Cryptography Redefined: Quantum Key Distribution

and True Randomness

1st Brinthan S 2nd Deva senan KM 3rd Dilip kumar K
Department of Information technology Department of Information technology Department of Information
technology SRM Institute of science and technology SRM Institute of science and technology SRM Institute of science and
technology
Tiruchirappalli, India Tiruchirappalli, India Tiruchirappalli, India [email protected] [email protected]
[email protected]
Abstract—The Modern cryptography system heavily rely on the must change the encryption mechanism which should be
mathematical assumptions. Which are no match to the quantum quantum resistant.
computers. The emergence of quantum supremacy gives a critical
threat to our privacy. It can possibly break any of the encryption This paper mainly focuses on the framework that integrates
standards today in finite time. Quantum computers are becoming a Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and Quantum Random
threat to the information technology and as well as communication Number Generation (QRNG) to redefine cryptographic
technology. Algorithms like RSA are vulnerable to this new
technology with the help of Shor’s Algorithm. This poses a threat to
standards. Although this paper needed in depth
almost every communication via internet. This paper proposes an understanding of quantum mechanics and mathematics, we
idea that could possibly benefit humankind. It uses not only are discussing the necessary topics in order for better
mathematical principles but also the essence of quantum understanding. By bridging quantum mechanics with
mechanics. We are trying to harness the unique properties of
subatomic particles to make the Cryptography even stronger and
cryptographic engineering, we aim to contribute toward a
quantum resistant. The goal of this paper is to integrate Quantum future-proof cryptographic infrastructure.
Key Distribution(QKD) with QRNG(Quantum Random Number
Generation). With the help of quantum mechanics we can harness II. QUANTUM STATES AND ITS REPRESENTATION
true random numbers which can change our entire Encryption The quantum state can be defined as the state of the
Standards. By leveraging core principles of quantum mechanics— quantum particle. That is, the spin or polarity (in case of
specifically superposition, entanglement and quantum tunneling—
we propose a framework that ensures both secure key exchange and photons). These properties of the quantum particles are used
also quantum resistant by truly unpredictable key generation. This as the quantum states for the calculation. The qubit is a
paper is intended to focus mainly on the algorithmic part but for quantum bit, we often use this term to represent the
better understanding quantum mechanics and mathematics are quantum particle. This single Qubit represents a single
included. In the future we can extend the research paper’s practical
aspect by generation scalable QRNG and demonstration of quantum quantum particle, which is used for computing. These
communication with the same classical channel. We appreciate quantum states are expressed mathematically using quantum
fellow researchers to contribute their best to this emerging field. state vectors, these vectors lies in the hilbert space. These
Index Terms—quantum key distribution(QKD), quantum random vectors can exist in the linear combination of basis vectors
number generation(QRNG), post-quantum cryptography,
cryptographic algorithm (superposition of basis vectors).
A. Dirac Notation
I. INTRODUCTION Quantum states are typically represented using the Dirac
In this digital era, cryptography forms the backbone of notation. A state vector is denoted as a ket, written |ψ⟩,
secure communication, from online banking to national while its conjugate transpose is called a bra, written ⟨ψ|. The
defense. Classical cryptographic algorithms such as RSA and inner product of any two quantum states is given by |ψ⟩⟨ϕ|
ECC are nothing but mathematical assumptions. They are and the outer product is given by ⟨ψ||ϕ⟩, which can be
deterministic algorithm which can be solved with enough generalized by the braket notation ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩
resource and time. But currently they are infeasible to solve A qubit, the fundamental unit of quantum information,
using our classical computers. But we have kick started the exists in a two-dimensional Hilbert space spanned by the
quantum supremacy very long ago. The emergence of orthonormal basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩. Any pure state of a
quantum computer and their ability to solve complex qubit can be represented as a linear combination
problem threatens the cyber world. (superposition):
Unlike classical computer, quantum computer are more like
probabilistic in nature, they uses quantum mechanics as |ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β |1⟩, where α,β ∈ C
principle and subatomic particles as processing unit. Because
of their unique exhibition of quantum property. So, in order Here, α and β are complex probalility amplitude. So, it
to prevent and secure our data from quantum supremacy we follows a condition such that,
 |α|2 + |β|2 = 1 any eavesdropping attempt, even by an adversary with
unlimited computational power. Unlike classical methods
Since the total probability of any measurement or event is
such as RSA, whose security is based on assumptions like
equal to 1.
integer
B. Superposition and Measurement
factorization being hard, QKD relies on fundamental laws of
The superposition principle is one of the key distinctions quantum mechanics: **Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle**,
between quantum and classical states. A quantum system the **no-cloning theorem**, and the **irreversibility of
can exist in a superposition of states until measured, at which quantum measurement**.
point it collapses to one of the basis states probabilistically. A. The BB84 Protocol
For example, the Hadamard operation on the qubit state |0⟩
The BB84 protocol, proposed by Charles Bennett and Gilles
results in:
Brassard in 1984, is the first and most widely used QKD
protocol. It uses two mutually unbiased bases in a
twodimensional Hilbert space:
This creates a equal superposition of the basis states |0⟩ and • Rectilinear (computational) basis: {|0⟩,|1⟩}
|1⟩, each measuring with the probability 50%. • Diagonal (Hadamard) basis: {|+⟩,|−⟩}, where

This is just a simple representation of superposition of

basis vectors. But it is not always rendered with equal
probability, and there is no use with equal probable The steps of the BB84 protocol can be mathematically
outcomes. In reality, we always measure a quantum state formalized as:
with biased probability, that is, |α|2 ̸= |β|2. The hadamard 1) Alice generates a random bit string a ∈ {0,1}n and a
operation on biased state can be given by, random basis string b ∈ {Z,X}n (where Z = rectilinear, X =
diagonal).
2) She encodes each bit ai as a qubit |ψi⟩ in basis bi:

C. Mixed States and Density Matrices

While pure states are sufficient to describe isolated
systems, real-world quantum systems often interact with
their environment, leading to mixed states. These are
described using a density matrix ρ, which generalizes the
state description: if ai = 0, bi = Z
Z
X X
ρ = pi |ψi⟩⟨ψi|
i X

Here, pi is the classical probabilities associated with each 3) She sends the quantum state |ψi⟩ to Bob over a
pure states ψi. In the case of a completely mixed qubit state, quantum channel.
the density matrix is: 4) Bob chooses a random basis b′i for each received qubit
and performs measurement, obtaining result a′i.
5) Alice and Bob publicly disclose their basis strings b and
This describes maximum uncertainty — a common feature b′ over a classical authenticated channel, and discard all
in QRNG and QKD when viewed from the perspective of an bits where bi =
̸ b′i.
eavesdropper. Which will be discussed in the next section. 6) The remaining bits form the sifted key k, with high
probability k = k′ if there is no noise or eavesdropping.
III. QUANTUM KEY DISTRIBUTION (QKD)
B. Security Through Measurement Disturbance
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a cryptographic
technique that enables two distant parties, Alice and Bob, to Suppose an eavesdropper Eve performs an intercept-
generate a shared secret key that is provably secure against resend attack. She measures each incoming qubit using a
random basis and resends her result to Bob. This introduces E. Practical Considerations and Enhancements
errors with a probability of 25%:
In real-world systems, photon loss, detector inefficiencies,
Let Perror be the probability that Bob receives a wrong bit and channel noise are non-negligible. Several enhanced
due to Eve: protocols have been proposed:

• Decoy-state BB84: Adds randomly chosen low-intensity

decoy pulses to detect photon number splitting (PNS)
Since only half of the bits are kept after basis
attacks.
reconciliation, the observed quantum bit error rate (QBER)
• Entanglement-based QKD (e.g., E91): Uses shared
becomes:
entangled pairs , offering
deviceindependent security.
# mismatched bits in sifted key
• Measurement-device-independent QKD (MDI-QKD):
QBER = ≈ 25% Removes vulnerabilities associated with detector-
length of sifted key sidechannel attacks by having both parties send qubits
to an untrusted third party for Bell-state measurements.
A QBER above a certain threshold (e.g., 11% for BB84)
signals the presence of an adversary, and the key is
F. Summary
discarded.
C. Privacy Amplification and Error Correction QKD enables secure communication not by assuming
computational hardness, but by exploiting the intrinsic
Once the sifted key is generated, it is still not guaranteed to
unpredictability and measurement-disturbance of quantum
be completely secure due to potential leakage during
systems. The mathematical foundation—rooted in linear
transmission or due to noise. Thus, two classical post-
algebra, Hilbert spaces, and probability—offers provable
processing steps are applied:
security even in the era of quantum computers.
• Error correction (e.g., Cascade or LDPC codes): Ensures IV. QUANTUM RANDOM NUMBER GENERATION
both Alice and Bob share identical keys.
Random numbers are the backbone of modern
• Privacy amplification: Reduces Eve’s partial information cryptographic systems. They are used in the generation of
using universal hash functions. If Eve’s knowledge is secure encryption keys, initialization vectors, salts for
bounded by mutual information IE, a new shorter key of hashing, onetime passwords (OTPs), and other cryptographic
length l can be extracted such that Eve’s knowledge primitives. In classical computation, Pseudo-Random Number
becomes negligible: Generators (PRNGs) are widely used, which, though sufficient
for many applications, are fundamentally deterministic. They
l ≤ n(1 − H2(QBER)) − leakEC
rely on mathematical algorithms seeded with some initial
value; thus, they can, in principle, be predicted or reproduced
where H2(p) is the binary entropy function and leak EC is
given sufficient computational resources or leaked seeds.
the number of bits revealed during error correction.
In contrast, Quantum Random Number Generators
D. Quantum Randomness and Mixed States (QRNGs) exploit the intrinsic probabilistic behavior of
quantum systems, offering a source of true randomness. This
In BB84, the randomness in key generation is unpredictability is not due to ignorance or lack of data but is
fundamentally quantum. Both the state preparation and a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.
measurement basis choices are governed by quantum
random number generators (QRNGs). From Eve’s perspective, A. Quantum States and Superposition
due to lack of knowledge about basis choices, the qubits are In quantum information theory, a quantum bit or qubit is
effectively in a mixed state: represented by a state vector in a two-dimensional Hilbert
space:

This maximally mixed state implies that Eve cannot extract |ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β |1⟩, where α,β ∈ C, |α|2 + |β|2 = 1
any meaningful information without introducing detectable
disturbance.
 Here, |0⟩ and |1⟩ are the computational basis states. The Extractor : {0,1}n × {0,1}d → {0,1}m, m ≈ H∞(X)
coefficients α and β represent probability amplitudes; their
squared magnitudes give the probabilities of measuring the Here, d is a short truly random seed (which can be reused),
qubit in the respective states. and m is the output length.
A maximally uncertain state—i.e., one that yields a 50-50
outcome when measured in the computational basis—is the D. Applications in Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)
equal superposition state:
QRNG-generated keys can be integrated into Quantum Key
Distribution (QKD) protocols to improve key unpredictability.
(1) For instance, in BB84, the bases (rectilinear or diagonal) and
bit values can be chosen using QRNGs instead of PRNGs,
Measuring this state in the |0⟩,|1⟩ basis yields either 0 or 1
further reducing the attack surface for quantum adversaries.
with equal probability:
Moreover, QRNGs provide entropy sources for
postquantum encryption schemes like lattice-based, code-
based, and multivariate polynomial cryptosystems. These
This forms the foundation of quantum randomness. systems often require secure random sampling from high-
dimensional distributions, such as discrete Gaussians—where
B. Beam Splitter-Based QRNG
QRNGs provide a strong advantage in seeding security.
A practical implementation of QRNG involves a 50:50 beam
splitter and single-photon sources. A photon impinges on the E. Security Model: Information-Theoretic Randomness
beam splitter and is either transmitted or reflected with
equal probability, forming a binary random event: In the presence of an adversary Eve, the quantum
randomness source must satisfy composable security. That is,
• Reflected→ Encode as bit 0 • Transmitted → Encode as bit
the output R of the QRNG should be indistinguishable from
1 uniform even conditioned on Eve’s quantum side information
This setup can be formally modeled as a measurement in ρ E:
the computational basis after preparing a photon in the state
|ψ⟩ from Eq. (1). The outcome is irreducibly random due to
the Born rule, which governs measurement probabilities in
quantum mechanics. Where τR is the uniform distribution over R, and ϵ is the
Let M = {|0⟩⟨0|,|1⟩⟨1|} be the measurement operators. security parameter.
Then the expected entropy of the outcome is: V. INTEGRATION OF QKD AND QRNG FOR SECURE KEY GENERATION
In the proposed approach, we aim to integrate Quantum
Key Distribution (QKD) with Quantum Random Number
bit
Generation (QRNG) to securely generate cryptographic keys.
Thus, each measurement yields one bit of Shannon The system utilizes photons as the quantum particle for
entropy, i.e., maximal information-theoretic randomness. communication, which are transmitted through an existing
fiberoptic channel. This transforms the classical
C. Entropy Extraction and Min-Entropy communication channel into a quantum information channel,
leveraging the properties of quantum mechanics such as
In practice, real-world QRNGs suffer from imperfections
superposition and decoherence. The secure key for the QKD
such as detector bias, photon loss, and noise. To ensure high-
is then generated using random bits produced by the QRNG
quality randomness, one extracts entropy from the raw
process.
bitstream using randomness extractors. Let the min-entropy
of the source be: A. Quantum Information Transmission Through Fiber-Optic
Channels
In classical communication, information is transmitted
If H∞(X) < 1, a randomness extractor such as a Trevisan through a channel using classical bits, typically represented
extractor or universal hash function is used to distill nearly by 0s and 1s. In contrast, quantum communication uses
uniform bits from the biased or imperfect source. This quantum bits (qubits), represented by the quantum states of
process ensures that the final output is statistically close to particles like photons. The photon-based quantum state can
uniform, with distance ϵ in total variation distance. be in a superposition of the classical states |0⟩ and |1⟩, as
governed by the principles of quantum mechanics.
 When a photon is sent through the fiber-optic channel, it In practical terms, any attempt by Eve to measure or
may be in one of the following states: intercept the photon introduces errors into the transmission,
and these errors are detectable by the legitimate parties
|ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β |1⟩, where |α|2 + |β|2 = 1 (Alice and Bob). This leads to the concept of the Quantum Bit
Error Rate (QBER), which is used to assess the presence of
where α and β are complex probability amplitudes, and |α|2 eavesdropping.
and |β|2 represent the probabilities of measuring the qubit in
the |0⟩ or |1⟩ state, respectively.
Nerror
The transmission of quantum information through a
QBER =
fiberoptic channel typically uses the polarization states of
photons or their path to encode the quantum information. Ntotal
For example, by using the polarization of a photon, we can where Nerror is the number of bits that differ between Alice’s
define two possible states for encoding information: and Bob’s key, and Ntotal is the total number of bits compared.
horizontal polarization |H⟩ (representing the classical bit 0)
and vertical polarization |V ⟩ (representing the classical bit 1).
In quantum mechanics, the quantum state of the photon C. Quantum Random Number Generation (QRNG) as the
transmitted through the channel could be represented as: Secure Key
For the secure key generation, we utilize Quantum Random
|ψ⟩ = α|H⟩ + β |V ⟩
Number Generation (QRNG), where the randomness is
When the photon reaches the receiver (Bob), the quantum derived from the intrinsic quantum properties of photons.
state is measured. If the photon’s polarization is |H⟩, the This randomness arises from the probabilistic nature of
measurement outcome corresponds to 0; if the polarization quantum measurements, which cannot be predicted or
is |V ⟩, the outcome corresponds to 1. Due to quantum reproduced by any classical system.
mechanics’ probabilistic nature, the outcome is not A common method for QRNG is to use a beam splitter,
deterministic, but rather probabilistic, as described by the which splits a single photon into two possible paths, with
Born rule. each path corresponding to a possible outcome (0 or 1). The
photon’s path is random, and the binary outcome can be
B. Superposition and Decoherence: Ensuring Security recorded as a random bit. This method produces truly
One of the key features that ensure security in QKD is the random bits, and since the process is governed by quantum
quantum principle of superposition. A photon can exist in a mechanics, it is impossible for an eavesdropper to predict the
superposition of polarization states |H⟩ and |V ⟩ until it is outcome without disturbing the system.
measured. This feature guarantees that any interception or The randomness can be mathematically represented as:
eavesdropping attempt by an adversary (Eve) will disturb the
quantum state and introduce detectable errors.
P(photon reflected) = (photon transmitted) =
The superposition principle can be mathematically
expressed as: This probabilistic behavior ensures that the generated bits
are truly random, unlike classical pseudorandom number
generators (PRNGs), which are based on deterministic
algorithms.
This is a balanced superposition state where the photon has D. Integration of QKD and QRNG for Secure Communication
equal probability to be measured in either the |H⟩ or |V ⟩ To securely generate a key using QKD, we leverage QRNG
state, corresponding to 0 and 1, respectively. to provide the random bits that serve as the raw key. After
However, due to decoherence, which is caused by the the quantum key exchange between Alice and Bob, they
interaction of the quantum state with the environment, the compare the error rate and use error correction methods to
information can become corrupted. Decoherence causes the reconcile discrepancies in their keys. The final secure key is
superposition state to collapse into one of the basis states (| derived after applying Privacy Amplification, ensuring that
H⟩ or |V ⟩), and this collapse is irreversible. If Eve intercepts even if Eve has partial information, she cannot learn the key.
the photon, she will disturb its superposition state, and the The integration of QRNG ensures that the raw key
measurement will collapse the state, introducing errors. This exchanged via QKD is cryptographically secure, as it is based
is known as the “no-cloning theorem” of quantum on truly random numbers. The key is immune to classical
mechanics, which guarantees that Eve cannot perfectly copy attacks, and since the randomness is rooted in quantum
the quantum state without disturbing it.
phenomena, it is resistant to future quantum-based attacks communication channel. This involves utilizing single-photon
as well. detectors and quantum-safe cryptographic algorithms to
In conclusion, by using QRNG to generate the raw key and build a functional quantum key exchange system. With such a
QKD to distribute it securely, we create a system where the system, we can advance towards the deployment of quantum
transmitted key is secure against both classical and quantum communication networks that are resistant to both classical
eavesdropping. This combination provides a robust and quantum-based attacks, ensuring that sensitive data
foundation for secure communication in the quantum remains protected even in the presence of powerful quantum
computing era. adversaries.
Additionally, we are working on the integration of
Quantum Error Correction (QEC) and the mitigation of
Final Key Length = K − leakEC decoherence effects. Decoherence, a phenomenon that
occurs when a quantum system interacts with its
where K is the corrected key length, leakEC is the estimated
environment, can cause the loss of quantum information and
leakage from error correction, and ϵ1 is the security
degrade the performance of quantum communication
parameter. This secure key can then be used for
systems. Quantum Error Correction aims to combat this by
cryptographic applications, including encryption,
encoding quantum information in such a way that errors can
authentication, and digital signatures, providing a quantum-
be detected and corrected without measuring the quantum
safe solution for future cryptographic protocols.
state directly. Reducing the number of qubits needed for
CONCLUSION error correction is an important area of research, as it can
lower the computational and resource demands of quantum
In this paper, we have explored the integration of Quantum
systems. By improving QEC protocols, we aim to make
Key Distribution (QKD) and Quantum Random Number
quantum communication more efficient and scalable, paving
Generation (QRNG) to enhance modern cryptographic
the way for large-scale deployment of quantum-safe
systems, providing a path to quantum-safe and quantum-
cryptographic systems.
resistant communication. We discussed how quantum
mechanics can be harnessed to create secure cryptographic In conclusion, the integration of QKD with QRNG offers a
protocols that are impervious to the growing threats posed promising approach to achieving quantum-safe
by quantum computers. The key focus of this work was on communication over existing infrastructure. The continued
the utilization of existing fiber-optic channels, transforming research into error correction and decoherence will further
them into quantum information channels through the enhance the reliability and scalability of quantum
transmission of quantum particles like photons. communication systems, ultimately enabling secure
cryptographic protocols that are resistant to both classical
The concept of QKD leverages the fundamental properties
and quantum attacks. This project represents a significant
of quantum mechanics, particularly superposition and
step toward realizing the full potential of quantum
entanglement, to ensure secure key distribution. By using
communication in the modern cryptographic landscape,
photons as the carriers of quantum information, we are able
providing a solid foundation for future advancements in
to detect any eavesdropping attempt due to the intrinsic
quantum cryptography.
disturbance caused by measurement, which makes the
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Looking towards the future, one of the primary goals of
this project is to practically demonstrate a quantum