduction involves

marketing, product engineering, and manufacturing engineering to
make these decisions.

 The below figure shows the groups involved and the inputs guiding
their decision making. These inputs, some might call them
constraints, form the criteria that shape the design.

 How well each group responds to these inputs in defining the

product, materials, and processes will determine the potential for
waste and its associated costs.
Waste and its unexpected sources
A new product, first phase for waste reduction

 Consequently it is critical that they recognize the sources of waste

and examine alternative designs that meet the customer’s
requirements.

 The objective is to create a design that can be produced profitably

and be environmentally compliant.
Waste Reduction
The functions and inputs responsible for the design and production
of a profitable and compliant product.

Source :Improving Profitability Through Green Manufacturing By David R. Hillis And J. Barry Duvall.
 Waste Reduction
A new product, first phase for waste reduction

 A manufacturer that has a product design function (note that many

manufacturers do not design the products they make) has to
maintain an engineering database that reflects the current state‐of‐
the‐art in materials and process technology.

 The point being that government regulations are continually

impacting material stocks and the way they can be processed or
used.

For example:
lead ‐ based paints are no longer included in the engineering database for
a furniture manufacturer.
Waste Reduction
Existing products, second phase for waste reduction

 The organizational functions taking the lead in developing the

strategy will change from design engineering to production and
manufacturing engineering and from marketing to human resources
and training.

 Below figure shows the groups responsible for this stage of

manufacturing, producing an established design profitably and in
compliance.
Waste Reduction
The groups involved in reducing waste in an established product design.

Source :Improving Profitability Through Green Manufacturing By David R. Hillis And J. Barry Duvall.
Waste Reduction
Existing products, second phase for waste reduction

 These are the people that will take on the responsibility for reducing
waste and ensuring that the manufacturing facility is in compliance.

 If you think about it, this second phase of waste reduction seems to
capture more attention because more often product designs tend to
be taken as a given.

 This is true in part because underwriter certifications, life testing,

and other forms of product performance qualifications make it more
difficult to obtain significant changes in an existing product design.

 However, there is more latitude in changing processes and

operations than there is in changing a stock.
Waste Reduction
Existing products, second phase for waste reduction

 But these changes should be done in coordination with the product

design group.

 Nonetheless there are plenty of opportunities for waste reduction at

this second stage.

 The point is the strategy for environmental compliance should not

be limited to abatement, permitting, and lawful waste disposal.
Regeneration

 Organizational fat can be detected by observing how an organization

handles problems. When a major problem arises does management
handle it by creating a new department or group to deal with it?

 If this is management’s approach it makes the problem an ongoing

fixed cost causing the organization to swell in size with these
specialty groups.

 Problem solving is a basic function of line management not

specialty staffs. Management must clear away its organizational
structure as it should clear away out‐of‐date equipment and stocks.
Regeneration
 Ideally a plant should be operated in the same way as a convention
center or theater for the performing arts.

 That means it is set up for the event that is currently running but can
be quickly changed over to handle a new event that is totally
different.

 Each event will (it must) use profitable and environmentally

compliant manufacturing processes. Unfortunately most plants are
fixed hard ‐ wired facilities.

 These facilities have so much inertia that it is nearly impossible to

make meaningful improvements quickly or efficiently.
Regeneration
 One of the first objections from managers when asked why they are
not adopting a more effective method for producing their product is
cost.

 They explain the ‘price tag’ for new equipment and processes makes
it prohibitive and they can’t afford or don’t have the money to
invest. This argument misses the point.

 First of all buying new equipment and trying to squeeze it into some
corner of a packed manufacturing floor is not the solution.

 The first step is not buying new equipment but getting rid of the
waste in the system.
Regeneration
 comprehensive waste reduction program makes money that later on
can be used to update processes or purchase new equipment and
locate it where it should be, not where it can be squeezed in.

 One starting point for regeneration is adopting the concepts and

techniques that are known as lean manufacturing.

 Each of the three sources of waste provides a starting point and the
reasons for adopting the values of lean manufacturing
Life Cycle of Manufacturing Facility
 Life cycle is actually another term for a life span. If you drive around
the outskirts of any large city in the Midwest or Northeast one can
see the sad sight of huge crumbling factories.

 But it ’s not limited to just these areas of the country; during every
economic downturn there are factory buildings old and new that go
vacant.

 It is part of the life cycle of manufacturing. Unless an organization is

committed to regeneration it will cease to exist.

 Buildings like people have a finite working life. Companies and

organizations are no different unless they become adept at
regenerating themselves.
Life Cycle of Manufacturing Facility
 One plant manager explained that a company should never own a
building because it is a constraint to its ability to regenerate itself.

For Example :
An apt analogy was the experience of a couple that owned a house
that they had lived in for 20 years. An excellent business opportunity
became available for them in a town 45 miles away. They took
advantage of the opportunity but decided to commute each day
instead of moving to the new location. So putting social and family ties
aside, the transportation costs and the time spent commuting to avoid
relocating became waste caused by the inertia of property ownership.
Implementing a DfE Process
 The environmental reviews will require design teams to review the
checklist of key requirements and to consider guidelines for
reducing environmental impact.

 When the DfE process is first implemented, design teams will have
to fill out the environmental scorecard after the product design is
complete.

 Doing this begins the process of recording environmental data and

allows design teams to adapt gradually to the new process.
Implementing a DfE Process
 The lessons‐learned summary will provide the innovation
statement metric.

 Below figure shows the Safety Review Process and Environmental

Review Process running in parallel.

 The following sections discuss the aforementioned environmental

activities in more detail.

 Note that, throughout this process, many other product‐

development activities are occurring, causing changes to the
product design.
Implementing a DfE Process
Combined safety and environmental review process.

Source : Design For Environment (DfE): Strategies, Practices, Guidelines, Methods, And Tools By Daniel P. Fitzgerald
Product initiation document
 The product initiation document is a document that Black & Decker
uses to benchmark competitors, define performance targets, and
predict profitability and market share.

 Product initiation document will also address environmental

regulations and trends and opportunities to create environmental
advantage.

 Targets for environmental improvement will also be included.

Initial environmental review
 The first environmental review is coupled with a safety review.

 During this meeting, the design team should discuss current

environmental regulations, design guidelines, and environmental
metrics.

 A list of regulations and design guidelines can be found in the

guidelines and checklist document.
Initial environmental review
 The environmental metrics are located in the environmental
scorecard. Old lessons learned documents from similar products
will be reviewed during this meeting to facilitate environmental
design ideas.

 The result of the meeting is an initial assessment plan that

includes the tests to be conducted and the analysis to be
performed. The reliability representative will write the assessment
plan.

 A list of brainstormed ideas for environmental improvement and

any other minutes will be included in the assessment plan.
Conceptual design environmental review

 The second environmental review is held separately from the

safety hazard review.

 During this meeting, the project team will check compliance

regulations, fill in the guidelines and checklist document, discuss
the metrics in the scorecard, and review opportunities and
additional environmental issues.

 The result of this meeting is an updated guidelines and checklist

document and meeting minutes. The reliability representative will
update the guidelines and checklist document and write the
minutes.

 The lead engineer will update the scorecard for the next meeting.
Detailed design environmental review
 The third environmental review is coupled with a safety review.
During this meeting, the project team should ensure that all
environmental compliance issues are resolved.

 There should be no further changes to the design due to

environmental reasons after this meeting.

 The result of the meeting is an updated guidelines and checklist

document and meeting minutes.

 The reliability representative will update the guidelines and

checklist document and write the minutes.

 The lead engineer will update the scorecard for the next meeting.
Final environmental review
 The fourth and final environmental review is coupled with a safety
review.

 During this meeting, all environmental compliance issues must be

resolved.

 Optimally, no design changes due to environmental reasons would

have been made between the last meeting and this meeting. The
result of the meeting is a final guidelines and checklist document
and meeting minutes.

 The reliability representative will finalize the guidelines and

checklist document and write the minutes.

 The lead engineer will finalize the scorecard and create a Material
Declaration Statement (MDS) packet for the product.
Postlaunch review
 Include a lessons‐learned summary in their product development
process.

 This document discusses

 what went well with the project,
 what didn’t go well with the project, and
 reasons why the product didn’t meet targets set in the trigger
document.

 The lessons‐learned summary will include environmental design

innovations realized during the product development process for
publicity and customer questionnaires.

 An example of an item to be included in the lessons learned

summary is a materials selection decision.
Feedback loop
 The completed guidelines and checklist documents and lessons‐
learned summaries create a feedback loop for the DfE process.

 Design engineers working on similar products can use this

information to make better decisions immediately.

 The information is also valuable when the next generation of the

product is designed years down the road.

 Design engineers will record what environmental decisions were

made and why they were made.
Feedback loop

 The decision information, scorecards, and comments on the

guideline document will be archived permanently.

 The goal is to save the right things so the information is there in

the future when more feedback activities, such as a product tear‐
down to verify scorecard metrics, can be introduced.
To recapitulate:

1. Why product Design for environment is necessary?

2. What are the stages and importance of design for environment?

3. Which issues comes under the scope of environment?

4. What is the manufacturing sequence in life cycle analysis?

5. What are the main three sources of waste?

6. How to implement a DfE process?

7. What is post‐launch review, and feedback loop for DfE?

Task for students
Thanks
Lecture 21
Quality Control

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Introduction
 Statistical Process Control
 Design of Experiments
 Acceptance Sampling
Introduction
• Quality has become one of the most important consumer
decision factors in the selection among competing products and
services.
• The Quality of a product can be decided by looking forward
towards the following factors related to the product:
1. Performance (will the product‐do the intended job?)
2. Reliability (how often does the product fail?)
3. Durability (how long does the product last?)
4. Serviceability (how easy is it to repair the product?)
5. Aesthetics (what does the product look like?)
6. Features (what does the product do?)
7. Perceived Quality (what is the reputation of the company or
its product?)
8. Conformance to Standards (is the product made exactly as
the designer intended?)
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and
Improvement
In this method we will focus on three major areas:‐

1. Statistical Process Control

2. Design of Experiments

3. Acceptance Sampling
Statistical process control
• Statistical process control (SPC) is a powerful collection of
problem‐solving tools useful in achieving process stability and
improving capability through the reduction of variability.
• The seven major tools of SPC are
1. Histogram or stem‐and‐leaf plot
2. Check sheet
3. Pareto chart
4. Cause‐and‐effect diagram
5. Defect concentration diagram
6. Scatter diagram
7. Control chart
 Statistical process control
Chance And Assignable Causes Of Quality Variation
• In any production process, a certain amount of inherent or
natural‐variability will always exist.

• This natural variability is the cumulative effect of many small,

essentially unavoidable causes.

• Other type of variability may occasionally present in the

output of a process.
Statistical process control

Control Charts

• A control chart is one of the primary techniques of statistical

process control.

• These type of charts plots the averages of measurements of a

quality characteristic in samples taken from the process versus
time (or the sample number).

• Control Chart is a very useful ‘process monitoring technique’.

• Whenever unusual sources of variability are present, sample

averages will plot outside the control limits.
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Basic Principles

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Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Basic Principles
• The control chart is a graphical display of a quality characteristic
that has been measured or computed from a sample versus the
sample number or time.
• The chart contains a centre line that represents the average
value of the quality characteristic corresponding to the in‐
control state.
• Two other horizontal lines, called the upper control limit (UCL)
and the lower control limit (LCL), are also shown on the chart.
• These control limits are chosen so that if the process is in
control, nearly all of the sample points will fall between them.
• As long as the points plot within the control limits, the process
is assumed to be in control, and no action is necessary.
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
• We may give a general model for a control chart.
• Let w be a sample statistic that measures some quality
characteristic of interest, and suppose that the mean of w is µw
and the standard deviation of w is σw. Then the centre line, the
upper control limit, and the lower control limit become

• where L is the “distance” of the control limits from the centre

line, expressed in standard deviation units.
 Statistical Basis of the Control Chart

• The control chart is a device for describing in a precise manner

exactly what is meant by statistical control; as such, it may be used
in a variety of ways.
• In many applications, it is used for on‐line process monitoring or
surveillance.
• The most important use of a control chart is to improve the process.
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart

A lot, 2017
 Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
• A very important part of the corrective action process associated with
control chart usage is the out‐of‐control‐action plan (OCAP).

• An OCAP is a flowchart or text‐based description of the sequence of

activities that must take place following the occurrence of an
activating event.

Control charts are widely used for the following reasons:

1. Control charts are a proven technique for improving productivity

2. Control charts are effective in defect prevention
3. Control charts prevent unnecessary process adjustment
4. Control charts provide diagnostic information
5. Control charts provide information about process capability
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Sample Size and Sampling Frequency

• In designing a control chart, we must specify both the sample

size and the frequency of sampling.
• We can evaluate the decisions regarding sample size and
sampling frequency is through the average run length (ARL) of
the control chart.
• If the process observations are uncorrelated, then for any
Shewhart control chart, the ARL can be calculated easily from

• where p is the probability that any point exceeds the control

limits.
• This equation can be used to evaluate the performance of the
control chart.
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Sample Size and Sampling Frequency

• It is also occasionally convenient to express the performance

of the control chart in terms of its average time to signal (ATS).
• If samples are taken at fixed intervals of time that are h hours
apart, then
 Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Phase I and Phase II of Control Chart Application
• Standard control chart usage involves phase I and phase II
applications, with two different and distinct objectives.

• In phase I, a set of process data is gathered and analysed all at once

in a retrospective analysis,
• constructing trial control limits to determine if the process has
been in control over the period of time during which the data
were collected, and
• to see if reliable control limits can be established to monitor
future production.
• Control charts in phase I primarily assist operating personnel in
bringing the process into a state of statistical control.
 Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Phase I and Phase II of Control Chart Application

• Phase II begins after we have a “clean” set of process data gathered

under stable conditions and representative of in‐control process
performance. In phase II, we use the control chart to monitor the
process by comparing the sample statistic for each successive
sample as it is drawn from the process to the control limits.
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart
Applications of Statistical Process Control and Quality
Improvement Tools in Transactional and Service Businesses

• Flowcharts, operation process charts, and value stream

mapping are particularly useful in developing process
definition and process understanding.
• A flowchart is simply a chronological sequence of process steps
or work flow. Sometimes flowcharting is called process
mapping.
• Flowcharts or process maps must be constructed in sufficient
detail to identify value‐added versus non‐value‐added work
activity in the process
Statistical Basis of the Control Chart

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Statistical Methods For Quality Control and
Improvement
Statistical Process Control
Control chart for variables are used to monitor characteristics
that can be measured, e.g. length, weight, diameter, time, etc.

Control charts for attributes are used to monitor characteristics

that have discrete values and can be counted, e.g. % defective,
number of defects in a mobile phone, number of broken eggs in
a box, etc.
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and
Improvement
Statistical Process Control

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Control Charts for Variables
Xbar and R charts

• X (UCLx) = Xbar + A2*R

• X (LCLx) = Xbar ‐ A2*R
Where A2 can be found from a standard table.

• R (UCLR) = D4*R
• R (LCLR) = D3*R
Where D4 and D3 can be found from a standard table.
Control Charts for Variables
Xbar and R charts

• To interpret the data we first look at the R chart.

• The R chart represents the variety in the data and if the

variety is to great than there is no need to look at the X
control chart.

• The chart is out of control if one or a combination of the

following four examples occur:
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and
Improvement
Xbar and R charts

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Control Charts for Attributes
p‐charts:

• for quality characteristics that are discrete and involve

yes/no or good/bad decisions

• Percent of leaking caulking tubes in a box of 48

• Percent of broken eggs in a carton

c‐charts:
• for discrete defects when there can be more than one
defect per unit

• Number of flaws or stains in a carpet sample cut from a

production run
• Number of complaints per customer at a hotel
Control Charts for Attributes

Attributes Control Charts:

• counts [c‐chart]
• when sample size are not constant and/or are unknown, use counts
charts [c‐charts]

# of defects
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and
Improvement
Statistical Process Control

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Control Charts for Attributes

Attributes Control Charts:

• proportion [p‐charts]

UCL  p  z σ p 
LCL  p  z σ p 

p(1-p)
σp=
n
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and
Improvement
Statistical Process Control

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Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
• A nonconforming item is a unit of product that does not satisfy
one or more of the specifications for that product.
• Each specific point at which a specification is not satisfied results
in a defect or nonconformity.
• Consequently, a nonconforming item will contain at least one
nonconformity.
• As an example, suppose we are manufacturing personal
computers. Each unit could have one or more very minor flaws
in the cabinet finish, and since these flaws do not seriously
affect the unit’s functional operation, it could be classified as
conforming.
• It is possible to develop control charts for either the total
number of nonconformities in a unit or the average number of
nonconformities per unit.
Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
Further Analysis of Nonconformities

• Defect or nonconformity data are always more informative than

fraction nonconforming, because there will usually be several
different types of nonconformities.
• By analysing the nonconformities by type, we can often gain
considerable insight into their cause.
• This can be of considerable assistance in developing the out‐of‐
control‐action plans (OCAPs) that must accompany control
charts.
• Another useful technique for further analysis of nonconformities
is the cause‐and effect diagram.
Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
The u Chart

• The second approach involves setting up a control chart based

on the average number of nonconformities per inspection
unit.
• If we find x total nonconformities in a sample of n inspection
units, then the average number of nonconformities per
inspection unit is

‫ݔ‬
‫ݑ‬ൌ
݊

Note the x is a Poisson random variable.

Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
The u Chart

• Consequently, the parameters of the control chart for the

average number of nonconformities per unit are as follows

• Where u̅ represents the observed average number of

nonconformities per unit in a preliminary set of data.
• This per‐unit chart often is called the control chart for
nonconformities, or u chart.
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and
Improvement
Statistical Process Control

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Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
Choice Between Attributes and Variables Control Charts
• Attributes control charts have the advantage that several quality
characteristics can be considered jointly and the unit classified
as nonconforming if it fails to meet the specification on any one
characteristic.
• On the other hand, if the several quality characteristics are
treated as variables, then each one must be measured, and
either a separate and R chart must be maintained on each or
some multivariate control technique that considers all the
characteristics must simultaneously be employed.
• There is an obvious simplicity associated with the attributes
chart in this case.
• Furthermore, expensive and time‐consuming measurements
may sometimes be avoided by attributes inspection.
Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
Choice Between Attributes and Variables Control Charts
• Variables control charts, in contrast, provide much more useful
information about process performance than do attributes control
charts.
• Specific information about the process mean and variability is
obtained directly. In addition, when points plot out of control on
variables control charts, usually much more information is
provided relative to the potential cause of that out‐of‐control
signal.
• For a process capability study, variables control charts are almost
always preferable to attributes control charts.
• The exceptions to this are studies relative to nonconformities
produced by machines or operators in which there are a very
limited number of sources of nonconformities, or studies directly
concerned with process yields and fallouts.
Control Charts for Nonconformities
(Defects)
Guidelines for Implementing Control Charts

1. Determining which process characteristics to control

2. Determining where the charts should be implemented in the
process
3. Choosing the proper type of control charts
4. Taking actions to improve processes as the result of SPC/control
chart analysis
5. Selecting data‐collection systems and computer software
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and
Improvement
Design of Experiments

• It is extremely helpful in discovering the key variables

influencing the quality characteristics of interests in the
process.

• It is an approach to systematically varying the controllable input

factors in the process the effect these factors have on the
output product parameters.

• The major type of designed experiment is the factorial design.

• In the factorial design, factors are varied together in such a way

that all possible combinations of factor levels are tested.
Statistical Methods For Quality Control and
Improvement
Acceptance Sampling

• Acceptance Sampling is connected with inspection and testing

of product.

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Task for students
Thanks
Quality Assurance

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Introduction
 Process Capability
 Process Capability Analysis Using a Control Chart
 Process Capability Analysis Using Design of Experiments
 Engineering Process Control (EPC) and SPC
 Process Monitoring and Process Regulation
 Process Control by Feedback Adjustment
 Combining SPC and EPC
Introduction
• Statistical techniques can be helpful throughout the product
cycle, including development activities prior to manufacturing:

• in quantifying process variability,

• in analysing this variability relative to product requirements
or specifications, and
• in assisting development and manufacturing in eliminating or
greatly reducing this variability.

• This general activity is called process capability analysis.

Process Capability
• Process capability refers to the uniformity of the process.
• The variability of critical-to-quality characteristics in the process is
a measure of the uniformity of output.

There are two ways to think of this variability:

1. The natural or inherent variability in a critical-to-quality
characteristic at a specified time—that is, “instantaneous”
variability
2. The variability in a critical-to-quality characteristic over time
Process Capability Ratios
Use and Interpretation of Cp

• where USL and LSL are the upper and lower specification limits,
respectively.
Process Capability Ratios
Process Capability Ratio for an Off-Centre Process

• The process capability ratio Cp does not take into account

where the process mean is located relative to the
specifications.
• Cp simply measures the spread of the specifications relative to
the Six Sigma spread in the process.

• This situation may be more accurately reflected by defining a

new process capability ratio (PCR)—Cpk—that takes process
centering into account.
Process Capability Ratios
Normality and the Process Capability Ratio

• An important assumption underlying our discussion of process

capability and the ratios Cp and Cpk is that their usual
interpretation is based on a normal distribution of process
output.

• If the underlying distribution is non-normal, then, the

statements about expected process fallout attributed to a
particular value of Cp or Cpk may be in error.

• One approach to dealing with this situation is to transform the

data so that in the new, transformed metric the data have a
normal distribution appearance.
Process Capability Ratios
Normality and the Process Capability Ratio

• Other approaches have been considered in dealing with non-

normal data.

• There have been various attempts to extend the definitions of

the standard capability indices to the case of non-normal
distributions.

• Luceño (1996) introduced the index Cpc , defined as

• where the process target value

Process Capability Analysis Using a Control Chart
• Histograms, probability plots, and process capability ratios
summarize the performance of the process.
• They do not necessarily display the potential capability of the
process because they do not:
• address the issue of statistical control, or
• show systematic patterns in process output that, if
eliminated, would reduce the variability in the quality
characteristic.
Process Capability Analysis Using a Control Chart

• Control charts are very effective in this regard.

• The control chart should be regarded as the primary
technique of process capability analysis.
• Both attributes and variables control charts can be used in
process capability analysis.
• The and R charts should be used whenever possible, because
of the greater power and better information they provide
relative to attributes charts.
• However, both p charts and c (or u) charts are useful in
analysing process capability.
Process Capability Analysis Using DoE

• A designed experiment is a systematic approach to varying the

input controllable variables in the process and analysing the
effects of these process variables on the output.

• Designed experiments are also useful in discovering:

• which set of process variables is influential on the output,
and
• at what levels these variables should be held to optimize
process performance.

• One of the major uses of designed experiments is in isolating and

estimating the sources of variability in a process.
Engineering Process Control (EPC) and SPC
• There are two statistically based approaches for addressing this
problem:

• The first of these is statistical process monitoring by control

charts, or statistical process control (SPC).
• The focus of SPC is on identifying assignable causes so that
they can be removed, thereby leading to permanent process
improvement or reduction in variability.

• The second approach is based on adjusting the process using

information about its current level or deviation from a desired
target.
• This approach is often called feedback adjustment, and it is a
form of Engineering Process Control or EPC.

• Feedback adjustment regulates the process to account for sources

of variability that cannot be removed by the SPC approach.
Engineering Process Control (EPC) and SPC
• Engineering Process Control (EPC) is a process compensation or
regulation schemes are widely known as stochastic control, or
feedback or feedforward control, depending on the nature of the
adjustments.

• This approach is based on process compensation and regulation, in

which some manipulatable process variable is adjusted with the
objective of keeping the process output on target (or equivalently,
minimizing the variability of the output around this target).

• SPC has had a long history of successful use in discrete parts

manufacturing.
• EPC is used in continuous processes, such as those found in the
chemical and process industries to reduce variability.
Process Control by Feedback Adjustment
A Simple Adjustment Scheme: Integral Control
• In this we consider a simple situation involving a process in
which feedback adjustment is appropriate and highly
effective.
• The process output characteristic of interest at time period t
is yt, and we wish to keep yt as close as possible to a target T.
This process has a manipulatable
• variable x, and a change in x will produce all of its effect on y
within one period—that is,

• where g is a constant usually called the process gain. The

gain is like a regression coefficient, in that it relates the
magnitude of a change in xt to a change in yt.
• Now, if no adjustment is made, the process drifts away from
the target according to

• where Nt + 1 is a disturbance.
Process Control by Feedback Adjustment
The Adjustment Chart

• When EPC or feedback adjustment is implemented in this

manner, it is often called automatic process control (APC).
• In many processes, feedback adjustments can be made
manually.
• Operating personnel routinely observe the current output
deviation from target, compute the amount of adjustment to
apply, and then bring xt in the following equation to its new
set point.
 Combining SPC and EPC
• There is considerable confusion about process adjustment versus
process monitoring.
• Process adjustment or regulation has an important role in reduction of
variability.
• There are many processes where some type of feedback-control
scheme would be preferable to a control chart.
• In processes where feedback control is used there may be substantial
improvement if control charts are also used for statistical process
monitoring (as opposed to control; the control actions are based on the
engineering scheme).
 Combining SPC and EPC

• The control chart should be applied either

• to the control error (the difference between the controlled
variable and the target) or
• to the sequence of adjustments to the manipulated
variable. Combinations of these two basic approaches are
also possible.

• Points that lie outside the control limits on these charts would
identify periods during which the control errors are large or
during which large changes to the manipulated variable are
being made.

• These periods would likely be good opportunities to search for

assignable causes.
Task for students
Thanks
Lecture 22
Patent (part 1 of 2)

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Creativity Vs Innovation
 Copyright
 Types of Patent
 Patent procedure
 Specification of patent
Creativity vs innovation
Creativity:
• Creativity is the characteristic of a person to generate new ideas, think
of alternatives, unique solutions, and possibilities in a unique and
different way.
• Creativity is the ability to conceive something unpredictable, original
and unique.
• It must be expressive, exciting and imaginative. It is the ability of a
person to think and generate better ideas in any given circumstance.
• It is not genetic but can be developed if someone keeps on learning and
comprehending things.
• Creativity is a brainstorming and mind‐blogging activity in which a
person must think beyond his imagination for bringing something
worthwhile.
• In creativity no risk is involved, and no huge investment needed. It is an
activity of unveiling something which was previously hidden.
Creativity vs innovation
Innovation:
• Innovation is application and practical based process of new
ideas to creates some value for the business organization,
government, and society as well. Innovation could be the
introduction of:
1. New technology.
2. New product line or segment.
3. A new method of production.
4. An improvement in the existing product.
• Innovation is closely tied to creativity i.e. putting creative ideas
into action is an innovation, initial investment is high in
innovation.
• It is the process of doing something new and better for the first
time, which was not previously done by any organisation or
person.
• In innovation risk is involved and it generates value.
• It can also be termed as a change which can bring a new edge to
the performance and productivity of the company.
 Definition of 'copyright

• Copyright refers to the legal right of the owner of intellectual property. In

simpler terms, copyright is the right to copy.
• This means that the original creator of a product and anyone he gives
authorization to are the only ones with the exclusive right to reproduce
the work.
• Copyright law gives creators of original material, the exclusive right to
further develop them for a given amount of time, at which point the
copyrighted item becomes public domain.
 What is Protected by 'Copyright’?

• When someone creates a product that is viewed as original and that

required significant mental activity to create, this product becomes
intellectual property that must be protected from unauthorized
duplication.
• Examples of unique creations include computer software, art,
poetry, graphic designs, musical lyrics and compositions, novels,
film, original architectural designs, website content, etc.

• One safeguard that can be used to protect an original creation is

copyright.
 Types of 'Copyright’?
Public Performing Right:
• The exclusive right of the copyright owner, granted by the U.S.
Copyright Law, to authorize the performance or transmission of the
work in public.

Public Performance License:

• BMI issues licenses on behalf of the copyright owner or his agent
granting the right to perform the work in, or transmit the work to, the
public.

Reproduction Right:
• The exclusive right of the copyright owner, granted by the Copyright
Act, to authorize the reproduction of a musical work as in a record,
cassette or CD.
.
 Types of 'Copyright’?
Mechanical License:
• These are the licences on behalf of the copyright owner or his agent,
usually to a record company, granting the record company the right
to reproduce and distribute a specific composition at an agreed
upon fee per unit manufactured and sold.

Synchronization License:
• Music Publishers issue licenses as copyright owner or his agent,
usually to a producer, granting the right to synchronize the musical
composition in timed relation with audio‐visual images on film or
videotape.
 Types of patents
There are three types of Patents granted:

Utility Patent:
• This is the most important type of patent it is granted on the functional
aspect of the invention.
• This type of patent is most sought after and requires a lot of skill in drafting of
the application and prosecuting it before a Patent Office.
• The functional utility of the invention is protected.

Design Patent:
• This type of patent is granted to the ornamental or external appearance of
the invention.
• If a design is of functional necessity, then it cannot be registered for design
patent.
• For example the aerodynamic shape of a plane cannot be registered as design
patent, as the shape is very important for the smooth functioning of the
invention itself.

Plant Patent:
• This type of Patent is granted for plant variety made through asexual
reproduction of plant varieties.
 Specifications of a patent
A Patent generally contains the following :

1. Title of the invention this is the description of the invention by the

inventor himself.

2. Cross‐reference to related applications, if there are any invention

which are found to be closely related to the subject matter under
application for grant of Patent.

3. Background of the invention, this is very important part of an

invention as it helps the patent examiner to ascertain what was the
prevailing problem in the state of the art, which led to the invention.

4. Specification it includes Abstract, description, drawings and claims

 Specifications of a patent
A Patent generally contains the following :

5. Abstract: this is brief description of the invention and should not

exceed 150 words. It is a unilateral statement made by inventor in
his own words to set boundaries for his patent.

6. Drawings are integral part that gives a visual description of the

invention and often required by the controller.

7. Description of the invention sought to be protected is an important

perquisite of grant of Patent.

• There is no hard and fast rule as to what a description should

contain but it should contain as much information as would require
a person skilled in prior art to make that invention as directed.
Thanks
Lecture 23
Patent (part 2 of 2)

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Creativity Vs Innovation
 Copyright
 Types of Patent
 Patent procedure
 Specification of patent
Procedure for patent registration
Step 1: Write down the invention (idea or concept) with as much
details as possible
• Collect all the information about your invention such as:
• Area of invention
• Description of the invention what it does
• How does it work
• Advantages of the invention
Call lab record duly signed with date by you and respective authority.

Step 2: include drawings, diagrams or sketches explaining working of

invention
• The drawings and diagrams should be designed so as to explain the
working of the invention in better way with visual illustrations.
• They play an important role in patent application.

Step 3: check whether the invention is patentable subject matter

• All inventions may not be patentable, as per Indian patent act there
are certain inventions that are not patentable.
Procedure for patent registration
Step 4a: Patentability search
• The next step would be finding out whether your invention meets
all patentability criteria as per Indian patent act? That is,
• Novelty
• Non‐obviousness
• Industrial application
• Enabling
• The patentability opinion is provided by the patent professionals
up on conducting extensive search and forming patentability
report.
Procedure for patent registration
Step 4b: Decide whether to go ahead with patent
• The patentability report and opinion help you decide whether to
go ahead with the patent or not, chances are what you thought as
novel might already been patented or know to public in some form
of information.
• Hence these reports save time, efforts and cost of the inventor by
helping him decide whether to go ahead with the patent filing
process or not.
Procedure for patent registration
Step 5: Draft (write) patent application
• In case you are at very early stage in the research and development
for your invention, then you can go for provisional application. It
gives following benefits:
 Secures filing date
 12 months of time to file complete specification
 Low cost
• After filing provisional application, you secure the filing date which
is very crucial in patent world. You get 12 months of time to come
up with the complete specification, up on expiry of 12 months your
patent application will be abandoned.
• When you complete the required documents and your research
work is at level where you can have prototype and experimental
results to prove your inventive step you can file complete
specification with patent application.
Procedure for patent registration
Step 6: Publication of the application
• Up on filing the complete specification along with application for
patent, the application is published after 18 months of first filing.
• An early publication request can be made along with prescribed fees
if you do not wish to wait till the expiry of 18 months from the date
of filing for publishing your patent application.
• Generally, the patent application is published within a month form
request form early publication.
Procedure for patent registration
Step 7: Request for examination
• The patent application is examined only after receiving request for
examination that is RFE. Up on receiving this request the controller
gives your patent application to a patent examiner who examinees
the patent application with different patentability criteria like:
• Patentable subject matter
• Novelty
• Non‐obviousness
• Inventive step
• Industrial application
• Enabling
• The examiner creates a first examination report of the patent
application upon reviewing it for above terms.
• This is called patent prosecution.
• Everything happening to patent application before grant of patent is
generally called as patent prosecution.
Procedure for patent registration
Step 8: respond to objections
• Majority of patent applicants will receive some type of objections
based on examination report.
• The best thing to do it analyse the examination report with patent
professional (patent agent) and creating a response to the
objections raised in the examination report.
• This is a chance for an inventor to communicate his novelty over
prior arts found in the examination report.
• The inventor and patent agent create and send a response to the
examination that tries to prove to controller that his invention is
indeed patentable and satisfies all patentability criteria’s.

Step 9: clearing all objections

• This communication between controller and patent applicant is to
ensure that all objections raised in the patent application are
resolved.
• Up on finding the patent application in order of grant, it is grant to
the patent applicant as early as possible.
Procedure for patent registration
Step 10: Grant of patent
• The application would be placed for grant once it is found to be
meeting all patentability requirements.
• The grant of patent is notified in the patent journal which is
published time to time.

For Process patents:

• The procedure is the same as above, but the changes are
prominent in the drafting part where the research will have to be
done extensively and while keeping in my mind different norms
that the process to be patented includes.
• According to the patent laws, the product and process patents
come under the same category.
•
Advantages of owning patent

 You own the invention for given time (20 years).

 You can use it to build a business.

 Rent it (in this case license it) to existing businesses.

 Exclude all others for using, selling, offering for sale and importing
your invention in your country.

 You can completely sell the patent to other company.

Patent filing procedure at IIT Kanpur

A
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Patent filing procedure at IIT Kanpur

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Task for students
Thanks
Creativity techniques

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
Contents
• Introduction
• The Creative Process
• Blocks to Creativity
• Factors conducive to creativity
• Creativity techniques
• Creative ability versus Age
Introduction
• Creativity can be defined as the development of ideas that are new
to an individual leading to the discovery of alternative designs,
methods, systems or processes that will accomplish the basic
function at minimum cost.
• Analysis of function by using creativity is called the root of Value
Engineering.
• Two general approaches to problem solving are:
 The Analytical approach
 The Creative approach
• Aim of analytical approach reaches the final solution through a
standard step by step procedure whereas the creative approach
banks on the idea-generating ability of the problem solver and his
ability to embark on the best out of a number of possible solutions.
The Creative Process
Creative Process : combination and recombination of past
experiences that forms a new combination thus satisfying the needs.

Steps involved :
1. Orientation: Problem definition and decision on the path to be
taken.
2. Preparation: Information gathering and fact-finding.
3. Induction: Production of alternative solutions to the problem.
4. Analysis: Sorting and combining the information and slowing the
pace to invite illumination.
5. Synthesis: Bringing the ideas to gather into a complete whole.
6. Evaluation: Evaluation of the proposed solution or resulting ideas.
The Creative Process
Blocks to Creativity
Habitual blocks

i. Proceeding to utilize “tried and true” techniques despite the fact

that new and better ones are accessible.
ii. Dismissal of option arrangements which are incongruent with
habitual situation.
iii. Absence of an uplifting standpoint, absence of decided exertion,
adjustment to custom and dependence on specialist.
Blocks to Creativity
Habitual blocks:
Habit testing

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Blocks to Creativity
Perceptual blocks

i. Failure to use all the senses of observation.

ii. Failure to investigate the obvious.
iii. Inability to define terms.
iv. Difficulty in visualizing remote relationships.
v. Failure to distinguish between cause and effect.
Blocks to Creativity
Cultural blocks

i. Desire to conform to “proper” patterns, customs or methods.

ii. Overemphasis on competition or on cooperation.
iii. The drive to be viable most importantly things and rushing to make
quick judgements.
iv. The belief that all indulgence in fantasy is a waste of time.
v. The drive to be viable most importantly things and rushing to make
quick judgements.
vi. Having confidence and faith, only in reason and logic.
Blocks to Creativity
Cultural blocks

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Bacote/9b3cacbbb5219bdcaaf0ab1e4e28ee096793b045/figure/0
Blocks to Creativity
Emotional blocks

i. Fear of making a mistake or of appearing foolish.

ii. Fear of supervisors or colleagues and subordinate’s distrust.
iii. Over motivation to succeed quickly.
iv. Refusal to take any reroute, in achieving an objective.
v. Failure to dismiss choices which are satisfactory, yet which are
clearly sub-ideal.
Blocks to Creativity

Emotional blocks

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Process_Model_of_Emotion-Regulation.png
Factors conducive to creativity
• Problem sensitivity: Being mindful that an issue exists.
• Idea fluency: Being ready to create a lot of thoughts.
• Flexibility: Open-disapproved and versatile in the way to deal with
an issue.
• Originality: The capacity to deliver an incredible number of new and
one of a kind thoughts.
• Constructive Discontent: A disappointment with existing conditions,
with a disposition of mind which looks to enhance the conditions.
This sort of individual normally inquires as to why and how.
• Observation: Alertness to the environment.
• Facility at combination: The capacity to join and recombine data in
an assortment of ways.
Factors conducive to creativity
• Orientation: Development of the best possible attitude towards
imagination.
• Motivation: The summoning of the essential vitality to work
towards an objective and accomplishing it.
• Permissive atmosphere: An environment in which new thoughts are
empowered.
Creativity techniques
Ground Rules:
i. Generation of new ideas and their judgement should not be
simultaneous. They should be separated by time, space and
people, if possible.
ii. Possible solutions should be generated in a large quantity. First
multiply the ideas produced, by inspiration, by 5 or even 10.
iii. Seek a broad spectrum attack approach.
iv. Watch for opportunities to combine or improve ideas as they are
generated.
v. Consider all possible ideas, even apparently impractical. Do not
ridicule them. Never eliminate any idea summarily.
Creativity techniques
Brainstorming technique
• In light of incitement of one individual's brain by the psyche of
another.

• A normal gathering comprises of 4 to 6 individuals lounging around a

table, and precipitously creating thoughts intended to tackle a
particular issue.

• Rules to be followed:
i. Criticism is ruled out.
ii. Free-wheeling is welcome.
iii. Any number of ideas is welcome and desirable.
iv. Combination and improvement are sought.

Chitale, A.K. and Gupta, R.C., 2011. Product design and manufacturing. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd..
Creativity techniques
Brainstorming technique

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Creativity techniques
Brainstorming technique
Step 1: Define the issue
• When you are meant to brainstorm something, the first thing you
need to do is to understand the definition of what you are
brainstorming.
• Once you come up with the definition of what you are
brainstorming, make sure you confirm your definition.
• If you are brainstorming during a consulting case interview, confirm
your definition with the interviewer.
• If you are brainstorming as part of a strategy engagement, confirm
your definition with your colleagues.
• The majority of candidates and consultants, unaware of this step,
jump right into brainstorming without carefully considering the
definition of the issue.
• They usually have a vague idea of what the definition is, but not
much thought goes into defining the issue.
Creativity techniques
Brainstorming technique
Step 2: Build a decision tree
• Once you are happy with the definition of the key question, in our
example the definition of productivity, the next step is to build a
decision tree (on paper or in your head).
• If you cannot write down or visualize the decision tree, you are not
brainstorming.
• The key question is then split into sub-questions or drivers in a
logical and methodical way.
• Those sub-questions are further split into drivers of sub-questions.
• Continue with this analysis until you can prioritize the key drivers
and move on to develop hypotheses.
• Your brainstorming analyses will usually not go further than a 4th
level of a decision tree.
Creativity techniques
Brainstorming flow

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Creativity techniques
Gordon technique

• Firmly identified with conceptualizing, with the distinction that the

gathering pioneer opens the session with an announcement of the
expansive zone to be examined, not pinpointing to the genuine
issue.
For example :
the problem is to review procedures for cleaning windows.
So the topic selected is “removing, dirt”.
• Only the group leader knows the exact nature of the real problem
under consideration.
• Followers of this technique maintains that this technique generates
the better ideas.
Creativity techniques
Gordon technique

• The Gordon method involves developing new ideas when the

individuals are unaware of the problem. This implies that group
members do not know the exact nature of the problem.
• The entrepreneur begins by mentioning a general concept
associated with the problem.
• The group thereafter responds by expressing a number of ideas. This
can then lead to a concept being developed, followed by related
concept through guidance by the entrepreneur.
• At last the actual problem is revealed, enabling the group to make
suggestion for the implementation or refinement of the final
solution.
Creativity techniques
Check listing technique

• In this strategy, agendas are planned to tackle a particular issue.

They help our flawed memory.
• The most celebrated agendas are : What is it? What does it cost?
What does it do? What else will do the job? What does that cost?
• Using a set of structured questions encourages both broad and deep
analysis of your situation or problem. The questions themselves may
be simple, but when used as part of the checklist, they become a
powerful management tool
• This tool uses a question hierarchy, In this hierarchy, “what” broadly
states the situation or problem although “why” is arguably the most
powerful question you can ask
Creativity techniques
Check listing technique

• Asking “why” forces you to consider the significance of the problem

and thus the nature of your response.

• It can be especially valuable when applied as part of the well known

problem solving technique, 5 Whys.
• The repeated asking of “why”? can enable deep analysis of
problems, essential for getting to root causes.

• Next you should use “how”, “where”, “who” and “when”. These
questions are designed to both deepen and broaden analysis.

• When combined into a question checklist, they become both a tool

for analysing and solving problems, and the basis for an action plan.
Creativity techniques
Structure of the question checklist
Creativity techniques
Morphological analysis

• It is organized extensively to list and inspect numerous conceivable

mixes that might be valuable in tackling an issue.

• This analysis has to do with recognizing the structural aspects of a

problem and studying the relationships among them.

• In general morphology, the problem of representing – and

visualising – more than three dimensions is overcome by placing the
variables in columns beside each other, their value ranges listed
below them.
• This is called a morphological field.
Creativity techniques
Morphological analysis
• Morphological analysis is a method for exploring all possible
solutions in a complex problem space.
For example:
Imagine the problem is transporting an object from one place
to another by way of a powered vehicle. The significant
dimensions are: the kind of vehicle (cart, sling, bed, chair); the
power source (internal-combustion engine, pressed air, electric
motor); and the medium (air, hard surface, rails, rollers, oil,
water).
Thus, a cart-kind of vehicle moving over rough services with an
internal-combustion engine to power it is the automobile.
The expectation is that it would be possible to determine some novel
combinations.
Creativity techniques
Morphological analysis
• As a problem-structuring and problem-solving technique,
morphological analysis was designed for multi-dimensional, non-
quantifiable problems where causal modeling and simulation do not
function well or at all.

• Zwicky developed this approach to address seemingly non-reducible

complexity. Using the technique of cross consistency assessment
(CCA) (Ritchey, 1998).
• The system however does allow for reduction, not by reducing the
number of variables involved, but by reducing the number of
possible solutions through the elimination of the illogical solution
combinations in a grid box.
Creativity techniques
Morphological analysis

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Creativity techniques
Morphological analysis
Problem
A problem is 'what is' is not equal to 'what is desired' (Rubinstein 1975).

Issue
An issue is a relevant aspect that might cause a problem to occur
(Ritchey 2003).

Dimension
A dimension is the corresponding properties that belong to an issue,
such as a technical, financial, political, and ethical issue (Ritchey 2003).

Policy problem
Policy problem is a collection or document or list or thought that
consists of a collection of problem (Ritchey 2003).
Creativity techniques
Morphological analysis
Morphological box
A morphological box is a n-dimensional box that consists of a collection
of morphological field, which is constructed to facilitate the
development of ideas/ solutions (Ritchey 2003, Erikson & RItechey
2002, Bridgewater 1968).

Morphological field
A morphological field is a cell, i.e. an intersection of a column and a row
that contains a parameter of a value, in morphological box (Ritchey
2003).

Value
A value is a representation of the possible, relevant condition that each
issue can assume, which will become the column header of the
morphological box (Ritchey 2003).
Creativity techniques
Morphological analysis
Parameter
Parameter is the detail aspects of values, which will become the rows
under a specific value (Ritchey 2003).

Input constraint
Input constraint is special/ selected parameter that must be included in
the solution space and serve as the view point in determining the
solutions.

Solution space
Solution space is the result derived by performing cross-consistency
assessment, which is a process to reduce the total set of formally possible
configuration in a morphological field to smaller set of internally
consistence configurations (Ritchey 2003).

Real action
Real action is a set of detailed action derived from the solution space
Creativity techniques
Attribute listing technique
• There are two steps in the attribute listing technique.
• The first is to list all the various characteristics of the study
object.
• The second is to purposely change or alter these attributes. By
methods for this system, it is conceivable to unite new mixes of
qualities or traits that will satisfy some current needs in a better
way.

• Attribute listing is a great technique for ensuring all possible aspects

of a problem have been examined.
• Attribute listing is breaking the problem down into smaller and
smaller bits and seeing what you discover when you do.
Creativity techniques
Attribute listing technique
Example table of attribute listing
Creativity techniques
Evaluation comparison technique
• This is a constrained inventiveness procedure for creating one of a
kind verbal arrangements, by framing quantifiable correlations
between the components of measurements, physical properties,
mechanical properties, electrical and magnetic properties, cost
consideration and different properties.

• A structured evaluation process is necessary in order to:

• Identify the ideas that are most likely to succeed as innovations
for the company.
• Ensure that complex ideas are reviewed by people with the
appropriate expertise necessary to understand what would be
necessary to implement the idea – and what might go wrong.
Creativity techniques
Evaluation comparison technique

• Enable a middle manager to defend the idea to senior management,

stakeholders, and financial officers who may need to grant
budgetary approval of the idea.
• Make it possible to review a large number of ideas in a resource
efficient manner.
• Improve the idea by identifying potential implementation problems
and preparing suitable actions to overcome those problems. Sadly,
this last aspect is often lost in formal idea review procedures.
Creativity techniques
Buzz session technique

It is valuable to create innovative thoughts from expansive crowd

circumstances.
• To start with, the gathering of people is isolated into an expansive
number of gatherings of six individuals each.
• Inside each gathering, a leader and recorder are delegated; they
ought to be chosen and advised before the meeting, if conceivable.
• Issue going to be handled ought to be declared before the meeting
begins. Utilizing the gathering conceptualizing strategy, each
gathering creates innovative choices.
• After a timeframe and a flag from the pioneer, each gathering quits
delivering thoughts and starts assessing the thoughts and choosing
the best arrangement.
Creativity techniques
Buzz session technique

• The leader of each gathering is called upon to display the thoughts

delivered, to whatever is left of the group of onlookers.
• The variety of good, broadened thoughts influences an incredible,
vast to bunch persuading, innovative showing.
• Attributes or qualities that will satisfy some current needs are
selected.
Creativity techniques
Buzz session technique
Creativity techniques
Crawford slip writing technique

• This is another technique uniquely suited to a huge group of

onlookers.

• The method is a type of individual brainstorming.

• This procedure gives numerous plans to an extensive variety of

various issues in a single session in a brief timeframe.

• It is a simple & powerful way to gather ideas to address issues facing

your work area.
Creativity techniques
Crawford slip writing technique
• By writing down ideas, everyone will have an equal chance to be
heard, which is not usually the case in a traditional meeting
• You can address both general and specific problems with this
method, making it quite versatile
• This is a time-efficient way to gather ideas, rather than having an
open brainstorming session where people are talking over one
another
• There is plenty of time to review all of the ideas after the meeting
has ended, meaning you can take a clear picture of the thoughts of
the individuals in your organization
Creativity techniques
Crawford slip writing technique

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Creativity techniques
Using Idea stimulators
• At the point when the flow and development of thoughts appear to
back off, amid utilization the creative problem-solving techniques,
the utilization of idea stimulators can be presented.

• Setting an inventive environment

• Encourage calculated risk by allowing room for failures and
tolerance for honest mistakes
• Encourage people to talk to each other and promote the cross-
pollination of ideas.
• Minimize competitive turf issues and inter-functional squabbles.
Creativity techniques
Using Idea stimulators

• Recognize that creative people tend to be different from most

other people and tolerate their idiosyncrasies.
• Supporting participatory decision-making and employees’
contribution.
• Provide fast evaluation and feedback of ideas when they are
submitted.
• Be willing to consider partially thought out ideas and give people
time to develop them further.
Creativity techniques
Using Idea stimulators
Creativity techniques
Delphi technique

• It is a method of pooling large number of experts jugdements

through a series of increasingly refined questionnaires.

• The Delphi method was originally developed in the early 1950s at

the RAND Corporation by Olaf Helmer and Norman Dalkey to
systematically solicit the view of experts related to national defense
and later in controversial sociopolitical areas of discourse

• It is a structured variant of the traditional expert polls and is usually

used in forecasting.
Creativity techniques
Delphi technique

• The Delphi technique involves circulating questionnaires on a

specific problem among group members, sharing the questionnaire
results with them, and then continuing to recirculate and refine
individual responses until a consensus regarding the problem is
reached.

• The administrators of the Delphi method make a decision based on

the results of the rounds.

• The Delphi method helps the group reach consensus without the
influence of strong members of the group and the tendency to rush
for a decision at the end of a meeting.
Creative ability versus Age
To recapitulate:

1. What do you understand by creativity and what are the two

general approaches to problem solving ?

2. What are the steps involved in creative process ?

3. What are the main blocks to creativity?

4. What are the factors conducive to creativity?

5. What are the creativity techniques which helps in identify and

solve the problems?

6. Is creative ability related to age?

Thanks
Lecture 24
Rapid Prototyping: an introduction

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Assistant Professor
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar (India)
 Contents
 Introduction
 Rapid Prototyping or Additive Manufacturing
 Rapid Prototyping : Topography and Photosculpture
 Rapid Prototyping ‐ An Integral Part of Concurrent Engineering
 Geometrical Modelling Techniques
 Rapid Prototyping Information Workflow
Rapid Prototyping

• A process for rapidly creating a system or part representation.

• The output is a prototype or model.

• Allows the users to test product and provide feedback.

Rapid Prototyping or Additive Manufacturing?

• Many parts are directly manufactured in Rapid Prototype Machines.

• Additive approach in Rapid Prototyping.

• ASTM consensus standards now use the term Additive

Manufacturing.
How quick is Additive manufacturing?
How quick is Additive manufacturing?
How quick is Additive manufacturing?
Additive Manufacturing
• Parts are made by adding material in layers.

• Most Additive Manufacturing machines use a layer‐based approach.

• Factors influencing the accuracy of the final part needs to be

determined.
Rapid Prototyping
The term Rapid Prototyping is utilized as a part of an assortment of
enterprises to depict a process for quickly making a framework or
part portrayal before conclusive discharge or commercialization.

The underlying foundations of Rapid Prototyping can be followed to

two specialized zones:

1. Topography

2. Photosculpture
2. Photosculpture:
• This is a strategy proposed in the nineteenth century for making
reproductions of 3D objects.

• The system includes shooting the question at the same time with
24 cameras similarly divided around a round room.

• Then utilizing the outline of each photo to cut 1/24th of a tube

shaped part of the protest.

• In 1956, Munz developed a layer producing framework for

creating the cross‐segments of an examined question by
specifically uncovering a straightforward photograph emulsion.

• The framework creates the layers by bringing down a cylinder in a

chamber and including proper measures of photograph emulsion
and settling operator.
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Rapid Prototyping
• The huge increment in the quantity of financially accessible RP
frameworks of the 1990s can be classified by progresses in 3D CAD
Modeling, Computer‐Aided Manufacturing and Computer Numerical
Control.

• In 1990s, the yearly development in the sales of Rapid Prototyping

frameworks was moving toward 40‐ 50%.

• In 1999, deals development was 22% and it was assessed that 3.4 million
sections were assembled overall utilizing RP innovations.

• Another vital angle is that the use of Rapid Prototyping has spread to
different areas of the economy.
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The use of Rapid Prototyping systems in different sectors [Wohlers, 2000]

Rapid Prototyping:
An Integral Part of Concurrent Engineering

• The principle empowering innovation behind Concurrent Engineering

is 3D CAD demonstrating.

• Simultaneousness in performing diverse plan and assembling

exercises introduces a chance to pack the general item advancement
time.

• Also, it makes the potential outcomes to be innovative by giving more

opportunity to outline cycles.

• Simultaneous Engineering situations have developed extensively

amid the last few a long time to incorporate 3D displaying.

• The 3D display turns into a focal part of the entire item or venture
data base.
Rapid Prototyping:
An Integral Part of Concurrent Engineering
Thanks
Lecture 25
Rapid Prototyping Modelling

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Assistant Professor
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar (India)
 Contents
 Geometrical Modelling Techniques
◦ Wire Frame Modelling
◦ Surface Modelling
◦ Solid Modelling
 Rapid Prototyping Information Workflow
Rapid Prototyping:
An Integral Part of Concurrent Engineering
Geometrical Modelling Techniques
• The demonstrating capacities of this original of CAD frameworks
were extremely constrained.
• Just essential plan applications were accessible

• Need of CAD frameworks which had 3D demonstrating capacities.

• Increments in item multifaceted nature and the need to

coordinate as well as robotize different components of outline and
assembling, drove the improvement of these 3D CAD frameworks.

• Such models enable similar information to be utilized as a part of

various building undertakings from documentation (drafting), to
designing investigation, fast prototyping and producing
Geometrical Modelling Techniques
There are three essential displaying systems accessible to make 3D
outlines:

• Wireframe,
• Surface, and
• Solid modelling.
 Wireframe Modelling
• Closely resembling 2D geometrical models, wireframe models
comprise of graphical natives characterized in three‐dimensional
space.

• These models speak to 3D outline questions just with edges and

vertices.

• The development of substantial 3D models utilizing wireframe

procedures is thought to be a protracted furthermore, troublesome
process as a result of the measure of information and summon
arrangements expected to make them.

• Use just a little measure of PC memory.

• The fundamental motivation behind wire outline models is to help

the making of building documentation and furthermore in a few
cases to fill in as information for limited component investigation.

• .
 Wireframe Modelling

• Utilizing these models, different projections of the 3D protest can be

made by applying geometrical changes to the graphical natives

• To conquer conceivable perplexity, edges can be covered up, dashed, or

blanked.

• By and by, challenges with the elucidation of the models prompted the
position where most 3D wireframe frameworks introduced in
organizations are utilized as a part of two dimensional mode, as it were.

• Wireframe models don't contain surface and volume information.

• All in all, wire outline displaying systems are viewed as characteristic

expansions of conventional drafting strategies.
Wireframe Modelling

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Surface Modelling

• Wireframe models frame the reason for the production of surface

models.

• Generally existing surface modelers require wireframe natives to

create surfaces.

• The client enters the vertices and edges as in wire outline models to
characterize the limits of each surface.

• At that point, utilizing the entered information, surfaces are fitted to

these edges. Unique scientific strategies can be utilized to speak to
surfaces.
Surface Modelling
• Surface models are more entire and less equivocal portrayals than
their wire outline partners. Their geometrical databases are
wealthier and give data on surfaces associating model edges

• This information is adequate for producing cutter ways for NC

machining and hence most CAM frameworks are in view of this
portrayal system.

• Lamentably, surface models characterize just the geometry of

articles.

• Subsequently, in the event that one edge is basic to two surfaces

this data isn't put away in the model.

• This prompts the presence of holes between the surfaces which

implies that surface models can't define shut volumes.

• To utilize surface models for Rapid Prototyping purposes, these

holes must be evacuated, which can be exceptionally troublesome
or even incomprehensible.
Surface Modelling

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Solid Modelling

• The meaning of models in solid modelling is less demanding than with

the other two demonstrating strategies.

• Insignificant info information is required and summon arrangements

are significantly more straightforward. Most Solid Modelling bundles
bolster a CSG client input.

• This UI enables complex articles to be manufactured from an

arrangement of predefined 3D natives.

• These natives can be either straightforward essential shapes, or more

perplexing strong articles made by clearing 2D areas of wire outline
elements.

• To characterize a strong model, such natives are joined utilizing the

boolean operations of union, convergence and distinction.
Solid Modelling
• Solid models give an entire and unambiguous portrayal of articles.
The fulfillment and unambiguity of these models are because of
the data put away in their databases.

• After a section is built, the strong modeler changes over the

contribution to an information structure which keeps up the
geometry and topology of the question.

• As opposed to both wire edge and surface models that store just
geometrical information, strong demonstrating databases are
finished and the models are anything but difficult to check.

• Solid modelling has been acknowledged as a key element in the

integration of design and manufacturing. Its widespread use was
made possible by the large increase in computing power to cost
ratio over the last 10 years.

• Solid modelling is now considered the most reliable way of

creating 3D models for Rapid Prototyping purposes.
Solid Modelling

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Solid Modelling

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Rapid Prototyping process
All Rapid Prototyping frameworks have a typical data work process. The
primary arranges in getting ready and pre‐handling information for
mechanized creation of 3D objects are as per the following:

1. CAD model:
• All Rapid Prototyping parts must start from a software model that fully
describes the external geometry.

• May use of almost any professional CAD solid modeling software, but
the output must be a 3D solid or surface representation.

2. Export data :
• The legitimate 3D display is sent out from the CAD bundle in a
nonpartisan configuration, which as a rule is STL.
Rapid Prototyping process
3. Data Validation and Repair:

• The sent out information is an estimation of the exact inside 3D display.

Amid this guess procedure the model surfaces are spoken to with basic
geometrical substances as triangles
•
• Tragically, STL models made along these lines can contain bothersome
geometrical blunders, for example, gaps and covering regions along
surface limits.

• Consequently, the produced records must be approved before being

additionally handled.

• Some Rapid Prototyping bundles offer offices for show repair,

programmed and additionally manual.
Rapid Prototyping process
4. File manipulation:
• RP frameworks assemble parts along the Z axis of their STL models.

• Through reorientation of the parts with respect to the model organize

frameworks, their exactness, surface complete and construct time can
be enhanced.

• The parts can be scaled to make up for expected abnormalities

that may be presented by downstream procedures.

5. Support Structures Generation:

• Fluid based Rapid Prototyping forms need help structures to construct
overhanging territories of the parts.

• These structures are ordinarily created consequently utilizing

particular programming apparatus.

• The regions needing help structures can be limited by properly

choosing the part construct bearing.
Rapid Prototyping process
6. Machine Setup:

• Process‐related parameters are entered to determine the manufacture

style and wanted framework qualities.

• These parameters can be balanced in light of part necessities and the

Rapid Prototyping material being utilized.

• A 2D slice data generation is carried out.

7. Part building:

Building the part is mainly an automated process .

.
Rapid Prototyping process
8. Part removal and post processing:
Part removal may require interaction with the machine, which may have
safety interlocks.

Once removed from the machine, parts may require an amount of

additional cleaning up before they are ready for use.

This is a time consuming exercise.

Parts may also require additional treatment before they are acceptable
for use.
Thanks
Lecture 26
Rapid Prototyping Processes (part 1 of 2)

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Assistant Professor
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar (India)
 Contents
 Classification of Rapid Prototyping Processes
 Processes Involving a Liquid
 Processes Involving a Solid
 Processes Involving Discrete Particles
Classification of Rapid Prototyping Processes

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 Processes Involving a Liquid
Stereolithography (SL)

• The most well known among right now accessible RP forms is Stereo
Lithography (SL).

• This depends on a photosensitive fluid sap which shapes a strong

polymer when presented to bright (UV) light.

• Because of the retention and dissipating of the bar, this response just
happens close to the surface.
 Stereolithography (SL)
• A SL machine comprises of a manufacture stage (substrate) which is
mounted in a vat of gum

• The primary layer of the part is imaged on the gum surface by the laser.

• Once the shape of the layer has been filtered, the stage is next brought
down to the base of the vat.

• It is then raised with the end goal that the cemented part is level with
the surface and a sharp edge wipes the sap so precisely one layer
thickness stays over the part.

• The part is then brought down to one layer-thickness underneath the

surface and left until the point that the fluid has settled.

• The following layer may then be filtered.

Stereolithography (SL)

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Liquid Thermal Polymerisation (LTP)

• This procedure is like SL aside from that the sap is thermosetting

and an infrared laser is utilized to make the voxels.

• This distinction implies that the span of the voxels might be

influenced through warmth scattering, which can likewise cause
undesirable contortion furthermore, shrinkage in the part.

• In any case, these issues are clearly no more awful than those
caused by SL and are controllable.
Liquid Thermal Polymerisation (LTP)

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 Beam Interference Solidification (BIS)

• This procedure utilizes two laser shafts mounted at right edges to

each other which emanate light at various frequencies to polymerise
gum in a straight forward vat.

• The principal laser energizes the fluid to a reversible metastable

state and afterward the occurrence of the second pillar polymerises
the energized sap.

Drawbacks of this process

• Shadows are thrown from already solidified areas.

• There is an issue with light absorption because the intensity of the

lasers drops with depth.

• It is difficult to converge the laser pillars because of diffraction

varieties in the gum caused by temperature inclinations or strong
areas.
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Solid Ground Curing (SGC)
• This framework again uses photo polymerising pitches and UV
light.

• Information from the CAD model is utilized to create a mask which

is set over the resin surface.

• The whole layer would then be able to be heated up with an

effective UV light.

• Once the layer has been cured, the extra resin is wiped away.

• The wax is cooled with a chill plate, processed level and the wax
chips evacuated.

• A new layer of pitch is connected and the procedure is rehashed.

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 Holographic Interference Solidification (HIS)

• A holographic picture is projected into the resin.

• Information is still gotten from the CAD display.

• The fabricate space is 300x300x300 mm.

• There are no business frameworks accessible yet.

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Solidification of an Electroset Fluid:
Electrosetting (ES)
• Anodes are imprinted onto a conductive material, for example,
aluminium.
• When all the layers have been printed, they are stacked, inundated
in a shower of electro setting liquid also, empowered. The liquid
which is between the terminals at that point sets to frame the part.
• Once the composite has been evacuated and depleted, the
undesirable aluminium might be trimmed from the part.
• Points of interest of this process are that the part thickness,
compressibility, hardness and grip might be controlled by adjusting
the voltage and current connected to the aluminium.
• Parts might be produced using silicon elastic, polyester,
polyurethane or epoxy.
• The equipment for such a framework might be purchased off the
rack requiring little to no effort. The product for the framework is as
yet being created.
 Solidification of Molten Material
There are procedures which include the liquefying and ensuing
cementing of the part material. Of these, the most of these store the
material at discrete focuses while the some produces entire layers
immediately.

Ballistic Particle Manufacture (BPM)

• A surge of liquid material is shot out from a spout.

• It isolates into beads which hit the substrate and promptly icy weld to
shape the part.

• In the event that the substrate is harsh, warm contact amongst it and
the part is expanded which diminishes worries inside the part.
• The stream might be a drop-on-request framework or a ceaseless
fly.

• Whenever a consistent stream is received, it is catapulted through

a spout which is energized by a piezoelectric transducer at a
recurrence of around 60 Hz.

• To keep away from dissolving the transducer, it is situated at a

separation from the spout.

• In spite of the fact that a fine stream will normally break down into
beads, the aggravation at the spout powers the generation of a
surge of little, normal beads with uniform dividing and separation.
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Multi Jet Modelling (MJM)
• A MJM machine constructs models utilizing a stage change printing
yet connected in three measurements.

• A "print" head involving 300-400 planes arranged in a straight cluster

fabricates models in progressive layers, every individual stream
storing an exceptionally created thermo-polymer material as it were
where needed.

• The layer thickness is of the order of 40 µm. The MJM head

transports forward and backward along the X pivot like a line printer.

• On the off chance that the part is more extensive than the MJM
head, the stage repositions (Y-pivot) to keep fabricating the layer.

• At the point when the layer is finished, the stage is moved far from
the head (Z-pivot) which starts to make the following layer.

• At the point when the manufacture is finished, bolster structures are

gotten over to complete the model.
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 Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
• A FDM machine comprises of a versatile head which stores a string of
liquid material onto a substrate.

• The assemble material is warmed to 0.5°C over its melting point with the
goal that it sets around 0.1 s after extrusion and cool welds to the past
layers.

• Variables to be thought about are the need for a relentless nozzle speed
and material extrusion rate, the expansion of a support structure for
overhanging parts, and the speed of the head which influences the
general layer.

• Later FDM frameworks incorporate two nozzles, one for the part material
and one for the help material.

• The last is less expensive and splits far from the model without impeding
its surface.

• It is likewise conceivable to make even backings to limit material

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Three-Dimensional Welding (3DW)
• This framework utilizes a bend welding robot to store material on a
stage as basic shapes.

• Dissimilar to generally Rapid Prototyping forms, the models are not

constructed utilizing cut CAD documents.

• A few issues still stay to be explained. Since there is no input, warm

develop amid fabricate can make the models to melt and due to the
fact that the layers don't shape a smooth surface the light may hit
the part.

• It is likewise not known whether complex structures can be

manufactured.

• The orientation of each area to be fabricated ought to be produced

and the request in which the segments are to be assembled.
https://d2v9y0dukr6mq2.cloudfront.net/video/thumbnail/4GwQSj0Hx/yaskawa-motomann-welding-robot-machine_nty6civfe__S0000.jpg
Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM)
• Still test this layer-by-layer process includes splashing liquid metal in
close net shape onto a substrate.

• Support material is included a similar path either earlier or after the

model material relying upon whether the layer contains undercut
highlights.

• On the off chance that the layer is intricate, bolster material may
should be included both when the model material.

• Each layer is then shot-peened to evacuate remaining burdens.

• The model is exchanged from station to station utilizing a robotised bed

framework which can position the work piece.

• Beads of 1-3 mm measurement are kept at a rate of 1-5 beads for every
second.

• These models have the same structure as cast or welded parts and the
exactness of NC processed segments.
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/students.00/sel/sdm_v2.jpg
Thanks
Lecture 27
Rapid Prototyping Processes (part 2 of 2)

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Assistant Professor
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar (India)
 Contents
 Processes Involving Discrete Particles
 Joining of Particles with a Binder
 Processes Involving Solid Sheets
Processes Involving Discrete Particles
These processes build the part by joining powder grains together
using either a laser or a separate binding material.

Fusing of Particles by Laser

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

• SLS uses a fine powder which is heated with a CO2 laser so that the
surface tension of the particles is overcome and they fuse together.

• Before the powder is sintered, the entire bed is heated to just below
the melting point of the material.

• The laser is modulated such that only those grains which are in direct
contact with the beam are affected.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
•A layer is drawn on the powder bed using the laser to sinter the material.

•The bed is then lowered and the powder‐feed chamber raised so that a
covering of powder can be spread evenly over the build area.

• The sintered material forms the part whilst the un‐sintered powder
remains in place to support the structure.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

http://cmmrl.berkeley.edu/wp‐content/uploads/RishiResearchAdditiveManufacturing‐e1416951524639.jpg
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

https://www.eos.info/additive_manufacturing/for_technology_interested
Laser Engineering Net Shaping (LENS)
• The LENS process involves feeding powder through a nozzle onto the
part bed whilst simultaneously fusing it with a laser.
• The powder nozzle may be on one side of the bed or coaxial with the
laser beam.
• If it is to a side, a constant orientation to the part creation direction
must be maintained to prevent solidified sections from shadowing
areas to be built.
• When the powder feeder is coaxial, there may be inaccuracies in the
geometry of the part and the layer thickness if the beam and the
powder feeder move out of alignment.
• Because the stream of powder is heated by the laser, fusion to the
previous layer is facilitated.
• It is necessary to cool the part when it becomes too hot in order to
prevent distortions in the final piece.
• The minimum wall thickness depends on the feed rate, the width of
the particle stream and spot size, speed and power of the laser.
http://www.adina.com/Fig1_LENS.gif
 Gas Phase Deposition (GPD)
• In this procedure, the atoms of a receptive gas are disintegrated
utilizing a laser to create a solid.

• The subsequent solid at that point holds fast to the substrate to shape
the part.

• Three major strategies for building the part are at present being
examined.
• SALD (Selective Area Laser Deposition)

• SALDVI (Selective Area Laser Deposition Vapour Infiltration)

• SLRS (Selective Laser Receptive Sintering)

Joining of Particles with a Binder

Three‐Dimensional Printing (3DP)

In this process, layers of powder are applied to a substrate then
selectively joined using a binder sprayed through a nozzle.

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 Processes Involving Solid Sheets
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
• The build material is applied to the part from a roll, at that point bonded
to the past layers utilizing a hot roller which actuates a warmth touchy
glue.
• The form of each layer is cut with a laser that is deliberately balanced to
infiltrate to the correct depth of one layer.
• Undesirable material is trimmed into rectangles to encourage its later
evacuation however stays set up amid the work to act as support.
• The sheet of material utilized is more extensive than the construct area.
• This implies that, after the layer has been finished and the construct
stage brought down, the roll of material can be progressed by winding
this extra material onto a moment roller.
• The entire procedure would then be able to be rehashed.
https://www.compositesworld.com/cdn/cms/LOMfig2.gif
Paper Lamination Technology (PLT)
• In Rapid Prototyping terms, the PLT process is fundamentally the
same as LOM.

• The principle contrasts between the LOM and PLT forms are in the
material utilized and the techniques utilized for cutting the forms
of the part cross‐areas, which are a CO2 laser and a electronic
blade, separately.

• The PLT procedure prints the cross area of the part onto a sheet of
paper, which is then connected to the work‐in‐advance and
reinforced utilizing a hot roller.

• Next, a PC driven blade is utilized to cut the blueprint of the part

and cross‐bring forth the waste material.

• This procedure is rehashed until the part is done, when the

abundance material might be peeled far from the model, which
can be then fixed with epoxy gum.
 Solid Foil Polymerisation (SFP)
• In SFP, the part is developed utilizing semi‐polymerised foils.

• On introduction to UV light, the foil hardens and bonds to the past layer.

• It additionally becomes noticeably insoluble. Once the cross‐area has

been lit up, another foil can be connected.

• The regions of foil which don't constitute the possible part are utilized
to help it amid the assemble process.

• Once the part is finished, the non‐fortified pieces can be broken down
to leave the completed part.

• No business frameworks are accessible yet.

Rapid prototyping applications
1. Engineering Design

2. Analysis and planning

3. Tooling

http://www.gidcompany.com/blog/product‐prototype‐development‐2
Rapid prototyping applications

http://www.zslice.com/product
http://www.minaproducts.com/rapid‐prototyping.html
http://ibdesigntech.com/category/topic‐3‐modelling/3‐5‐rapid‐prototyping/
http://blog.peekmed.com/stl‐files‐rapid‐prototyping‐matter‐orthopedic‐surgery/
Thanks
Technomatix: Plant Simulation 10

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Department Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
 Contents
 PLM
 Plant Simulation 10 software
Product Lifecycle Management
Plant Layout
Thanks
Technomatix: Plant Simulation 10

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Department Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
 Contents
 PLM
 Plant Simulation 10 software
Product Lifecycle Management
Plant Layout
Thanks
Technomatix: Plant Simulation 10

Dr. Amandeep Singh

Department Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
 Contents
 PLM
 Plant Simulation 10 software
Product Lifecycle Management
Plant Layout
Thanks
Computer Integrated Manufacturing

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
Contents:
1. Introduction to CIM
2. Elements of a Production System
3. Automated manufacturing systems
4. Automation strategies
5. Metrics in Production System
6. Advanced Automation functions
7. CAD and CAM
Introduction
 Definition: Refers to the technology, tool or method used to improve
entirely the design and manufacturing process and increase
productivity, to help people and machines to communicate.

 It is the process of automating various functions in a manufacturing

company (business, engineering, and production) by integrating the
work through computer networks and common databases.
Introduction
 CIM is a critical element in the competitive strategy of global
manufacturing firms because it lowers costs, improves delivery
times and improves quality.

 CIM is the integration of the total manufacturing enterprise through

the use of integrated systems and data communications coupled
with new managerial philosophies that improve organizational and
personal efficiency.
Introduction
 CIM has wide scope including:

 CAD (Computer-Aided Design),

 CAM (Computer- Aided Manufacturing),
 CAPP (Computer-Aided Process Planning,
 CNC (Computer Numerical Control Machine tools),
 DNC (Direct Numerical Control Machine tools),
 FMS (Flexible Machining Systems),
 ASRS (Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems),
 AGV (Automated Guided Vehicles),
 use of robotics and automated systems
What is CIM?
Sample CIM Sub-Systems

Sales
Design

Production Manufacturing

Source : Groover, M.P., 2007. Automation, production systems, and computer-integrated manufacturing. Prentice Hall Press.
Centrality of manufacturing
Production System Triad
Driving forces of CIM

http://engineeronadisk.com/notes_automated/automatea3.html
Production strategy classification:
 Relative to customer lead time

 Relative to manufacturing lead time

 Manufacturing lead time and customer lead time must be matched

Production strategy classification:
Production strategies used to match customer and manufacturing
lead times:

 Engineer to order (ETO)

 Make to order (MTO)
 Assemble to order (ATO)
 Make to stock (MTS)
Computer Integrated Manufacturing
Facilities
Facilities include the factory, production machines and tooling,
material handling equipment, inspection equipment, and computer
systems that control the manufacturing operations

 Manufacturing systems – logical groupings of equipment and

workers in the factory
 Production line
 Stand-alone workstation and worker

 Plant layout – the way the equipment is physically arranged in the

factory
Manufacturing Systems
Three categories in terms of the human participation in the
processes performed by the manufacturing system:

1. Manual work system - a worker performing one or more tasks

without the aid of powered tools, but sometimes using hand
tools

2. Worker-machine system - a worker operating powered

equipment

3. Automated system - a process performed by a machine without

direct participation of a human.
Manufacturing support systems
Manufacturing support involves a sequence of activities that consists of
four functions:

1. Business functions - sales and marketing, order entry, cost

accounting, customer billing.

2. Product design - research and development, design engineering,

prototype shop.

3. Manufacturing planning - process planning, production planning,

MRP, capacity planning.

4. Manufacturing control - shop floor control, inventory control,

quality control.
Manufacturing Support Systems
Sequence of information-processing activities in a manufacturing firm

Source : Groover, M.P., 2007. Automation, production systems, and computer-integrated manufacturing. Prentice Hall Press.
Automation in Production Systems
Two categories of automation in the production system:

1. Automation of manufacturing systems in the factory.

2. Computerization of the manufacturing support systems.

The two categories overlap because manufacturing support systems are

connected to the factory manufacturing systems.
Automated Manufacturing Systems
Examples:

 Automated machine tools

 Transfer lines
 Automated assembly systems
 Industrial robots that perform processing or assembly operations
 Automated material handling and storage systems to integrate
manufacturing operations
 Automatic inspection systems for quality control
Automated Manufacturing Systems
Three basic types:

1. Fixed automation
2. Programmable automation
3. Flexible automation
Fixed automation
A manufacturing system in which the sequence of processing (or
assembly) operations is fixed by the equipment configuration.

Typical features:

 Suited to high production quantities.

 High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment.
 High production rates.
 Relatively inflexible in accommodating product variety.
Programmable Automation
A manufacturing system designed with the capability to change the
sequence of operations to accommodate different product
configurations.

Typical features:

 High investment in general purpose equipment.

 Lower production rates than fixed automation.
 Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product
configuration.
 Most suitable for batch production.
 Physical setup and part program must be changed between jobs
(batches).
Flexible automation
An extension of programmable automation in which the system is
capable of changing over from one job to the next with no lost time
between jobs.

Typical features:

 High investment for custom-engineered system.

 Continuous production of variable mixes of products.
 Medium production rates.
 Flexibility to deal with soft product variety.
Product variety vs. Production quantity
Computerized Manufacturing Support
Systems
Objectives of automating the manufacturing support systems:

 To reduce the manual and clerical effort in product design,

manufacturing planning and control, and the business functions.

 Integrates computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided

manufacturing (CAM) in CAD/CAM.

 CIM includes CAD/CAM and the business functions of the firm.

Computerized Manufacturing
Support Systems

http://engineeronadisk.com/notes_automated/automatea3.html
Manual Labor in Production Systems
Where does manpower go in modern manufacturing?

Two places:

1. Manual labor in factory operations

2. Labor in manufacturing support systems
Manual Labor in Production Systems
The long term trend is toward greater use of automated systems to
substitute for manual labor.

 When is manual labor justified?

• Some countries have very low labor rates and automation cannot
be justified.
• Task is technologically too difficult to automate
• Short product life cycle.
• Customized product requires human flexibility.
• To cope with ups and downs in demand.
• To reduce risk of new product failure.
Labor in Manufacturing Support
Systems
 Product designers who bring creativity to the design task.
 Manufacturing engineers who:
• Design the production equipment and tooling.
• And plan the production methods and routings.

 Equipment maintenance.
 Programming and computer operation.
 Engineering project work.
 Plant management.
Strategies for Automation
1. Specialization of operations
2. Combined operations
3. Simultaneous operations
4. Integration of operations
5. Increased flexibility
6. Improved material handling and storage
7. On-line inspection
8. Process control and optimization
9. Plant operations control
Automation for new products
1. Phase 1 – Manual production:
• Single-station manned cells working independently.
• Advantages: quick to set up, low-cost tooling.

2. Phase 2 – Automated production:

• Single-station automated cells operating independently.
• As demand grows and automation can be justified.

3. Phase 3 – Automated integrated production:

• Multi-station system with serial operations and automated
transfer of work units between stations.
Technological categories of the
production system
Manufacturing operations
Sections:
1. Manufacturing Industries and Products
2. Manufacturing Operations
3. Production Facilities
4. Product/Production Relationships
Classification of industries
1. Primary industries – cultivate and exploit natural resources
• Examples: agriculture, mining

2. Secondary industries – convert output of primary industries into

products
• Examples: manufacturing, power generation, construction

3. Tertiary industries – service sector

• Examples: banking, education, government, legal services,
retail trade, transportation
Manufacturing operations
 There are certain basic activities that must be carried out in a
factory to convert raw materials into finished products.

 For discrete products:

1. Processing and assembly operations
2. Material handling
3. Inspection and testing
4. Coordination and control
 Manufacturing operations
Time spent in a typical metal machining factory
Material handling and storage
 Material transport:
• Vehicles, e.g., forklift trucks, AGVs, monorails
• Conveyors
• Hoists and cranes

 Storage systems

 Automatic identification and data capture: (AIDC)

• Bar codes
• RFID
• Other AIDC
Inspection and Testing
Inspection – examination of the product and its components to
determine whether they conform to design specifications:

 Inspection for variables – measuring

 Inspection for attributes – gaging

Testing – observing the product (or part, material, subassembly)

during actual operation or under conditions that might occur during
operation.
Coordination and Control
 Regulation of the individual processing and assembly operations:
• Process control
• Quality control

 Management of plant level activities:

• Production planning and control
• Quality control
Production Facilities
 A manufacturing company attempts to organize its facilities in the
most efficient way to serve the particular mission of the plant.

 Certain types of plants are recognized as the most appropriate way

to organize for a given type of manufacturing.

 The most appropriate type depends on:

• Types of products made
• Production quantity
• Product variety
Production Quantity
Number of units of a given part or product produced annually by the plant.

Three quantity ranges:

1. Low production – 1 to 100 units

2. Medium production – 100 to 10,000 units
3. High production – 10,000 to millions of units
Product Variety
Refers to the number of different product or part designs or types
produced in the plant.

 Inverse relationship between production quantity and product

variety in factory operations.

 Product variety is more complicated than a number:

• Hard product variety – products differ greatly
• Few common components in an assembly
• Soft product variety – small differences between products
• Many common components in an assembly
Manufacturing metrics and economics
Two aspects:

1. Production Performance Metrics

2. Manufacturing Costs
Production performance metrics
 Cycle time, Tc
 Production rate, Rp
 Availability, A
 Production capacity, PC
 Utilization, U
 Manufacturing Lead Time, MLT
 Work In Progress, WIP
Operation Cycle Time
Typical cycle time for a production operation:
Tc = To + Th + Tth
where
 Tc = cycle time
 To = processing time for the operation
 Th = handling time (e.g., loading and unloading the production machine),
and
 Tth = tool handling time (e.g., time to change tools)
Production Rate
 Batch production: batch time Tb = Tsu + QTc
Average production time per work unit Tp = Tb/Q
Production rate Rp = 1/Tp

 Job shop production:

For Q = 1, Tp = Tsu + Tc

 For high quantity production:

Rp = Rc = 60/Tp since Tsu/Q  0

 For flow line production

Tc = Tr + Max To and Rc = 60/Tc
Availability
Availability = proportion uptime of the equipment

MTBF  MTTR
Availability: A
MTBF

Where,
MTBF = Mean Time Between Failures
MTTR = Mean Time To Repair
Availability
Production capacity
Defined as the maximum rate of output that a production facility (or
production line, or group of machines) is able to produce under a
given set of operating conditions

 When referring to a plant or factory, the term plant capacity is used

 Assumed operating conditions refer to:
• Number of shifts per day
• Number of hours per shift
• Employment levels
Plant Capacity
Simplest case is quantity production in which there are:

 n production machines in the plant and they all produce the same
part or product.

 Each machine produces at the same rate Rp.

PC = n Hpc Rp
Where,
PC = plant capacity for a defined period (e.g. a week),
Hpc = number of hours in the period being used to measure plant
capacity, hr/period
How to adjust plant capacity
 Over the short term:
• Increase or decrease number workers w
• Increase or decrease shifts per week
• Increase or decrease hours per shift (e.g., overtime)

 Over the intermediate and long terms:

• Increase number of machines n
• Increase production rate Rp by methods improvements and/or
processing technology

Utilization is defined as the proportion of time that a productive

resource (e.g., a production machine) is used relative to the time
available under the definition of plant capacity
Manufacturing Lead Time
It is defined as the total time required to process a given part or
product through the plant, including any time for delays, material
handling, queues before machines, etc.
MLT = no (Tsu + QTc + Tno)
Where,
• MLT = manufacturing lead time
• no = number of operations
• Tsu = setup time
• Q = batch quantity
• Tc cycle time per part, and
• Tno = non-operation time
Work-In-Process
Defined as the quantity of parts or products currently located in the
factory that either are being processed or are between processing
operations.

WIP = Rpph (MLT)

Where,
• WIP = work-in-process, pc
• Rpph = hourly plant production rate, pc/hr;
• MLT = manufacturing lead time, hr
Introduction to Automation
Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is
accomplished without human assistance.

 Basic elements of an automated system:

1. Power - to accomplish the process and operate the automated
system
2. Program of instructions – to direct the process
3. Control system – to actuate the instructions
Introduction to Automation
1. Power

Power for the process

• To drive the process itself
• To load and unload the work unit
• Transport between operations

Power for automation

• Controller unit
• Power to actuate the control signals
• Data acquisition and information processing
Introduction to Automation
2. Program of instructions
Set of commands that specify the sequence of steps in the work cycle
and the details of each step.
 Example: NC part program.

 During each step, there are one or more activities involving changes
in one or more process parameters.
• Examples:
• Temperature setting of a furnace
• Axis position in a positioning system
• Motor on or off
Introduction to Automation
3. Control System – two types
A. Closed-loop (feedback) control system – a system in which the
output variable is compared with an input parameter, and any
difference between the two is used to drive the output into
agreement with the input

B. Open-loop control system – operates without the feedback loop

i. Simpler and less expensive
ii. Risk that the actuator will not have the intended effect
 Introduction to Automation
3. Control System

(a)

(b)

(a) Feedback Control System and

(b) Open-Loop Control System
Source : Groover, M.P., 2007. Automation, production systems, and computer-integrated manufacturing. Prentice Hall Press.
 Introduction to Automation
3. Control System
Positioning system using feedback control
A one-axis position control system consisting of a leadscrew driven by a dc
servomotor and using an optical encoder as the feedback sensor

Source : Groover, M.P., 2007. Automation, production systems, and computer-integrated manufacturing. Prentice Hall Press.
 Introduction to Automation
3. Control System

When to Use an Open-Loop Control System

 Actions performed by the control system are simple.
 Actuating function is very reliable.
 Any reaction forces opposing the actuation are small enough as to
have no effect on the actuation.
 If these conditions do not apply, then a closed-loop control system
should be used.
Advanced automation functions

1. Safety monitoring

2. Maintenance and repair diagnostics

3. Error detection and recovery

Advanced automation functions
Safety Monitoring
Use of sensors to track the system's operation and identify
conditions that are unsafe or potentially unsafe
 Reasons for safety monitoring
• To protect workers and equipment

 Possible responses to hazards:

• Complete stoppage of the system
• Sound an alarm
• Reduce operating speed of process
• Take corrective action to recover from the safety violation
Advanced automation functions
Maintenance and Repair Diagnostics
 Status monitoring:
• Monitors and records status of key sensors and parameters
during system operation

 Failure diagnostics:
• Invoked when a malfunction occurs
• Purpose: analyze recorded values so the cause of the malfunction
can be identified

 Recommendation of repair procedure:

• Provides recommended procedure for the repair crew to effect
repairs
 Advanced automation functions
Error Detection and Recovery
1. Error detection – functions:
• Use the system’s available sensors to determine when a
deviation or malfunction has occurred
• Correctly interpret the sensor signal
• Classify the error

2. Error recovery – possible strategies:

• Make adjustments at end of work cycle
• Make adjustments during current work cycle
• Stop the process to invoke corrective action
• Stop the process and call for help
Levels of Automation
1. Device level – actuators, sensors, and other hardware components
to form individual control loops for the next level.
2. Machine level – CNC machine tools and similar production
equipment, industrial robots, material handling equipment.
3. Cell or system level – manufacturing cell or system.
4. Plant level – factory or production systems level.
5. Enterprise level – corporate information system.
Levels of Automation

Source : Groover, M.P., 2007. Automation, production systems, and computer-integrated manufacturing. Prentice Hall Press.
CAD and CAM working together
 A modern CAD program is necessary for using either manufacturing,
CAM, or engineering software programs, CAE.
 As both systems require a model in order to perform either analysis
or manufacturing.
 CAE requires the geometric model to determine the integrated
nodal network to use for the analysis.
 CAM requires the part geometry to determine machine tool routes
and cuts. Both require CAD, but CAD can be used as a stand alone
system for engineering virtual models.

 CAD is the backbone for either CAM or CAE and is required for them
to function properly.
 Each software are powerful tools for engineers and machinist that
make daily job functions easier and more efficient, using them
correctly would provide optimum benefit for the individuals and the
companies that utilize them.
Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE)
The following parameters are typically used in mechanical engineering
for CAE simulations:

 Temperature
 Pressure
 Component Interactions
 Applied Forces
CAD/CAM integration
Interaction of the various computer-aided technologies

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_technologies
CAD/CAM integration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-integrated_manufacturing
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
 CAD, or computer-aided design and drafting (CADD), is the use of
computer technology for design and design documentation. CAD
software replaces manual drafting with an automated process.

 Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer

systems (or workstations) to aid in the creation, modification,
analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD software is used to
increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of
design, improve communications through documentation, and to
create a database for manufacturing.

 CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-

dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-
dimensional (3D) space.
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Design process

https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Computer-aided_design/Principles_and_terminology
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
CAD software can be divided based upon the technology used:

1. 2-D drawing: Its applications include, mechanical part drawing,

printed-circuit board design, and layout facilities layout
cartography.

2. Basic 3-D drawing (such as wire-frame modelling)

3. Sculptured surfaces (such as surface modelling)

4. 3-D solid modelling

5. Engineering analysis
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
2-D modelling in CAD software

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Computer Aided Design (CAD)
3-D modelling in CAD software

http://www.jessicakuelz.com/me-123/589ql60dw4939tfcubqkjh5x2k30z9
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Some applications of CAD :

 automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries

 industrial and architectural design
 Prosthetics
 computer animation for special effects in movies
 advertising and technical manuals
 DCC digital content creation.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is the use of software and
computer-controlled machinery to automate a manufacturing
process.

 Based on that definition, you need three components for a CAM

system to function:

• Software that tells a machine how to make a product by

generating toolpaths.

• Machinery that can turn raw material into a finished product.

• Post Processing that converts toolpaths into a language machines

can understand.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
CAD to CAM Process

 Without CAM, there is no CAD.

 CAD focuses on the design of a product or part.
 CAM focuses on how to make it.
 You can design the most elegant part in your CAD tool, but if you can’t
efficiently make it with a CAM system then you’re better off kicking
rocks.

 The start of every engineering process begins in the world of CAD.

 Engineers will make either a 2D or 3D drawing, whether that’s a
crankshaft for an automobile, the inner skeleton of a kitchen faucet, or
the hidden electronics in a circuit board.
 In the world of CAD, any design is called a model and contains a set of
physical properties that will be used by a CAM system.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

Modelling in CAM

https://www.autodesk.com/products/fusion-360/blog/computer-aided-manufacturing-beginners/
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
 When a design is complete in CAD, it can then be loaded into CAM.
 This is traditionally done by exporting a CAD file and then importing
it into CAM software.
 If you’re using a integrated software, both CAD and CAM exist in the
same world, so there’s no import/export required.

 Once your CAD model is imported into CAM, the software starts
preparing the model for machining.
 Machining is the controlled process of transforming raw material
into a defined shape through actions like cutting, drilling, or boring.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
CAM software prepares a model for machining by working through
several actions, including:

 Checking if the model has any geometry errors that will impact the
manufacturing process.

 Creating a toolpath for the model, which is a set of coordinates the

machine will follow during the machining process.

 Setting any required machine parameters including cutting speed,

voltage, cut/pierce height, etc.

 Configuring nesting where the CAM system will decide the best
orientation for a part to maximize machining efficiency.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
 Once the model is prepared for machining, all of that information
gets sent to a machine to physically produce the part.

 However, we can’t just give a machine a bunch of instructions in

English, we need to speak the machine’s language.

 To do this we convert all of our machining information to a language

called G-code. This is the set of instructions that controls a
machine’s actions including speed, feed rate, coolants, etc.
To recapitulate:
1. What are the world class order winning criteria?
2. What is CIM?
3. What are the basic types of automated manufacturing systems?
4. What are the automation principles and strategies?
5. How the industries are classified?
6. What do you understand by operation cycle time, production rate,
availability?
7. How to adjust plant capacity?
8. What are the different levels of automation?
9. What do you understand by CAD and CAM?
Task for students:
Thanks
Reverse Engineering

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Reverse Engineering
◦ Definition
◦ Importance
◦ Applications
◦ Process
 3D Scanning Process
 Hardware
◦ Introduction
◦ RE Hardware: Contact, Non‐contact, Destructive
Reverse Engineering
• Reverse Engineering (RE) is a process of obtaining a geometric CAD
model from 3‐D points acquired by scanning/digitizing existing
parts/products.

Source: https://theconversation.com/explainer‐what‐is‐3d‐printing‐and‐whats‐it‐for‐9456
Reverse Engineering
Importance:
• We cannot start from the very beginning to develop a new product
every time.

• We need to optimize the resources available in our hands and

reduce the production time keeping in view the customers’
requirements.

• For such cases, RE is an efficient approach to significantly reduce the

product development cycle.

For example: Impeller Pump Design

Source: http://www.energyinvestmentcasting.com/aerospace‐4438255.html
Is Reverse Engineering legal?

• It is also often lawful to reverse‐engineer a product or process as

long as it is obtained legitimately.

• If the product is patented, it doesn't necessarily need to be reverse‐

engineered, as patents require a public disclosure of invention.

• It should be mentioned that, just because a piece of product is

patented, that does not mean the entire thing is patented; there may
be parts that remain undisclosed.

• The fundamental use of Reverse Engineering is to get the feel of the

product, in terms of dimensional accuracy. This helps in
improvisation and to determine the flaws in the product.
Is Reverse Engineering legal?
Justifying RE:
• The fundamental use of Reverse Engineering is to get the feel of the
product, in terms of dimensional accuracy. This helps in
improvisation and to determine the flaws in the product.

• In other words, the reverse engineering process in itself is not

concerned with creating a copy or changing the artifact in some way;
it is only an analysis in order to deduce design features from products
with little or no additional knowledge about the procedures involved
in their original production.

• Even when the product reverse engineered is that of a competitor,

the goal may not be to copy them, but to perform competitor
analysis.
Reverse Engineering Process
1. Digitization of the object/
Data Capturing (using CMM,
scanners etc.)

2. Processing of measured data

3. Creation of CAD model. 1

4. Prototype.

1. Source: http://www.udaipurcadatc.com/reverse‐engineering/
2. Source: www.indiacadworks.com/mechanical/reverse‐engineering.php
Reverse Engineering Process

a. b. c.
CAD model generation using laser scanner:
(a) wooden pattern, (b) cloud of points, and (c) 3D CAD model

Fabricated Model
Source: http://www.energyinvestmentcasting.com/aerospace‐4438255.html
Scanning
Contact Scanners:
• CMM Based.

• Soft materials can’t be scanned

accurately. 1

• Comparatively slow process.

Noncontact Scanners:
• Uses lasers, optics and CCD sensors to
capture data points.

• Shiny surfaces and surfaces parallel to

light axis can’t be scanned accurately.
2

1. Source: www.cnc‐step.co.za/accessories‐touchprobe/
2. Source: http://afmhelp.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=51&Itemid=57
3D Scanning Process

For an ideal scanning process, the scanning procedure has been divided
into five key steps:

1. Acquisition

2. Alignment

3. Mesh Generation

4. Post Processing

5. Simplification
3D Scanning Process
1. Acquisition
• The acquisition is the first fundamental step in which the acquired
image is created in the software as a set of points.
• These points define a 3D representation of the part of the object that
has been framed and hit by the light pattern generated by the
projector.
• For this reason, it is advised to proceed with the acquisition of a wide
part of the object first, postponing the acquisition of details and
missing parts in a following moment.
• Once a rough 3D reconstruction has been obtained, the scan can be
improved by adding more views that correspond to some missing
parts.

Source: https://www.creaform3d.com/en/news/creaform‐presents‐perfect‐3d‐scanning‐‐solution‐3d‐printing‐applications
3D Scanning Process
2. Alignment
• Alignment is the work phase, where, it is possible to bring to the
same reference system (align) the Range Images (i.e. images acquired
by using the scanner at different lengths from the object) acquired
previously.

• Manual Alignment: The process is manually helped by the

identification of three corresponding points between the two
acquisitions taken into account.

• Global Alignment: Beside the manual alignment, that works with the
identification of three corresponding points, another alignment tool
called 'global alignment' is also available. It is advised to run this
command after having manually aligned all the range images, in this
way the alignment of each acquisition is optimized with respect to
the others
3D Scanning Process
3. Mesh Generation
Once a sufficient number of range images has been acquired and aligned
in order to create a 3D model as complete as possible, the next step is to
generate a triangular Mesh.
• The Mesh generation converts a set of 3D points (Range Image) to a
data constituted by a set of triangles (Mesh).
• The Mesh is the first useful data that can be elaborated and exported
in the available formats.

1. Source: https://www.3dscanstore.com/index.php?route=journal2%2Fblog%2Fpost&journal_blog_post_id=23
2. Source: https://medium.com/shadow/from‐scan‐to‐avatar‐the‐unsuspected‐hurdles‐618f201e22e8
3D Scanning Process
4. Post Processing
• Post Processing is every operation that involves the enhancement
and finishing of a mesh. Its purpose is to prepare a complete and
flawless 3D model ready to be exported.
• These operations should be chosen depending on the result to be
achieved and they can affect more or less the 3D model.
• Make Manifold: This involves solving the possible topological
issues that can be attributed to the presence of triangle edges
shared by more than two faces.
• Detect and repair intersection: Solving some possible topological
issue, attributed to the triangles that intersect other triangles of
the mesh surface.
• Fill Holes: Detection and fixing of missing parts on the mesh
surface. It automatically fills the missing data with a surface
composed of triangles that propagates the nearby shape and
texture information.
3D Scanning Process
5. Simplification
Under this process, are gathered all the steps made on the mesh that
(tend to) simplify the data.
• Reduce noise on mesh: When the generated 3D model presents
some surface imperfection, such as roughness or orange peel effect,
a filter commonly defined as reduce noise, can be applied to smooth
the surface. This is an operation works like a digital sandpaper.
• Mesh Decimation:
• Reduction of the number of mesh triangles. This operation can
be done forcing a tolerance that guarantees that the decimated
3D model does not differ more than this value from the original
model.
• It is done in order to have a more manageable file that is quicker
to elaborate with the post processing tools, and of smaller
dimension, thus easier to share on the internet and with less
occupancy on the hard disk, without losing the 3D model details.
Reverse Engineering:
Hardware & Software
• RE hardware is used for RE data acquisition.
• There are three main technologies for RE data acquisition: contact,
non‐contact and destructive.
• Outputs of the RE data acquisition are 2‐D cross‐sectional images and
point clouds that define the geometry of an object.
• RE software transforms the RE data produced by RE hardware into 3‐
D geometric models.
• RE data processing chain can be one of two types of 3‐D data: (i)
polygons or (ii) curves
• Polygon models are commonly used for rapid prototyping, laser
milling, 3‐D graphics, simulation, and animations.
Reverse Engineering: Hardware
Classification:
3. Total Station
• Laser Trackers

• Total Stations

• Digital Photogrammetry

• Portable CMM’s

2. Laser Tracker
1. Portable CMM
1. Source: http://gemini‐bps.com/products_portable_cmms.html
2. Source: http://www.oasisalignment.com/blog/laser‐trackers‐3d‐precision‐measurement/
3. Source: https://tinyurl.com/ycofjr5l
Reverse Engineering: Hardware
Contact Methods:
• Use sensing devices with mechanical arms, CMM and CNC m/c to
digitize a surface.
• Data collection techniques:
i. point to point sensing with touch‐trigger probes installed on
CMM or articulated mechanical arm to gather co‐ordinate
points of a surface.
CMM provides more accurate measurement data compared the
articulate arm, but due to lack of no. of DOF, it can’t be used to
digitize complex surfaces.
ii. analogue sensing with scanning probes installed on CMM or
CNC m/c .
The scanning probe provides a continuous deflection output
that can be combined with m/c position to derive the location
of the surface.
The scanning speed in analogue sensing is up to 3 times faster
than point‐ to‐point sensing.
Reverse Engineering: Hardware
Point Processing
• Importing the point cloud data.

• Reducing the noise in the data collected.

• Reducing the number of points.

• These tasks are performed using a range of predefined filters.

• Multiple scans are sometimes needed to ensure all the required

points are scanned.

• A wide range of commercial software are required.

• The output is a clean, merged, point cloud data set in the most
convenient format.
 Reverse Engineering: Hardware
Point‐to‐point sensing equipment

1.
2.
Zenith 3 CNC CMM

1. Source: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/3d‐portable‐cmm‐11080164633.html
2. Source: https://www.aberlink.com/products/cmm/zenith‐3/
 Reverse Engineering: Hardware
Analogue sensing equipments

1. SP25M scanning probes 2. Roland DGA Corp. MDX‐20 scanning

from Renishaw Inc. and milling machine using Roland Active
Piezo Sensor for 3D scanning
1. Source: https://www.renishaw.com/en/sp25m‐‐6688
2. Source: http://www.fablab.uchile.cl/proyectos/220/tutorial‐modela‐mdx‐20‐para‐fabricacion‐de‐pcb/
Reverse Engineering: Hardware
Advantages of contact mode
• High accuracy.

• Low costs.

• Ability to measure deep slots and pockets.

• Insensitivity to colour or transparency.

Non‐contact methods

• 2D cross sectional images and point clouds are captured projecting

energy sources (light, sound, or magnetic field) on an object.

• Then, either the transmitted or the reflected energy is observed.

• The geometrical data are calculated by using triangulation, time‐of‐

flight, wave interference information, and image processing
algorithms.

• The classifications of non‐contact RE hardware are based on the

sensor technologies or data acquisition techniques employed.
Non‐contact methods
Advantages of non‐contact mode
• No physical contact.

• Fast digitizing of substantial volumes.

• Good accuracy and resolution for common applications.

• Ability to detect colours.

• Ability to scan highly detailed objects, where mechanical touch

probes may be too large to accomplish the task.
Optical techniques
Triangulation
• Most laser scanners use straightforward geometric triangulation to
determine the surface coordinates of an object.
• Triangulation is a method that employs locations and angles between
light sources and photosensitive devices (CCD) to calculate
coordinates.
• There are two variants of triangulation schemes using CCD cameras:
single and double CCD camera.
• In a single camera system, a device transmits a light spot (or line) on
the object at a defined angle. A CCD camera detects the position of
the reflected point (or line) on the surface.
• In a double camera system, two CCD cameras are used. The light
projector is not involved in any measuring functions and may consist
of a moving light spot or line, moving stripe patterns, or a static
arbitrary pattern.
Optical Techniques
Triangulation

https://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/sensors_transducers_detectors/linear_position_sensing/optical_triangulation_position_sensors
Optical techniques
• In fig (a), a high energy light source is focused and projected at a pre‐
specified angle (θ) onto the surface of an object.
• A photosensitive device senses the reflection from the illuminated
point on the surface.
• Fixed baseline length (L) between the light source and the camera is
known from calibration.
• Using geometric triangulation from the known angle (θ ), the focal
length of the camera (F), the image coordinate of the illuminated
point (P), and fixed baseline length (L), the position of the
illuminated point (Pi) with respect to the camera coordinate system
can be calculated as follows:

• The measurement errors in P and θ can be determined from the

following equation:
Structured Light

• A light pattern is projected at a known angle onto the surface of

interest and an image of the resulting pattern, reflected by the
surface, is captured.
• The image is then analyzed to calculate the coordinates of the data
point on the surface.
• A light pattern can be (i) a single point; (ii) a sheet of light (line) or
(iii) a strip, grid, or more complex coded light.
• The most commonly used pattern is a sheet of light that is
generated by fanning out a light beam.
• When a sheet of light intersects an object, a line of light is formed
along the contour of the object. This line is detected and the X, Y, Z
coordinates of hundreds of points along the line are simultaneously
calculated by triangulation.
Features of Structured Light

• The data acquisition is very fast (up to millions of points per second).

• Colour texture information is available.

• Structured‐light systems do not use a laser.

Features of Structured Light
Different light patterns used in structured‐light techniques

Source: http://transducersensors.com/structured‐lighting‐for‐3d‐sensors/different‐types‐of‐structured‐light‐patterns/
Features of Structured Light
2‐D Image acquisition using structured light, parallel light strips pattern.

Source: https://all3dp.com/1/best‐3d‐scanner‐diy‐handheld‐app‐software
Interferometry (Moiré Effects)

• Used for dimensional inspection and flatness and deformation

measurements.
• Structured‐light patterns are projected onto a surface to produce
shadow Moiré effects.
• The light contours produced by Moiré effects are captured in an
image and analyzed to determine distances between the lines.
• This distance is proportional to the height of the surface at the point
of interest, and so the surface coordinates can be calculated.
• The Moiré technique gives accurate results for 3‐D reconstruction and
measurement of small objects and surfaces.
• However, it has limitations for larger objects because precision is
sacrificed for range.
Interferometry (Moiré Effects)

1. 2. A moiré pattern, formed 3. Concentric Circles

by two sets of parallel Pattern
lines, one set inclined at
an angle of 5° to the other.

1. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Moir%C3%A9_pattern.svg
2. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moir%C3%A9_pattern#/media/File:070309‐moire‐a5‐a5‐upward‐movement.gif
3. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moir%C3%A9_pattern#/media/File:Moire_Lines.svg
Destructive Method

• The RE destructive method is useful for small and complex objects,

in which both internal and external features are required to be
scanned.

• A CNC milling machine exposes 2‐D cross‐sectional (slice) images,

which are then gathered by a CCD camera.

• The scanning software automatically converts the digital bitmap

image to edge detected points, as the part is scanned.

• To remodel the part, 2‐D slice images of the part are gathered by
destroying the part layer‐by‐layer.
Examples of 3D data applications

• Environmental data
• GIS
• Air Quality
• Water Quality
• Built Environment
• Building Design (CAD/Architecture modeling)
• Building Documentation
• Ground Penetrating Radar
• Manufactured Objects
• Design/Production/Quality Control
• Catalog/Sale
• Medical
• CAT scans
• Ultrasound
Data Components

• Raw Data
• Textual
• 2D Image/surface
• 3D Spatial
• N‐Dimensional
• Time
• Sensor data
• Derived Data
• Modeled Data
• Technical Data
• File Formats
• Applications
• Researcher Annotations (to permit reconstruction)
• “Bookmark” Information Documenting Searches/Interaction
Metadata

• Traditional textual info (Dublin Core, COPARES, etc.)

• Non‐static information (audio, video, etc.)

• 2D data (from new and existing sources)

• 3D data (point cloud and modeled)

• Multi‐dimensional data (i.e. vector, sensor, time, etc.)

Recapitulation
• What is Reverse Engineering? – Importance, Process
• What are the different types of scanners?
• What do you mean by point processing?
• How is the geometric model generated?
• What is the role of hardware and software in reverse engineering?
• What do you mean by contact method of scanning?
• What do you mean by Non‐Contact mode of scanning?
Task for Students
Thanks
Managing Competitiveness

Dr. Janakarajan Ramkumar

Professor
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
IIT Kanpur, India.
 Contents
 Benchmarking

 Outsourcing

 Mass Customisation
Benchmarking

• What is benchmarking?
• Benchmarking is a way to go backstage and watch another
company’s performance from the wings, where all stage tricks and
hurried realignments are visible.
Benchmarking

http://www.best-in-class.com/bestp/domrep.nsf/insights/what-is-benchmarking-definition-types!opendocument
Benchmarking

Process Benchmarking:

• Demonstration of how top performing companies accomplish the

specific process.
• Such benchmarking is gathered via research, surveys/interviews,
and site visits.
• By identifying how others perform the same functional task or
objective, people gain insight and ideas they may not otherwise
achieve.
• Such information affirms and supports decision-making by
executives.
•
Benchmarking

Performance Metrics:

• Performance metrics give numerical standard against which a

client’s own processes can be compared.
• These metrics are usually determined via a detailed and carefully
analyzed survey or interviews.
• Clients can then identify performance gaps, prioritize action items,
and then conduct follow-on studies to determine methods of
improvement.
•
Benchmarking

Strategic Benchmarking:

• Identification of the fundamental lessons and winning strategies

that have enabled high performing companies to be successful in
their marketplaces.
• Strategic benchmarking examines how companies compete and is
ideal for corporations with a long-term perspective.
Benchmarking

The Essence of Benchmarking

• The essence of benchmarking is the continuous process of
comparing a company’s
• strategy,
• products,
• processes
with those of the world leaders and best-in-class organizations.
• Main purpose is to learn how the achieved excellence, and then
setting out to match and even surpass it.
• The justification lies partly in the question: Why reinvent the wheel
if I can learn from someone who has already done it?
• However, Benchmarking is not a panacea that can replace all other
quality efforts or management processes.
Benchmarking

Process of Benchmarking :
• Organizations that benchmark adapt the process to best fit their
own needs and culture.
• Number of steps in the process may vary from organization to
organization.
• The following six steps contains the core techniques.
Benchmarking

Levels of Benchmarking

There are three levels of benchmarking:

1. Internal benchmarking (within the company)

2. Competitive or strategic benchmarking (Industry and competitors)

3. Benchmarking outside the industry.

Benchmarking
Benefits :
There are three sets of benefits:
1. Cultural Change:
• Benchmarking allows organizations to set realistic, rigorous new
performance targets, and this process helps convince people of the
credibility of these targets.

2. Performance Improvement:
• Benchmarking allows the organization to define specific gaps in
performance and to select the processes to improve.
• These gaps provide objectives and action plans for improvement at
all levels of organization and promote improved performance for
individual and group participants.
Benchmarking
Benefits :

3. Human Resources:
• Benchmarking provides basis for training.
• Employees begin to see gap between what they are doing and what
best-in-class are doing.
• Closing the gap points out the need of personnel to be trained to
learn techniques of problem solving and process improvement.
 Outsourcing
• In business, outsourcing is an agreement in which one company
contracts-out a part of their existing internal activity to another
company.
• It involves the contracting out of a business process (e.g. payroll
processing, claims processing) and operational, and/or non-core
functions (e.g. manufacturing, facility management, call
center support) to another party.

https://newtheory.com/fantastic-2017-growth-hack-34-of-companies-are-outsourcing/
Outsourcing

Different Outsourcing Categories

• Nowadays, most freelancers or outsourcing providers will fall into
one of the following categories, in regards to the services that they
provide their clients.
• Some will even offer several of these:
• Inbound Customer Service
• Outbound Telemarketing
• Web Design & Development
• SEO and Online Marketing
• Back Office / Admin Support
• Virtual Assistant Services
• Accounting and HR Management
• Marketing & Sales Support
Outsourcing

Different Outsourcing Categories

• Simply put, outsourcing will give away some of your business

tasks that can easily be managed by an independent entity, making
life easier for business owners.

• Most of the time, as well as being able to pass on these tasks to

someone more experienced than yourself (or your company), you
will also save money, against hiring someone locally to do the same
job.
Outsourcing
Workflow

http://www.schwabintelligenttechnologies.com/OutsourcingEducation
Outsourcing

Outsourcing myths

• Outsourcing technology is expensive.

• Going to third party will mean lower quality.

• If my data is off site, I will loose control over it.

Mass Customization

What is Mass Customization?

• Mass customization is the process of delivering wide-market goods

and services that are modified to satisfy a specific customer need.

• Mass customization is a marketing and manufacturing technique

that combines the flexibility and personalization of custom-made
products with the low unit costs associated with mass production.

• Mass customization products may also be referred to as made to

order or built to order.
Mass Customization

Approaches to mass customization

• There are four basic approaches to mass customization, depending
on customization of the product itself or its representation.
Mass Customization

1.Collaborative Customization
• Collaborative customizers talk to the clients to help them recognize
what they need, to recognize factors that will fulfill those needs and
to create customized products following those guidelines.

2. Adaptive Customization
• Businesses that follow the approach of adaptive customization offer
one standard product to the customers along with a few
customization options.
• This approach makes sure that the product is designed in a manner
that it can be customized by the end client with absolute ease.
Mass Customization

Source :https://blog.marketculture.com/tag/customerizationmass-customization-business-and-consumer-interactionservice-
interactionpeople-centric-businessescustomer-centric-businesses/
Mass Customization

3. Cosmetic Customization
• Cosmetic customizers advertize a standard product differently to
different groups of clients.
• This approach works well when clients use the same product but
want them to be presented differently.

4. Transparent Customization
• Transparent Customization deals with providing customized
products to individual clients without telling them that the products
are exclusively produced for them.
• This approach work in cases where the customer does not want to
repeat what she/he needs incessantly or when client needs are
predictable or obvious.
Mass Customization

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Customer participation is more. 1. Requirement of highly flexible

production technology.

2. Customers are more pleased. 2. Difficulty in achieving efficiency.

3. Stronger relation between 3. Requirement of strong direct to

company and customers. customer logistics system.

4. Elimination of scrap quantity. 4. High warehousing costs.

 To recapitulate:
 What is Benchmarking?

 Types of Benchmarking and its levels?

 What is outsourcing?

 Myths and reality in outsourcing

 What is Mass Customisation?

 Various approaches to Mass Customization?

 Recapitulate the PDM course
Following aspects are covered in the course:

◦ Product characteristics

◦ Product Design Process, and Costing

◦ Value Engineering, Creativity, and Patenting

◦ Design for ‘X’

◦ Rapid Prototyping, 3DP Laboratory demonstration

◦ Manufacturing systems, Plant Layout, software demonstration

◦ Computer Integrated Manufacturing, and Reverse Engineering

◦ Competitiveness management
Task for students
Thanks