A Generalised Fault Protection Structure for

Unigrounded Low-Voltage AC Microgrids

Duong Minh Bui, Shi-Lin Chen Keng-Yu Lien Jheng-Lun Jiang
Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Avionics Institute of Nuclear Energy Research
Chung Yuan Christian University China University of Science and Atomic Energy Council
Chungli, Taiwan Technology, Hsinchu, Taiwan Taoyuan, Taiwan
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract - This paper introduces uni-grounded low-voltage (LV) AC microgrid is to decay DC components and configure 3-
AC microgrid configurations. A generalised fault protection phase & 5 wire, 3-phase & 4-wire, 3-phase & 3-wire, 1-phase
structure is proposed for all different uni-grounded LVAC & 2-wire, or 1-phase & 3-wire AC microgrids.
microgrids. This protection structure consists of six individual
protection zones in a uni-grounded LVAC microgrid. They are Based on different grounding diagrams of DGs, ESSs,
protection zones of distributed generators (DGs) and energy converters, and isolation and distribution transformers,
storage devices (ESSs), transformers, power converters, source microgrids can be classified into ungrounded microgrids, uni-
branches, load branches, AC trunk lines and common buses. A grounded microgrids and multi-grounded microgrids. A uni-
variety of available fault protection methods are considered for grounded microgrid has a unique grounding point at a
each above protection zone of the uni-grounded AC microgrid. distribution transformer. The distribution transformer is placed
Primary and secondary protection schemes of each different between a microgrid and a distribution grid, which increases
protection zone are designed to ensure stable-reliable-adaptable- the MG voltage to a distribution voltage level. A multi-
scalable operation of a uni-grounded LVAC MG. As a result, grounded microgrid structure has many grounded neutral
main contributions of the paper are: (i) definition of different points at isolation and distribution transformers, and
uni-grounded LVAC microgrids; (ii) concept of a unified fault distributed energy resources. In order to clearly understand
protection structure for uni-grounded MGs; and (iii) about structure of uni-grounded MGs, this paper introduces
appropriate fault protection methods proposed for primary and three main configurations of uni-grounded AC microgrids.
secondary protection of uni-grounded MGs.
Microgrids are expected to improve continuous operation
Index Terms—Fault protection, Microgrid configuration, of electric power systems, power quality, reliability, reduction
Microgrid operation, and Unigrounded microgrids. in power losses, and operation optimality [5]. However,
microgrid technology also brings some considerable
I. INTRODUCTION challenges such as: MG fault protection [6], MG energy
Microgrid (MG) is a small power system containing management and control strategies [7],[8], etc. A variety of
distributed generators (DGs), energy storage systems (ESSs), fault protection solutions have been recently developed to face
and dispersed loads, which can operate at both grid-connected MG protection challenges (e.g. non-directional power flows,
and islanded modes in safety, stability and reliability due to conventional overcurrent relays not activated due to limitation
protective devices, energy management systems and control of fault currents from inverter-based DGs, difficulty in
strategies [1],[2]. The microgrid mainly operates at low- protection coordination of relays) [9]-[33]. Each developed
voltage and medium-voltage levels to adapt to operating fault protection method mostly corresponds with a typical MG
voltage requirements for electrical equipment at households configuration. Therefore, this paper will investigate valuable
and industrial parks. Distributed generators can be renewable fault protection solutions for uni-grounded LVAC microgrids.
energy sources such as photovoltaic (PV), wind, fuel cell (FC) Considering basic operation characteristics of uni-grounded
stack, etc., or can be non-renewable energy sources such as microgrids, a generalised fault protection structure for various
micro/small hydro, micro-turbines, diesel generators, etc. uni-grounded MGs is developed, which contains six particular
Energy storage systems can be battery packs, super-capacitors, protection zones, namely, (i) protection of DG sources and
flywheels, etc. DGs and ESSs are mostly connected to a ESSs; (ii) protection of power converters; (iii) protection of
microgrid through power converters, isolation transformers, or isolation and distribution transformers; (iv) protection of
both of them. In relation to microgrid operation, using the source branches; (v) protection of load branches; and (vi)
converters is to control power flows, stabilise microgrid protection of AC common buses and trunk lines. Primary and
voltage and frequency, eliminate harmonics, and convert AC secondary protection schemes corresponding to each different
voltages into DC voltages and vice-versa [3],[4]. Besides that, protection zone are proposed in order to ensure stable-reliable-
use of isolation transformers at DG and ESS branches in an adaptable-scalable operation of a uni-grounded LVAC MG.
 II. THREE MAIN CONFIGURATIONS OF LOW-VOLTAGE
UNI-GROUNDED AC MICROGRIDS
Uni-grounded low-voltage AC microgrids can be classified
into three main configurations. Configuration I shows that a
neutral point of a distribution transformer is grounded while
other neutral points of isolation transformers at DG and ESS
branches are linked to the grounded neutral point of the
distribution transformer, see Fig. 1. Moreover, distributed
generators and energy storage devices are ungrounded or
grounded through a grounded neutral point of the distribution
transformer. The first configuration is identified as 3-phase
and 4-wire uni-grounded microgrids. Configuration II
indicates that some neutral points of isolation transformers in
a uni-grounded microgrid are not linked to a grounded neutral
point of a distribution transformer while the neutral points of Figure 3. A uni-grounded LVAC MG with Configuration III (all neutral
other isolation transformers are linked to the grounded neutral points of isolation transformers (TR#2, TR#3, TR#4, TR#5) are ungrounded)
point of the transformer, referred to Fig. 2. This second As was indicated in Fig. 1, Fig. 2 & Fig. 3, a typical uni-
configuration is suitable for uni-grounded microgrids mostly
grounded LVAC microgrid contains a dispatchable DG unit -
containing three-phase loads in order to reduce a number of a gas micro-turbine (MT) system, a non-dispatchable DG unit
neutral lines. Configuration III depicts that only a neutral
– a High Concentration PV (HCPV) system, a power
point of a distribution transformer is grounded whereas all conditioning system (PCS) – a battery energy storage system,
neutral points of isolation transformers are ungrounded, see
and a 3-phase load. Windings of isolation transformers TR#2,
Fig. 3. This third configuration is identified as 3-phase and 3-
TR#3, TR#4, and TR#5 are connected in /Yg and Yg/Yg. A
wire uni-grounded AC microgrids.
distribution transformer (TR#1) is connected in /Yg. It is
noted that an Yg connection in transformers is to configure a
3-phase and 4-wire uni-grounded LVAC system in order to
supply single-phase and three-phase loads. Generally, DG
and ESS branches are configured to develop 3-phase and 4-
wire LV uni-grounded AC microgrids by the following ways:
 Using delta/wye-grounded or wye-grounded/wye-
grounded isolation transformers;
 Using a four-leg inverter topology and connecting a mid-
point of the fourth (neutral) leg to a neutral point of a
distribution transformer (being applicable to inverter-
based DG branches);
On the other hand, a grounding system of uni-grounded
LVAC MGs can be high-impedance grounding, low-
impedance grounding and solid/effective grounding. Referred
Figure 1. A typical uni-grounded LVAC microgrid with Configuration I (all
neutral points of isolation transformers (TR#2,TR#3, TR#4, and TR#5) at to Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, a neutral point of the distribution
MT, HCPV, and PCS branches are connected to a uniquely grounded neutral transformer (TR#1) can be grounded through a resistor Rg, a
point of a distribution transformer (TR#1) through a neutral line) reactor Xg, or directly grounded. The solid grounding system
has a ratio of X0 to X1 is positive and less than 3.0 and a ratio
of R0 to X0 is less than 1.0. R0, X0, and X1 are the zero-
sequence resistance and reactance of a grounding source, and
the positive-sequence reactance of a grounded unit,
respectively. Basic characteristics of a solidly uni-grounded
LVAC MG are: (i) during the grid-connected operation mode,
a ground fault current is very high, which can melt fuses or
can immediately actuate overcurrent protection devices; (ii)
during the islanded operation mode, depending on how many
inverter-based DGs and synchronous-based DGs connected to
the MG, fault current values are low or high [10].
Considering a low-resistance grounding system of uni-
grounded LVAC microgrids, it can bring significant
advantages and disadvantages such as: (i) reduction in arcing
currents and limitation to arc-flash risks causing the ground
Figure 2. A typical uni-grounded LVAC microgrid with Configuration II
(some neutral points of isolation transformers (TR#2 & TR#3) are connected faults; (ii) reduction in mechanical and thermal damages in
to a uniquely grounded neutral point of a distribution transformer (TR#1)) transformers; (iii) safety in a ground potential rise (GPR); (iv)
with a fault current limited to 400A along with a 5A or lower protective relays operate based on protection principles such
pickup current of modern solid-state protection devices, as: non-directional/directional overcurrent protection,
approximately 98.75% of transformer windings and motor differential protection, synchronism check, under/over-
windings are effectively protected; and (v) difficulty in voltage protection, negative sequence current or voltage
detecting and locating various faults. A low-impedance uni- based protection, and voltage-restrained overcurrent
grounded AC microgrid can maintain the ground current Ig at protection, which can be selected for each different protection
a certain value as follows [11],[12]: part in a generalised fault protection structure of uni-
 Ig  100A for low-voltage microgrids (less than 1kV); grounded AC microgrids.
 Ig  400A for medium-voltage microgrids (higher than
1kV and less than 35kV); TABLE I. PROTECTIVE RELAYS ARE TYPICALLY USED FOR LOW-
VOLTAGE AC MICROGRID PROTECTION SYSTEMS
With a high-impedance (HI) uni-grounded LVAC Symbols Relay functions
microgrid, it is capable of reducing the ground currents to less 25 Synchronism-check relay
than 25A. A high-impedance grounding system can cause 27/59 Under/overvoltage-based protection relays
difficulties in detecting and locating different ground faults. 27G/59G Neutral under/overvoltage-based protection relays
In other words, a fault protection system of HI uni-grounded 32 Directional power based protection relay
MGs becomes more complexly because of a significant 46 Negative-phase sequence current based protection
reduction in the ground current values along. 47 Negative-phase sequence voltage based protection
67 Directional overcurrent relay
50 Instantaneous phase overcurrent relay
III. A GENERALISED FAULT PROTECTION STRUCTURE OF
50N/51N Neutral overcurrent relays
UNI-GROUNDED LVAC MICROGRIDS 51 Time overcurrent relay
A generalised fault protection structure for uni-grounded 51V Voltage-restrained overcurrent relay
AC MGs is developed with six main protection parts 37 Under-current or under-power based protection
consisting of: 1-protection of DG sources and energy storage 81U/O Under/over-frequency based protection relays
sources; 2-protection of isolation and distribution 87 Differential relays
transformers; 3-protection of power converters (e.g. DC/DC 87T Transformer differential relays
converters, DC/AC inverters or AC/DC rectifiers); 4- Excepting for protective relays having basic fault protection
protection of DG source branches (considering both inverter- principles as depicted in Table I, other fault protection
based DG and rotating-based DG source branches); 5- principles for LVAC MGs are briefly summarised as below:
protection of load branches; and 6-protection of AC trunk  Differential protection: i) differential energy based MG
lines and common buses. For each aforementioned protection protection and ii) differential impedance based MG
part, possible fault protection solutions are proposed, which protection [14]-[16];
can be suitably used for primary or secondary protection.  Protection principles using positive/negative/zero
A. Existing Fault Protection Solutions for AC Microgrids sequence components of currents and voltages (Ipos, Ineg,
Any microgrid protection system is only designed by one Izero, Vpos, Vneg, Vzero, respectively): i) MG protection based
of two fault protection philosophies as the following. One is on zero-sequence current and voltage components; ii) MG
that a MG protection structure is unchanged at both protection based on the ratios |Ineg|/|Ipos|; |Izero|/|Ipos|;
autonomous and grid-connected operation modes by means of (|Ineg|+|Izero|)/|Ipos|; |Vneg|/|Vpos|; |Vzero|/|Vpos|; and
tripping of a static switch. The static switch (SS) is installed (|Vneg|+|Vzero|)/|Vpos|; iii) differential protection based on
at a secondary side of a distribution transformer in a zero-sequence current components to detect single-line to
microgrid (i.e. the SS is placed at a point of common ground faults; and iv) differential protection based on
coupling (PCC) between a microgrid and a distribution negative-sequence current components to detect line-to-
network) [33]. Another one is that a MG protection structure line faults [14];
at an islanded operation mode can be differentiated from that  Using d-axis components of current and voltage (Id and
at a grid-connected operation mode. Specifically, traditional Vd) in a d-q rotating reference frame;
overcurrent protection methods are utilised for MG fault  Admittance based protection principle: An admittance
protection at the grid-connected operation mode, whereas based relay is developed to protect the MG, which does
other available fault protection algorithms are proposed to not depend on limited fault currents caused by inverter-
protect the MG at the islanded operation mode. The second based DGs [17],[18].
MG protection philosophy can be converted into the first  Total harmonic distortion (THD) detection of phase
protection philosophy if the SS is set to trip firstly with currents and voltages: Difference in THD values of
respect to any fault happening at a grid-connected operation currents and voltages between normal and faulted
state of the microgrid. In this paper, a second MG protection operation modes is used to detect various faults [19]-[21].
philosophy is applied for a generalised fault protection  Protection principles based on travelling waves and
structure proposed for different uni-grounded AC microgrids. artificial networks: i) artificial neuron network based
In [13], protective relays typical in a LVAC microgrid are digital relays; and ii) using fuzzy logic theory, decision
mentioned, refer to Table I. Depending on microgrid sizes tree theory, data-mining technique, etc. [22]-[25].
and configurations, and a number of phases, some or all of  Adaptive protection systems (with or without support of
the protective relays in Table I might be needed. These the communication), multi-agent based protection systems
 with support of the communication, wide-area protection large or small depending on penetration level of inverter-
systems with support of the communication, and based DGs and rotating-based DGs into the microgrid,
centralised/decentralised protection systems i) use different fault types, and different fault impedances. While
overcurrent principles; ii) use over/under-voltage inverter-based DGs limit their output fault currents, rotating-
principles; iii) use differential principles; or iv) use THD based DGs can supply large fault currents to activate
values of current and voltage [26]-[28]. overcurrent protection devices. Different faults can be ground
 By using energy storage devices or fault current limiters faults, line-to-line faults, and three-phase fault. Different fault
to increase or decrease fault current values, overcurrent impedances depends on various grounding systems of uni-
principles can be applied for the MG protection [29],[30]. grounded microgrids as well as fault types. For instance,
 Use of 3I0 and 3V0 components: It is proposed to considering ground faults occuring at the islanded operation
distinguish about 3I0 and 3V0 values between various fault mode of a microgrid, ground fault currents will flow crossing
situations and load unbalance cases in the microgrid. a grounded neutral point of a distribution transformer and
back to the DGs and ESSs. The ground fault currents are high
 Using parameters Id or Idn, with Id = Ia + Ib + Ic and Idn = or low according to fault impedance values. If the ground
Ia + Ib + Ic + In (In is current at a neutral line, Ia, Ib and Ic currents are high, protection methods based on phase currents
are currents at phases a, b and c, respectively): difference and voltages are suitable to protect uni-grounded MGs.
in the values Id and Idn between normal and faulted Otherwise, fault protection solutions not based on phase
operation modes is used to detect various faults [10], [33]. currents and voltages such as: use of zero-sequence currents
B. Fault Behaviours of Uni-grounded Microgrids and volatges, use of 3I0 and 3V0 components, use of THD
values of phase currents and voltages, and so on, can be
1) During the grid-connected operation of uni-grounded properly used to detect ground faults in uni-grounded MGs in
MGs: It is proposed to install a solid grounding system for case of small ground fault currents.
uni-grounded microgrids. This case means that a neutral point
of a distribution transformer in a uni-grounded microgrid is C. A Generalised Fault Protection Structure of Uni-
solidly grounded. When a ground fault occurs at the grounded AC Microgrids
microgrid side, a high fault current will flow from the grid to A generalised fault protection structure of uni-grounded
a faulty location of the microgrid. As a result, non-directional LVAC microgrids has six main protection zones as depicted
and directional overcurrent protection principles are in Table II. For each individual protection zone, main and
effectively used to detect and clear the ground fault in the back-up fault protection methods are proposed to ensure the
microgrid. Besides that, other protection principles can be stable-reliable-adaptable-scalable operation of the uni-
used to protect uni-grounded microgrids against the ground grounded MG. In particular, based on fault behaviours of uni-
faults such as: under-voltage protection, THD values of phase grounded microgrids, different grounding systems, a
currents and voltages, 3I0 and 3V0 components, and so on, literature review on existing MG fault protection solutions,
which are selected from a variety of existing microgrid fault and common protective relays listed in Table I, valuable fault
protection solutions aforementioned. Regarding line-to-line protection solutions corresponding to each different
faults and three-phase fault, fault current values are high or protection zone in a uni-grounded microgrid are also
low depending on different fault impedance values. In case of mentioned. The generalised MG protection structure can
high fault impedances, protection solutions not based on detect, identify, and locate ground faults, phase-to-phase
phase fault currents and voltages will be considered. faults, three-phase faults regardless of low/high fault
Otherwise, low fault impedances allow overcurrent relays to impedances and low/high fault currents. More clearly, a MG
be activated for the fault protetion of uni-grounded fault protection structure has high reliability only if it gets
microgrids operating at the grid-connected mode. accuracy in fault detection, location, isolation, and
classification. A generalized microgrid fault protection
2) During the islanded operation of uni-grounded MGs: structure gets high adaptability only if it can optimally work
When a uni-grounded MG operates at an islanded mode, at both radial and meshed microgrid configurations and at
there is not any current flowing from the grid into the grid-connected and islanded operation modes. Moreover, a
microgrid. Therefore, when a fault occurs at a microgrid, total generalized fault protection structure of uni-grounded
fault current is the sum of partial fault currents produced by microgrids gets high scalability only if it can optimally work
DGs and ESSs in the microgrid. The total fault current is in individual operating zones of a uni-grounded microgrid.

TABLE II. A GENERALISED FAULT PROTECTION STRUCTURE FOR UNI-GROUNDED LVAC MICROGRIDS

Part 1 – Fault protection solutions of AC distributed generators and energy storage devices [13]
At both grid-connected and islanded operation modes
Main protection Back-up protection
 Instantaneous overcurrent protection at phase and neutral lines (50/50N)
 Time overcurrent protection (51/51N) and a grounded line (51G)
 Over-/under-frequency (81O/U)
 Voltage-restrained time overcurrent (51V)
 Loss of excitation (40)
 Differential protection (87)
 Synchronization check (25)
 Under-voltage (27) and over-voltage protection (59)
 Negative-sequence overcurrent protection (46)
Part 2 – Fault protection solutions of isolation and distribution transformers [13]
At both grid-connected and islanded operation modes
Main protection Back-up protection
 Phase-current based differential protection (87T)
 Under-voltage (27)
 Time-overcurrent protection at phase and neutral lines (51/51N)
 Over-voltage (59)
 Instantaneous overcurrent protection at phase and neutral lines (50/50N)
Part 3 – Fault protection solutions of power converters
At the grid-connected operation mode At the islanded operation mode
Main protection Back-up protection Main protection Back-up protection
 THD values of currents and voltages  THD values of currents & voltages  Use of the Id parameter
 Protective relays use negative-sequence current  Under-voltage protection  Under-voltage protection
 Relays use negative-sequence
and voltage components (46, 47), the ratios  Under-/over- frequency current and voltage components  Under-/over- frequency
|Ineg|/|Ipos|, |Vneg|/|Vpos|, (|Ineg|+|Izero|)/|Ipos| or protection (81U/O) (46, 47), the ratios |Ineg|/|Ipos|, protection (81U/O)
(|Vneg|+|Vzero|)/|Vpos|  Use of 3I0 and 3V0 values |Vneg|/|Vpos|, (|Ineg|+|Izero|)/|Ipos| or  Use of the 3I0 and 3V0
 Use of the parameter Id (|Vneg|+|Vzero|)/|Vpos| components
Note: Overcurrent relays (50/51/51V) are suitable to protect the inverters if their output fault currents are not limited.

Part 4 – Fault protection solutions of branches containing DG sources

At the grid-connected operation mode At the islanded operation mode
Main protection Back-up protection Main protection Back-up protection
 Under-/over-voltage relays (27/59)
 Under-/over-voltage relays (27/59)  THD detection of currents
and voltages  Negative-sequence current and
 Negative-sequence current and voltage based voltage based protection solutions
 Use of the ratios |Ineg|/|Ipos|,  Protective relays using
protection  THD detection of phase currents &
|Vneg|/|Vpos|, (|Ineg|+|Izero|)/|Ipos| 3I0 and 3V0 values
 Non-directional overcurrent relays (50/51, or (|Vneg|+|Vzero|)/|Vpos| voltages
 Use of the Id parameter
50N/51N, and 51V)  Use of the ratios |Ineg|/|Ipos|,
 Protective relays using 3I0
 Directional overcurrent relays (67) and 3V0 components |Vneg|/|Vpos|, (|Ineg|+|Izero|)/|Ipos| or
(|Vneg|+|Vzero|)/|Vpos|
Part 5 – Fault protection solutions of load branches
At both grid-connected and islanded operation modes
Main protection Back-up protection
 Instantaneous and time-delayed overcurrent protection modules (50/51 and  THD detection of currents and voltages
50N/51N) along with circuit breakers  Use of the ratios |Ineg|/|Ipos|, |Vneg|/|Vpos|, (|Ineg|+|Izero|)/|Ipos| or
 High-speed fuses (|Vneg|+|Vzero|)/|Vpos|
 Directional overcurrent protection relay (67)  Protective relays using 3I0 and 3V0 components: It is proposed to
 Under-voltage protection relay (27) distinguish about 3I0 and 3V0 values between various fault situations
 Negative-sequence current and voltage based protection relays (46 and 47) and load unbalance cases in the uni-grounded microgrid.
Part 6 – Fault protection solutions of common AC buses and trunk lines
A trunk line in an AC microgrid is defined as a line used to link two or more power sources and it does not include any load branches along its line length.
In case of a multiple-microgrid system, a trunk line is understood as a line to link among individual MGs. A common AC bus is not a trunk line only if
any load branches are connected to it, so fault protection systems of trunk lines and common buses will have some noticeable differences at this situation.
At both grid-connected and islanded operation modes
Main protection solutions - Protection of AC trunk lines and common buses without any connection of load branches to them
 Differential protection: Differential current, differential energy, and differential impedance based protection;
 Directional over-current relays (67): Directional overcurrent protection principles use: both current and voltage parameters; or only current [31]; or only
post-fault currents and no need of voltages and pre-fault currents [32].
 Differential protection based on negative-sequence current components;
 Pilot relays are placed at terminals of trunk lines or common buses using various fault protection principles such as: (i) directional change of fault
currents along with change in negative-sequence current and voltage values at pilot relays, (ii) directional change of fault currents along with change in
THD values of phase currents and voltages at pilot relays, (iii) directional change of fault currents along with change in values of the ratios Ineg/Ipos,
(Ineg +Izero)/Ipos, Vneg/Vpos, or (Vneg+Vzero)/Vpos at pilot relays, or (iv) directional change of fault currents along with change in values of Id (Id = Ia +
Ib + Ic), Va, Vb and Vc at pilot relays [10].
 Admittance based protection principle
Main protection solutions - Protection of AC common buses with load branches connected to them
In case of a load branch connected to an AC common bus, if any fault occurs at this common bus, it is impossible to detect directional change of currents
before and after the fault. As a result, pilot relays which use different fault protection principles as mentioned in case of no load branches connected to the
common bus, cannot be used to detect the faults. Similarly, use of differential relays is also ineffective. Only some following protection solutions are
adaptable to solve the above problem, including:
 Directional over-current relays are effective to detect the faults when the common buses contain the load branches.
 Admittance based protection relay can be used.
 Part 6 – Fault protection solutions of common AC buses and trunk lines
At both grid-connected and islanded operation modes
Back-up protection solutions
 I2t protection [33] - an overload temperature protection algorithm
 Using 3I0 and 3V0 components
Note: If primary protection relays fail to detect and isolate the faults, due to time-based or communication-based coordination strategies, downstream
relays will operate one-by-one until the faults are cleared.

IV. CONCLUSION [13] IEEE Application Guide for IEEE Std 1547™, IEEE Standard for
Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems, IEEE
Three main configurations of uni-grounded LVAC Standard 1547.2-2008, pp. 1-217, 2008.
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