Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

Unemployment is one of the major problems faced by most of the people in the world. Not only
in the present, but also in the past unemployment has become the most serious problem.
Nowadays, unemployment increased both in underdeveloped and developed countries due to the
increase in population. Youth unemployment has a serious effect not only on the living standards
of the people (negative effects on the psychology, socio-economic and physical well-being) but
also on the socio-economic status of a nation (Fitsum, 2014).

The trend of global youth unemployment rate, which had decreased from 2009 to 2011,
increased again in 2012, and has continued to grow in 2013. Global youth unemployment is
estimated to stand in 2013, an increase since 2007 and above the level in 2011. Rising youth
unemployment and falling labor force participation contributed to a decrease in the global youth
employment-to-population ratio in 2013, compared with in 2007. The global youth employment
to-population ratio is projected to be less in 2018 (ILO, 2013).
Based on this notion, to improve youth employment status across the globe reducing youth
unemployment, education or training is one of the primary targets of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development goal (SDG) through promoting sustained, inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all (ILO,2017).
Africa’s youth population is getting better educated. An estimated 59 percent of 20–24 year olds
will have had secondary education in 2030, up from 42 percent today (AfDB, OECD, UNDP,
and UNECA, 2012a). Still, although the percentage of African youth with secondary and tertiary
education is increasing, many are unemployed or underemployed in the informal economy. Part
of the problem is a mismatch between the skills that young jobseekers have to offer and those
that employers need.
In recent decades, Ethiopia has witnessed rapid population growth. Ethiopia’s youthful
population is an incredible asset and untapped resource for positive growth. However, like other
countries unemployment is one of the problems of youth in Ethiopia. Youth unemployment is
estimated at nearly 27 % (USAID Fact Sheet, 2017). To address the challenges of youth, the
government of Ethiopia has instituted various strategies such as national employment policy and
strategy and technical vocational education and training strategy focusing on poverty alleviation

35
for youth and to develop the workforce based on the needs of the labor market (MoLSA, 2009,
MoE 2008). The government also enacted national youth policy to enable youth in the process of
building a democratic system, good governance and development endeavors as well to ensure
that youth have the professional competence, skill and ethics (IDS, 2017).
In Ethiopia, nature of unemployment in urban areas is similar to the situations observed in Sri
Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Tunisia and Colombia. It is concentrated among relatively well
educated first time job seekers who aspire to a well-paid job, especially a public sector job. The
vast majorities of unemployed have never refused a job and are supported by their parents. And
the mean duration of unemployment is around 4 years (Serneels, 2014).
Unemployment rate in Ethiopia averaged 19.88 percent from 1999 until 2015, reaching an all-
time high of 26.40 percent in 1999 and a record low of 16.80 percent in 2015.” With
unemployment rates the highest among the youth as compared with other age groups in the
working section of the population, the rate would obviously go up even further than the figure
stated above. In Ethiopia, unemployment rate is driven almost entirely by unemployment in
urban areas (Bereket, 2017).
Out of the youth in urban Ethiopia, 19.34 percent are unemployed. Unemployment was slightly
more prevalent among the female youth (19.56%) compared to the male youth (18.98%).
Unemployment was more prevalent among those at least 20 years old (31.34%) as compared to
those below 20 years of age (8.12%) (Peace, 2015).
Youth employment presents a particular challenge to Ethiopia. The country’s population aged
between 0-29 years will reach about 73% of the total population (2016). Approximately three
million young enter the labor force every year in Ethiopia. The National unemployment rate is
4.5%; urban unemployment is 6.5%, and rural unemployment is 2.5%. The share of the
economically active population shows an increasing trend between 2004 and 2014 as opposed to
the demands of the labor market. Ensuring productive employment opportunities both in rural
and urban areas has become a challenge. As a result, a growing number of Ethiopians look for
job opportunities in the capital province and other urban areas or migrate to abroad (ILO, 2018)

In Amara region, according to the CSA statistical report on the 2012 urban employment-
unemployment survey, there were 2,474,466 urban residents which ranked the region in the
second level following Oromia region. From this total urban population, 1,976,070 people were

36
aged above ten years of which 913,931 were aged from 15-29 (youth). From this urban youth
population, 478, 953 (52%) were employed while 434, 978 (48%) of the urban youth were
reported to be unemployed. From economically active urban population unemployment is
highest from the age of 15 to 29. And females took the higher share of the urban youth
unemployment. The report also indicated that 35.8% of the total employed urban residents were
joined in informal jobs. And females had a higher share in participation of informal jobs. In the
number of participants in the informal sector, Amara region placed second rank next to Oromia.
The major causes for this high unemployment in Amara region were reported to be shortage of
finance, lack of training, problem of work place, and absence of license (CSA, 2012)

In this regard, Amhara Region is not exceptional for the challenges of youth unemployment. The
recent CSA survey result shows that Amhara Region is one of the fourth regions from five top
regions in high urban youth unemployment rate of the country and it accounts 19.7 % (CSA,
2018).
In 2022/2023, according to the Zonal Labor and Training Department, there are 86,110
registered unemployed youth in Awi Administrative Zone. From this total registered
unemployment youth, it was able to create 76,031 job opportunities. In spite of the fact that the
study area (Injibara town administration) is one of those 16 woreda’s /town administrations/ in
Awi Administrative Zone that shows weak performance in creating job opportunities and high
youth unemployment followed by Dangila and Chagni town administrations. Accordingly, low
access of job opportunities, low absorption of private investments, shortage of credit, lack of
working and selling places and sheds, interruption of electric power and lack of good governance
were factors responsible for this low youth job employment.
Therefore, considerately of the total concern discussed above and the problem statement
provided here in below and this study is designed to examine determinants of youth
unemployment in the study area.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

In Africa, young people consist of the majority of the population, as about the highest number of
the total population of the continent is under the age of 30 (Leavy and Smith, 2010). Youth
unemployment is a severe problem in Africa, and with Ethiopia comprising the highest youth

37
population in Sub-Saharan Africa (Guarcello and Rosati, 2007). Due to this, youth affairs are a
crucial concern of public discourse in Ethiopia (Denu et al., 2005; Nganwa, Assefa and Mbaka,
2015).
Being without a job is a serious socio-economic problem facing all age groups of a population.
However, the problem assumes acute in proportion among youth in developing countries; where
youth are three times more likely to be unemployed than adults (ILO, 2017). Likewise, Ethiopia
is experiencing the second-largest youth bulge in Africa, after Nigeria; the median age in
Ethiopia is estimated to be 19 which accentuate the countries youth unemployment vulnerability
up. Of 102 million Ethiopians, an estimated 30 million are aged 15- 29, and the number of young
people in this age group could rise to 40 million by 2030 (United States Census Bureau, 2017;
cited in Zeru et al, 2018).

Consequently, Ethiopia is known for its high youth unemployment. As thus, as of 2014, the
national estimates of unemployment rates for youth aged 15-24 were 26.7 percent (30 percent for
young women and 22 percent for young men) (CSA, 2015). Corresponding to this, The World
Bank reports that “Ethiopia’s labor force is projected to grow by two million a year over the
coming 10 years, while the number of young workers (age 15-29) will increase by 8.5 million by
2025. Persistently low education levels of rural youth (84 percent of rural youth had not
completed primary school), combined with increasingly sizable gender gaps (employment ratio
for women age 15+ is 72 percent, versus 86 percent for men), and increasing land shortages,
make it increasingly challenging to productively employ a rapidly growing and largely unskilled
youth population” (World Bank Report, 2014).

The prevalence of urban youth is still high as compared to the total unemployment rate in urban
area of Ethiopia. Accordingly youth unemployment is quite prevalent in urban Ethiopia with rate
of 45.4% (Peace, 2015). The youth population and youth labor force both constitute a growing
proportion of the Ethiopian population. The youth population faces a higher level of
unemployment than their prime age counterparts (Berhanu, 2005).

Since the issue of youth’s unemployment is one of the most a critical issue in urban Ethiopia, a
genuine and adequate empirical analysis needed to be made on its determinant factors because

38
the adequacy of available researches is questionable relative to the severity of unemployment.
And even the existing literatures are not free from critics and inconclusiveness as follows below.

The study by Gebeyaw (2011) indicated that sex and age are statistically significant and have
negative relationship with the dependent variable, signifying the inherent problem of
unemployment among women and the youth. Regarding migration status, in spite of the type of
job, a migrant is more likely to be employed than a non-migrant. It was also implied that training
was found to have a negative impact on unemployment and to be statistically significant.

According to (Teshita, 2018), region, sex of youth, age of youth, literacy status, marital status,
type of training, steps taken to search work, household size and educational level are found to be
the significant determinants of youth unemployment in urban Ethiopia. The result of classical
and Bayesian multilevel shows high prevalence of unemployment among youth and the
probability of being unemployed for youth was found to decline with increasing age, literacy
level, training, educational level and household size.

Another research was conducted by Central Statistical Agency (CSA) of Ethiopia by using a
multistage stratified cluster sampling. From this research, the regional variations, access to
electric power, age, gender, youth’s access to market information, economic status of youths’
families and youth’s educational level are found to be the significant determinants of youth
unemployment in Ethiopia (Abshoko, 2016). The problem here is that the researcher used the
UN definition of youth and involved only those youths whose age was ranged between 15-24
which is out of the (MOYSC, 2004) definition of youth for Ethiopian context. Hence, in order to
combat such problems, the researcher tried to conduct this analysis by extending and
contextualizing the definition of youth in to Ethiopia’s definition of youth that is from 15-29.

As it is shown from the above literatures, a significant determinant variable for one researcher is
found to be insignificant variable for the other researcher even in the same region. The
methodologies that the researchers followed were also questionable. This implies that there is
obvious research gap on the issue of the determinants of urban youth unemployment.
The research gap for this study was:

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Unemployment rate has significantly increased in the past five years in the study area. Injibara
town administration is under performing in creating job opportunities for youth. The study isn’t
done in the study area in this topic before. Youth unemployment is currently a critical issue for
local government.

Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap and propose policy implications to reduce youth
unemployment, addresses questionable results from previous studies, aims to identify factors
determining youth unemployment in the study area and aims to outlook government's efforts.

Hence, the principal intension of this study was to identify the factors that determine youth
unemployment in the study area.
1.3 Research Questions
1. What are the trends of youth unemployment in Injibara town administration?
2. What are the key signs /indications/ and magnitudes of age, sex, marital status, migration
status and youth’s educational level, work experiences, job preference, educational
qualification of household head, family’s poverty status, social network density, job training,
household size and credit access that affect youth unemployment in Injibara town
administration?
3. What are the major determinant factors that hinder youth unemployment in Injibara town
administration?
1.3.1 Research Hypothesis
Hypothesis1: Youth having access to credit are less likely to be unemployed.
Hypothesis 2: Youth who took job training has lesser chance of being unemployed than those
who didn’t take job training.
Hypothesis 3: Females are more exposed to unemployment than males.
Hypothesis 3: Sex determines unemployment status.
Hypothesis 4: Youth who prefer and wait for a paid job are more vulnerable for unemployment.
Hypothesis 5: More educated youth are less likely to be unemployed.
Hypothesis 6: Youth with more work experience are less likely to be unemployed.
Hypothesis 7: Youth who has no access of job information has higher chance of being
unemployed as compared to youth who has adequate access of job information.

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1.4 Research Objectives

1.4.1 General Objective

The general objective of this study is to examine determinants of youth unemployment in
Injibara town.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
The following are specific objectives of the study:
 To identify trends of youth unemployment in Injibara town administration.
 To analyze the key signs /indications/ and magnitudes of age, sex, marital status, migration
status and youth’s educational level, work experiences, job preference, educational
qualification of household head, family’s poverty status, social network density, job training,
household size and credit access that affect youth unemployment in the study area.
 To evaluate the determinant factors that hinders youth unemployment in Injibara town
administration..
1.5 Scope of the Study
The study was delimited geographically to Injibara town of Awi Administrative Zone as a point
of reference.
Thematically, the scope of the study primarily focuses on to examine determinants of youth
unemployment. As thus, the study is focus on determinants of youth unemployment to address
the research objectives as a base.
The study was cover a period of five years from the year July-2019 to June-2023, because this is
the specified period of time to study determinants of youth unemployment in Injibara town
administration. his study was mainly concerned on registered unemployed youths between 15-29
years age at the time of the survey, who lives in Injibara town administration.
Regarding to the determinant factors, this study was concentrated only on micro determinants of
urban youth unemployment such as demographic and socio-economic factors. The demographic
factors include age, sex, marital status, migration status; while socio- economic factors are
youth’s educational level, work experiences, job preference, educational qualification of
household head, family’s poverty status, social network density, job training, household size and
credit access.

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1.6 Significance of the Study
This study might have the significance to the local government authorities like the town
administration labor and training office to formulate effective employment strategy for youths;
the study should focused on the determinants of youth unemployment to access employment and
it might contribute new knowledge to the study topic and related literature relating to the nation
in general and to the study area in particular. Furthermore, the study might yield important
insights for policy makers and other stakeholders of the national, regional, zonal and local level;
and the study might overlay the way for further work and help as a reference for policy makers
and other researchers.

The output provided by this study might useful for concerned authorities to take corrective
actions to mitigate the problems of unemployment and constraints of youth unemployment. It
could also serves as potential reference for those individuals who want to conduct further studies
on the same or related areas.
1.7 Organization of the Study
This study was conducted to examine determinants of youth unemployment. This study
is therefore divided into five chapters. Chapter one, contains an introduction part of the study
which covers; background of the study, problem statement, research hypothesis, research
questions and objectives, significance, the scope of the study, limitation of the study,
organization of the study and operational definitions. Chapter two contains the review of related
literature; which contains theoretical related literature and empirical related literature in the area
of determinants of youth unemployment. Chapter three covers the research methodology, which
contains the research approaches, research design and strategy, population of the study, sampling
techniques and sample size; data type and sources, instruments of data collection, data analysis
techniques, model specification, description of variables and reliability and validity of the study.
Chapter four contains descriptive and inferential analysis and discussion of the results and
chapter five covers summary of major findings, conclusions and recommendations.
1.8 Definitions of Terms
Unemployed Youth: Nganwaet.al, (2015) mentions, unemployed youth as a group of young
people with different backgrounds who seek and are able to work, but unable to find or start any

42
work. This study employs this definition. The unemployed young people in developing
economies do not get the advantage of the social protection systems that are accessible to their
equivalents in developed economies (International Labor Organization (ILO), 2013).
Youth: The Ethiopian youth policy is defined as that part of the society who is between 15 – 29
years of age. The researcher used the concept of this age group in the entire process of the study;
since there is no universally accepted definition for youth.
According to the Ministry of Youth, Sports and Culture (MOYSC) of Ethiopia, youth is defined
as an individual aged between 15-29 years (MOYSC, 2004). However, in this study, youth
includes individuals aged between 22-29 years.
Youth Unemployment: represents the number of unemployed young people aged 15 to 29 as a
percentage of the total labour force, where the total labour force comprises both the unemployed
and the employed.
Youth underemployment: - A situation whereby youth are employed for less payment than
Ethiopian Labor regulations standard or with no commiserates reward.

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 Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature

2.1 Theoretical Literature Review

2.1.1 Overview of Unemployment

According to Amaoafo (2011), the meaning of unemployment has since 1954 been occasionally
changed, its essential criteria notwithstanding, stays flawless, for example, an individual is to be
viewed as unemployed on the premise that he/she, amid a reference period, at the same time
fulfils being: a) “without work” b) “right now accessible for work”, and c) “looking for work”.
The World Bank (1974:13) also characterizes unemployment as the condition of an individual
who needs to work but is unable to secure one. International Labor Organization (2011)
characterizes unemployment as the quantities of the financially dynamic populace who are
without work yet accessible for and looking for work, including individuals who have lost their
positions and the individuals who have deliberately left work.

As per these definitions, the term does not allude to individuals who are not looking for work in
light of age, sickness or a psychological or physical debilitation, nor does it allude to individuals
who are going to class or keeping house. Such individuals are delegated out of the work compel
as opposed to unemployed. Obeng-Tarkornoo (2009) shares a comparable view that young
individuals, the underage, children and the physically challenged that by virtue of their
conditions are not looking for jobs can’t be considered as unemployed.

2.1.2 Youth Unemployment in Global Outlook

Globally unemployment is a contemporary challenging phenomenon for the social, economic
and political development of many countries. According to the ILO’s new estimation, the global
unemployment rate is expected to fall slightly to 5.5 percent in 2018 (from 5.6 per cent in 2017),
marking a turnaround after three years of rising unemployment rates. In 2019, the global
unemployment rate is expected to remain essentially unchanged, whereas the number of
unemployed is projected to grow by 1.3 million (ILO, 2018). Globally, three out of four
employed young women and men are in informal employment, compared to three in five for
adults. In developing countries, this ratio is as high as 19 out of 20 for young women and men
(ILO, 2017).

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The same in developing countries unemployment is expected to increase by half a million per
year in both 2018 and 2019, with the unemployment rate remaining at around 5.3 per cent. For
many developing and emerging countries, however, persistent poor-quality employment and
working poverty pose the main challenges (ILO, 2018).

Addressing youth unemployment and underemployment has become a priority for governments
worldwide. A staggering number of young people are not in education, employment or training
and this situation delaying their full socioeconomic integration. Lack of effective economic and
employment policies and insufficient job creation has left many young people with no option but
to accept part-time, temporary or informal work. Inadequate training and skill obsolescence
translate into limited job prospects for youth even when the economy improves (UN, 2016).

2.1.3 Types of Unemployment

Different researchers have found the following categories of unemployment namely structural,
institutional, frictional, cyclical or voluntary.

2.1.3.1 Structural Unemployment

Restrepo (2015) defines structural unemployment as an unemployment resulting from industrial

reorganization, typically due to technological change, rather than fluctuations in supply or
demand. Daniels, P. L., Kestner, T. O., &Lupica, S. 2017) states two major causes of structural
unemployment: (1) Technological advances in an industry- that often happens in manufacturing
where robots have been replacing unskilled workers; (2) Trade agreements, such as the North
America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) which lifted trade restrictions and cause many
factories to relocated to Mexico. Many factories left their former employees without a place to
work. The researcher affirms that the agreement proved to be one of the nation‘s underlying
cause of unemployment.

2.1.3.2 Institutional Unemployment

Hubert (2013) defines-public-sector unemployment‖ or institutional unemployment, as

unemployment that occurs when the unemployed have been rejected, or are on waiting lists, for
jobs in the state sector, and are reluctant to abandon their employment aspirations.

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2.1.3.3 Frictional Unemployment

Garcia and Sorolla (2013) define frictional unemployment as the unemployment resulting from
time spent between jobs when a worker is searching for, or transitioning from one job to another.
It is sometimes called-search unemployment‖ and can be based on the circumstances of the
individual.

2.1.3.4 Cyclical Unemployment

Diamond (2013) defines cyclical unemployment as referred to changes in demand that occur
within a given business cycle. Cyclical unemployment is unemployment that results when the
overall demand for goods and services in an economy cannot support full employment. It occurs
during periods of slow economic growth or during periods of economic contraction. These
demand shifts can be attributed to layoffs, a reduction in employee hours, or other responses to a
temporary downturn in business.

2.1.3.5 Seasonal Unemployment

Seasonal unemployment occurs when people are unemployed at certain times of the year,
because they work in industries where their services are only needed during specified periods of
the year.

2.1.3.6 Voluntary Unemployment

Parsons et al. (2015) describes voluntary unemployment as a scenario where people choose not
to work manly because they are not able to find employment that matches their expectations.
2.1.4 Causes of Unemployment at Global Level
A Study conducted by ICGLR Levy Mwanawasa Regional Centre for Democracy and Good
Governance (2014) analyzed the situation and causes of youth unemployment in Kenya,
Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia; and presented findings at
International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR) that took place at Lusaka in
Zambia. In the same line, Ghafar (2016) analyzed challenges to employment face by youth in
Egypt. The main causes outlined by the two researches are the following:

Lack of Entrepreneurial Skills and Inadequate Public/Private Partnerships

Lack of innovative youth employment options constrains efforts to grow and diversify regional
46
economies. Although policy intervention programmes have increased the number of young
people engaged in income-generating activities, low earnings and poor working conditions fail to
propel them above the poverty line (Ghafar, 2016).

Lack of Demand for Labor

Lack of demand for labor is due to lack of employability of the youth and it is attributed to four
main factors: (i) lack of information, networks and connections, (ii) lack of relevant skills, (iii)
lack of experience credentials, and (iv) lack of available entry-level jobs with career potential
( Ibid).

Reliance on Few Sectors to Drive Economy

The lack of jobs even in economies posting impressive growth rates is a manifestation of the fact
that sectors driving growth are often few, capital-intensive or high value chain sectors such as
mining which generate limited new jobs. Sectors of industry which traditionally offered
employment, such as agriculture, have been shrinking in the context of the global economic
crisis and climate change (Ghafar, 2016).

Negative Impacts of Global Economic Downturn

With the global economic and financial crisis, economies in Africa have reported decreasing
rates of job creation due to lay-offs or freezing on employment in both the public and private
sector. Lack of fulfillment of high expectations of well-paying, stable jobs has forced many
educated young people to settle for low-quality or casual jobs in the informal sector (Ibid).

Skills Mismatch

The ILO (2013) identifies skills mismatch as one of the main causes of youth unemployment in
Africa. The employability of job seekers is determined by the skills they possess and those
required by potential employers. Mismatch between training programmes and skills demands of
employers produce imbalances between supply and demand: graduates require further technical
training to handle demands of the modern labor market.

Educated Unemployed
A growing number of African youth has high education attainment but remains unemployed.
Many educated young people are going back to school for higher education because it is believed
higher education will lead to automatic and high-wage employment in the modern sector.

47
However, recent studies show that education is no longer a guarantee for salaried employment or
access to safe, productive and fairly-remunerated work. The education system churns out more
job-seekers than the market can absorb (Ghafar, 2016).

Illiteracy and Low Skills Level

The prevalence of illiteracy or inappropriate skills among the youth is another challenge to
accessing decent jobs (Ghafar, 2016).

Rural Urban Migration

Many young educated people migrate from rural to urban areas in search of employment, but due
to lack of appropriate skills or/and social capital, most get stuck in slums without access to basic
social services and limited options to make even a survival salary (Ghafar, 2016).

Job Selectivity
Job selectivity consists of the preference for white collar jobs- workers who perform professional
jobs- as opposed to self-employment. The gravity of unemployment is exacerbated by job
selectivity and negative attitude towards blue collar jobs- workers who perform manual labor- in
the services and informal sector or in rural areas, which some see as beneath them (Ghafar,
2016).
2.1.5 Youth Unemployment in the Context of Ethiopia
As it is cited in National Adolescent and Youth Health Strategy Ethiopia has a rapidly growing
population of adolescents and youth 33.8% of the estimated total population of 90 million (CSA,
2015). This young population has implications on the social, economic and political agenda of
the country as it puts great demands on provision of health services, education, water and
sanitation, housing and employment (MoH, 2016).

However, in Ethiopia youth unemployment is a serious challenge for gov’t and has great
implication on socioeconomic and political development of the country. Youth unemployment is
estimated at nearly 27 percent and one reason for the high youth unemployment rate is low
literacy 68 % (USAID, 2017). Among the many contributing factors, most notable are the low
absorption capacity of the formal sector, the low rate of employment creation, and the skills
shortage as well as the lack of entrepreneurship of the youth (Bimal, 2014).

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2.1.6 Causes of Unemployment in Ethiopia
A high level of unemployment indicates the failure of a country’s economy to use its labour
resources effectively. In the case of Ethiopia, according to Nebil, Gezahegn, and Hayat (2010),
several factors that contribute to the causes of youth unemployment are identified as follows:
A. Low Level of Education: In Ethiopia, a large number of individuals enter the labour market
below the age of 15 with little or no formal education. Illiteracy is a major factor contributing
to underemployment and employment in the informal sector. Education is a means for
enhancing the productivity and employability of a country’s labour force as it has a positive
influence on occupational type: more educated workers are much more likely to be in wage
employment and much less likely to be in unpaid work than their less-educated
counterparts(Hayat, 2010).
B. High Population Growth: The increasing rate of population growth is another factor
affecting scarcity of job opportunities. The size of the labour force has been increasing at an
average annual rate of 3.2 per cent, reaching an estimated 32.2 million people in 2005. The
demand for labour has a slower growth rate than the growing population (Hayat, 2010).
C. Lack of Entrepreneurship: According to UN Habitat 2003 cited in Nebil, et al, 2010, most
people are motivated to start their own businesses and create their own employment because
the chances of finding jobs in the current labour market are so limited. However, starting a
small business without the capacity to sustain it or cope with other related challenges is not a
viable solution to the problem of unemployment (Hayat, 2010).
D. Skills Mismatch: Mismatch of education and training skills with the requirements of the
labour market is another important reason for the high level of unemployment. According to
Denu, et al (2005), a study of unemployment in urban areas revealed an increase in
unemployment rates of young people who have attained high school or a higher educational
level. This is could be due to a mismatch between the type of education provided at schools
and the requirements of the labour market (Hayat, 2010).

E. High Rural-Urban Migration: Unemployment is most severe in urban areas of Ethiopia due
to rural-urban migration. Many people who live in rural areas leave their places of origin in
search of better opportunities for employment since employment opportunities are seasonal

49
 in the rural areas where agriculture is the predominant means of living (Nebil, Gezahegn,
and Hayat, 2010, p.11-12).
2.2 Determinants of Youth Unemployment
The problem of unemployment is a global issue at the moment that every nation is striving to
control it at its minimum level. However, in developing nations it is getting worse mainly due to
the unbalanced relationship between the rate of economic development and the rapid population
growth (Bhorat, H., 2008).

Youth unemployment is a pressing issue in Ethiopia where almost two-thirds of the population is
younger than 25 years. Being Ethiopia among the countries with a rapidly growing population
coupled with a still backward economy, the proper management and efficient utilization of its
work force is essential. In this respect, the capacity of the economy in absorbing the potential
labor force needs to be monitored regularly, and appropriate employment policy should
consequently be adopted. The level of unemployment of a country is widely used as an overall
indicator in evaluating the current performance of its economy (Bakare, A.S, 2011).

Ethiopia is no exception in this regard, and its recent urbanization is aggravating the problem
because of the urban migration of people with scarce or nil real working prospects, which
therefore often slip into some form of underemployment or remain idle for productive work
(Denu, B., Tekeste A., and Deijl V., 2005/07).

A high level of unemployment indicates the failure of a country’s economy to use its labor
resources effectively. There can be various factors explaining unemployment, such as a low level
of general economic activity, recession, inflation, rapid changes in technology, disability,
willingness to work and discrimination. In the case of Ethiopia, several factors contribute to the
causes of youth unemployment (Denu, B., Tekeste A., and Deijl V., 2005/07).

2.3 Empirical Literature Review

Youth unemployment is the outcome of different socio-economic and demographic factors at
macro and micro level. The micro level factors are directly associated to individuals’
demographic and socioeconomic attributes while the macro level factors are related to the
national issues (Toit, 2013).

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A cross-sectional analysis of Baah-Boateng (2013) gives us the idea that an urban area has more
unemployed people than a rural area. Also, a similar study showed that for the average individual
in the labor force, residing in an urban area, relative to rural localities, the probability of being
unemployed is increased by 6.5 percentage points (Sackey, 2013). The study also indicated that
location is one of the determinants of unemployment and many studies suggest that
unemployment is an urban phenomenon, as most of the people.
According to the research made in Viet Nam on determinants of Youth employment, social
demographic determinants such as age, education, ethnicity, and especially family economic
status, found to be strong significant factors affecting youth employment. To a large extent, they
define the supply-side structure of the youth labor market. In fact, the family in which a young
person lives is the strongest predictor of his or her future in the job market. The significant
effects of paternal occupation, family economic status and youth educational level are notable in
the analytical results. The probability to work is reduced when young people live in better-off
families (Dang, 2015).
The study uses a multinomial logit model to shed light on the determinants of youth employment
status in the country using data from the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR). It
verifies how the current status of youth employment in Rwanda has evolved over time and based
on its findings it provides policy recommendations to promote youth employment. The research
finds that youth employment in Rwanda is influenced by gender, age, education and
geographical location (Ndagijimana, 2018).
The study by Echebiri (2005), on the basis of youth in Umuahia city in Nigeria, finds that
unemployment is influenced by age, marital status, dependency ratio, education, current income
and employment preference (paid or self-employment). Kreishan (2010) also indicate that age,
gender, marital status, region, work experience and educational level are the major determinants
of unemployment in Jordan.
The study conducted in South Africa, using data on a sample of 580 randomly and systematically
selected youth from the four local municipalities in the Vhembe district of Limpopo province, it
is indicated that having received (skills) training and work experience were associated with
reduced odds of being unemployed. Binary logistic regression model was employed by the

51
author to determine the socio-demographic, as well as economic factors that influence youth
unemployment.
This study also highlights the importance of skills training opportunities, as well as
apprenticeship in mitigating the unemployment challenge among the youth. The provision of
necessary training infrastructure and funding for skills training, as well as work integrated
learning and extended career specific internship programs to help to equip South African youth
with work experience are major recommendations given from study (Dagume, 2019).
From another study conducted in South Africa, using logistic regression it was found that age,
gender, population group, marital status, level of education, and province were significant
determinants of unemployment in South Africa. Gender, population group, marital status and
contract duration were found to be significantly associated with time-related underemployment.
And generalized linear model was also applied on the data and it was found that gender,
population group, marital status, level of education, contract duration, geographical location, and
sector were the determinants of earnings (Mathebula, 2017).
From the research that was made in Pakistan by employing ARDL (Auto Regressive Distributed
Lag) approach to analyzing those factors which determine unemployment in Pakistan. And the
data was taken from1990-2015 to see the empirical relationship between GDP, Population,
Technical & Vocational education, and degree colleges and universities enrollment to check the
determinants of unemployment in Pakistan. From this analysis, long run results show that there is
a negative relationship between GDP and unemployment. Population has positive and significant
relation and technical & vocational education has positive and insignificant relation with
unemployment in Pakistan. The results of Short run ECM-1(Error correction model) show that
the negative and significant relationship with unemployment (Zafar, 2018).
In Ethiopia, Ethnicity, Mother’s education, father’s profession, job aspirations, social networks
andhousehold welfare are found to have significant to determine the employment status of the
urban youth negatively. It is also shown that while junior secondary education has a positive
effect on the duration (or a negative effect on the hazard) in the long term, senior secondary
education has a negative effect on duration (Serneels, 2014).
From the research made on the determinants of youth unemployment by collecting Primary data
from 600 youths randomly selected from the three kebeles of Debere Birhan town, it was found

52
that job preferences and access to business advisory services significantly determine youth
unemployment in Debere Birhan town. Household income, father education, and marital status
were found insignificantly related to youth unemployment (Abera, 2011).
From the research conducted by Central Statistical Agency (CSA) of Ethiopia by using a
multistage stratified cluster sampling, the regional variations, access to electric power, age,
gender, youth’s access to market information, economic status of youths’ families and youth’s
educational level are found to be the significant determinants of youth unemployment in Ethiopia
(Abshoko, 2016).
Another research was conducted in Ethiopia on determinants of youth unemployment in Urban
Areas. This study deals with identifying the main factors that are responsible for youth
unemployment and constraints they face in self-employment in Ethiopia. It was based on the
cross sectional data collected by Central Statistical Agency (CSA) in 2015. From all regions of
the country, a total of 16,984 samples are considered for analysis. Using descriptive and cross
tabulation analysis, the study shows that youth unemployment is highly related with regional
location, sex, marital status and education. The analysis also shows youths’ dream to create their
own job is constrained highly by shortage of finance and lack of work place (Batu, 2016).
Sex, migration, education, social network, job preferences and access to business advisory
services significantly determine youth unemployment in DebreBirhan town, Ethiopia. However,
household income, father education, and marital status were found insignificant (Aselifew,
2011).
Tegegne (2011) examined the association between socio-demographic variables and
unemployment in Addis Ababa. The econometric analysis has confirmed that sex and age are
statistically significant and have negative relationship. Regarding migration status, in spite of the
type of job, a migrant is more likely to be employed than a non-migrant.
Another study was conducted in Ethiopia on the nature and determinants of urban youth
unemployment. This study employs the micro level data from Urban Employment-
Unemployment Survey conducted between 2006 and 2011 by Ethiopian Central Statistics
Authority. The logistic regression model was applied in the studyto examine the relationship
between urban youth unemployment and aset of explanatory variables. This logistic regression
model shows that place of residence (regions), gender, agecategories, and marital status

53
significantly affect the urban youth unemployment in Ethiopia. Surprisingly,education did not
guarantee the employability of youth in urban areas of Ethiopia(Peace, 2015).
According to (Getinet, 2003), in his analysis on the incidence of youth unemployment in urban
Ethiopia, the major factor behind the youth unemployment problem is the rapidly increasing
labor supply that is not in line with macroeconomic conditions in general and the performance of
the urban sector in particular. As such therefore the key to reduce youth unemployment lies in
our capacity to expedite the performance of the economy in general and the urban sector in
particular.
From the research that was conducted to examine the association between socio-demographic
variables and unemployment in urban Ethiopia with a special emphasis on Addis Ababa, it was
implied that women and the youth, particularly those below tertiary level of education, are the
foremost victims of unemployment who require due emphasis and special attention. And it was
recommended that focusing on training, skill formation and stimulating employment
opportunities are put forward to reduce such problems (Gebeyaw, 2011).
It was also found that among the demographic variables, age of the respondents and migration
status were significantly related to youth unemployment whereas marital status of the
respondents was not significant. From the human capital variables included in the model,
education and health status of the respondents were significantly related to youth unemployment,
whereas participation in employment related trainings was not statistically significant. Among
the economic determinants, household income, access to credit and saving services and work
experience were significant (Derege, 2016)
The study by (Gebeyaw, 2011) indicated that sex and age are statistically significant and have
negative relationship with the dependent variable, signifying the inherent problem of
unemployment among women and the youth. Regarding migration status, in spite of the type of
job, a migrant is more likely to be employed than a non-migrant. In this study it is also implied
that training was found to have a negative impact on unemployment and to be statistically
significant. And the implication was training could be an important strategy to reduce
unemployment if expanded among the youth.

54
2.4 Conceptual Framework
Youth may spend significant resources on job training, but in many countries they occur in
unregistered, small scale and often informal institutions (Adams, et al., 2008). According to
(UNESCO, 2014), a report, less than half out of 46 countries, addressed skills development of
youths in the informal sector. As indicated by (Awinia, et al., 2013), the urban youth who seek to
alleviate their income and non-income poverty through self-employment within the informal.
For the purpose of this study, To conduct this study, both demographic and socio-economic
variables are taken as dependent variables while the employment status of the urban youth is the
dependent variable: The determinants are age, sex, marital status, education, work experience,
social network density, job preference, family characteristics such as employment status of
family head and poverty status of urban youth family.
Independent Variables
Independent Variables
Demographic Factors
 Age
Dependent
 GenderVariable
 Marital Status
Dependent Variable
 Migration

Socio-Economic Factors
 Educational Level unEmployment
 Family Size Status of
 Access to Work Place Youth
 Access to Job Information
 Access to Credit
 Work Experience
 Job Training
 Job Preference
 Educational Qualification of
Household Head
 Family’s Poverty Status
 Social Network Density

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework

Source: Drawn from Literature Reviews (2023)

55
 Chapter Three: Research Methodology

3.1 Description of the Study Area

The study was conducted at Injibara Town, Amhara Regional State of Ethiopia. Its relative
location is southwestern portion of the region and north western portion of the country, Ethiopia.
It is around 447 km far from the capital city of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa and 118 km from Bahir
Dar, the capital town of Amhara Regional state. Geographically, Injibara is found in 100º59'N
and 360º55'E longitude. The most height and least height of Injibara are recorded to be 3000
m.a.s.l and 2540 m.a.s.l respectively (Zewditu, 2017). As indicated by the town's organization
the total area of the city was 28.3 km2. It is isolated into five urban kebeles under the town
organization; these are 01, 02, 03, 04 and 05 kebeles. The present improvement plan for Injibara
town was set up in 2004 by the National Urban Planning Institute. The improvement plan
demonstrates that are area assigned for housing, commercial, industrial and administrations of
organizations.
Figure 3.1: Map of Injibara Town Administration

Sour
ce: Google Satellite, 2023

3.2 Research Approaches

The methodology employed in this research was both qualitative and quantitative research
approaches /mixed/ approach method. This study was aimed at examining the determinants of

56
youth unemployment in the study area by using cross-sectional survey data 383 who are
registered in 2023.
With regard to research method, mixed research method is considered to be very efficient in
answering research questions compared to the quantitative and qualitative approach when used in
isolation (Creswell, 2014). Therefore, in this study, a mixed approach is used since it helps to
capitalize the strength of using the quantitative and qualitative approaches and remove any biases
that can be encountered in any single research method.
Moreover, the reason why mixed research approaches have been used for this study is it enables
the researchers to get better information on the issue, it is important to understand the
respondent’s attitude, opinion and behavior in depth knowledge and better understanding the
determinants of youth unemployment and it helps the researcher to address issues in breadth.

3.3 Research Design and Strategy

The research design adopted for this study was explanatory research design and descriptive
research design, in order to counteract the weakness of each study and to do good from their
strengths. A longitudinal survey strategy was used for this study since it employs a primary and
secondary of data collection for each respondent.
3.3.1 Explanatory Research Design
Explanatory research design was employed because the aim of the study is to examine the cause
and effect relationships between the dependent and independent variables in order to
constitute a certain patterns. Therefore, this study was designed to examine determinants of
youth unemployment in Injibara town by investigating the relationship between the dependent
variable (employment status of youth) and independent variables (demographic factors; age,
gender, marital status and migration; and socio-economic factors; educational level, family size,
access to work place, access to job information, access to credit, work experience, job training,
job preference, educational qualification of household head, family’s poverty status, social
network density ). Explanatory research design was used to explain the reasons for something to
occur. This follows the descriptive question and it answers the questions like why and how a
phenomenon happens.

57
 3.3.2 Descriptive Research Design
The primary aim of this study is to insight the determinants of youth unemployment in Injibara
town administration. The descriptive type of research design helps to describe accurately the
characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (Creswell, 2014). So that, in this
study the descriptive research design was employed to describe the determinants of youth
unemployment in Injibara town administration.
3.4 Population, Sampling Techniques and Sample Size
3.4.1 Population
The target population for this study was consists of youth between 15-29 years age employed
and unemployed youths at the time of the survey, who reside or live in Injibara town
administration, which was considered as appropriate to the study. The population for this study
was estimated as 4627 male and 4628 female totally 9, 255 employed and unemployed youth
individuals who registered in 2023.
3.4.2 Sample Size
The number of population in this study may be large thus because of financial constraint it is
impossible to contact the whole population. To get exact and timely evidence and to make the
interpretation easy, sample should have to set.
At a confidence level of 95%, and the margin of error 5%, to obtain a sample size that has an
adequate size relative to the goals of the study, the researcher adopted Yamane’s (1967) formula as
follows: n = N
1+N(e)2= Where “n” = sample size “N” = population size
“e”=margin of error (Yamane,1967).
N
The sample youth respondents was calculated by the specified formula: n =
1+ N (e) 2
9255
n= n=383.4 ≈ 383
1+ 9255(0.05)2 ,
Population proportional size ns= (Nh/Ns) *n sampling ways was conducted to allocate the sample
size of each selected three one shop offices.
Where: ns is the sample size in each stratum,
Nh is the total population in each stratum,

58
Ns is the total population of the sum of strata and
n is the total sample size.
Table 3.1: Sample Size of Respondents
One Shop Services Population ns= (Nh/Ns) *n Sample Size
01 3746 (3746/9255) *383 155
02 3164 (3164/9255) *383 131
03 2345 (2345/9255) *383 97
Total 9255 (9255/9255) *383 383
Source: Survey, 2023
From those from the 2023 year registered unemployed youth and who currently lives in Injibara
town 383 individual’s /respondents/ as a sample were selected.
Furthermore, from seven (7) governmental office heads interview was employed. Those seven
offices and the reason why they are selected is:
Mayor office, which has a responsibility to mobilize and to allocate budget for youth job creation;
Labor and training office, which has a responsibility for coordinating and organizing or constructing
of youth enterprise; Women’s, children and social affairs office, who has a responsibility of
awareness creation for youth; youth and sport office, who has a responsibility of awareness creation
for youth; Tseday Bank, who has a responsibility to provide credit and distributing of revolving fund
for youth; Urban investment and infrastructure development office, which has a responsibility to
facilitate and provide shed and working place for youth and Injibara polytechnic college, who has a
responsibility to give entrepreneurial and technical training for unemployed youth.
3.4.3 Sampling Techniques
This study was employed probability (simple random sampling) to distributing questionnaires for
respondents and non-probability sampling (purposive) techniques to choose the key informant
interviewees.
For this study, multi-stage sampling methods or techniques were employed to determine the sample
size. In the first stage: Injibara town administration is selected purposively due to high youth
unemployment. In the second stage considering the high rate of unemployed youth in three one-shop
services 01, 02 and 03 with a total of an estimated number of unemployed youth (9, 255) were
selected. In the third stage (383) sample youth were selected from each stratum using proportionate

59
selecting procedures. The sample youth respondents from three one-shop services were selected
randomly by simple random methods. The sample was taken respondents involved those who are
currently unemployed youth, those youths engaged in government employment, employed youth in
private organization or business enterprises and those who run their own business in the study area.
3.5 Data Type and Source
3.5.1 Data Type
This study was employed both quantitative data in the form of number and qualitative types of data
in the form of words collected concurrently.
3.5.2 Data Sources
The researcher was not depending on a single source of data. Since the study population has
different backgrounds, and different instruments are utilized for investigation. Hence, this study was
used primary and secondary sources of data. The combination of data source is necessary for many
reasons:- The main reasons are, to enrich the research by diversifying the source of the data, to achieve the
objectives of triangulation where findings of one method are checked against those of others and to give
benefits from the strength of each method and to compensate from the weakness and to establish confidence
and obtain trust worthiness of the research findings. Because of those above mentioned reasons, the data for
this study were collected from both primary and secondary sources.
3.5.2.1Primary Data Sources
The primary data were the prominent data type to utilize in this study. The data is generated through
various tools, which includes questionnaires and interviews on the determinants of youth
unemployment. To this effect, the researcher was designed both questionnaires and interview.
3.5.2.2 Secondary Data Sources
The study was also used secondary data that compiled from annual reports and manuals.
3.6 Instruments of Data Collection
The tools that are used for the accomplishment of this study were be questionnaires and interviews .
3.6.1 Questionnaire
The questionnaire was selected because of; it helps to gather data with minimum cost and it is faster
than any other tool. The questionnaires were distributed among 383 respondents those who are
unemployed individuals, those youth engaged in government employment, those who are engaged in

60
private organization or business enterprises and those who run their own business and who are
obtained by the sample size determination.
The researcher prefers open-ended and close-ended questionnaire methods to respondents in order to
manage the data collection appropriately for its distribution. The structure of the questionnaire was
both open and closed ended questions. The reason behind to this is that, close ended questions save
time, by guiding the respondents to choose from the already prepared and listed alternative answers.
And the open ended questions also, use the respondents to state his/her idea further without limit to
the issue.
3.6.2 Interview
In addition to questionnaire, interview was selected because, this helps to get some facts related to
the issue under the study and it is semi-structured interview to ask any flexible questions and to get
for any clear information.
The researcher was taken an interview with 7 (seven) governmental office heads to get detail
information based on determinants of youth unemployment in the town. A semi structured interview
questions will be prepared for the key informants to obtain relevant data. This instrument provides
in-depth accurate information and the research has been the chance to ask questions for more
clarification.
3.7 Data Analysis Techniques
Data analysis was done through descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Both qualitative and quantitative analysis techniques were used for data analysis and interpretation.
After the data collected, open-ended and close-ended questionnaires and interviewees data was
edited, coded, entered and processed by using Microsoft word and Excel; and SPSS (Statistical
package for social sciences). The tables and different graphs were used to describe and to summarize
the respondents' profiles and perceptions of the issues under investigations.
3.7.1 Descriptive Statistics
All the data were analyzed and subjected to descriptive statistics where frequency tables,
percentages and mean scores were generated. This was shown the response pattern for all the
responses in the questionnaires and interviews. Finally, both the primary and secondary data were
analyzed and presented using statistical descriptive tools such as tables, percentages, numbers or
frequencies and different graphs.

61
3.7.2 Inferential Statistics
This study was employed inferential statistics to analyze qualitative data. Qualitative data collected
using interview guide were inferentially analyzed by using SPSS (Statistical package for social
sciences) by categorizing and organizing data based on pattern, reliable and shared aims into
different themes using critical judgment approach and estimates.
The inferential statistics was applied to examine the relationships that exist between dependent
variable and independent variables.
3.8 Model Specification
3.8.1 The Binary Logistic Regression Model
Let us now take a closer look at the statistical modeling of binary response variables, for which the
response outcome for each subject is a “success” or “failure.” Binary data are the most common
form of categorical data. The most popular model for binary data is logistic regression. In other
words, logistic regression is a regression method to use when the dependent variable is dichotomous
(1=yes, 0=no).
It is a multiple regression with a binary (dichotomous) dependent variable and explanatory variables
that can be either continuous or categorical. In this case, the interest is in predicting which of two
possible events are more likely to happen given certain other information. For example, we might
want to investigate effects of various factors on probability of getting married, being employed or
unemployed, gender issues, marital status, families poverty status, etc..
According to (Gujarati, 2004) logistic regression can be written in the form of odds ratio which is
the ratio of the probability that an event to be happen to the probability of the event not to be
happen. Therefore, in this study, the odds ratio is the ratio the probabilities that the urban youth were
unemployed (Pi) to the probability that he/she was employed (1-Pi).
Pi = E(Y=1/Xi) =a1+B2Xi........................................................................................(1)
Therefore, 1-Pi= 1-(α+ꞵiXi)......................................................................................(2)
1
Pi= E(Y=1/Xi) = −(a +biXi) ....................................................................................................3
1+ e
1 1
Then,(1-P)=1− −(a+biXi ) but, e−(a+biXi )= a+biXi ..................................................................4
1+e e

62
For simplicity, the above equation can be written as
1 1
Pi= −z and 1-Pi= zi ---------given Zi=a+ BiXi
1+ e 1+ e

zi
pi 1+e Zi
Therefore, the odds ratio will be ( )¿ =e .....................................................................5
1− p 1+ e
−zi

Let ‘Li’ is the logs of odds ratio, then Li will be ln e Zi .....................................................................6

Then using the rule of natural legalism, equation 6 can be re-written as Zilne . But, ln e=1
Therefore, the logs of odds ratio can be written as;

Li=ln ( 1−Pi
Pi
)=Zi=a+BiXi
Where, Xi represents the vectors of explanatory variables that affect the employment status of urban

youth in this case. 𝛼= is the value of the log odd ratio (

pi
) given all explanatory variable are
1− pi
zero and 𝛽 =measures the change in the logs of odds ratio for a unit change in explanatory variables
(X). To derive the marginal effects and simple interpretation of coefficients, the MFX results will be
applicable.
3.8.2 Multinomial Logistic Regression Model
In addition to the binary logistic regression model, to investigate the factors which influence self-
employment of urban youth, multinomial logit model was applied. The multinomial logit model is
more applicable and more relevant than other regression models because of the dependent variable is
the occupational choices with more than two categories, the above model was more suitable one and
thus, it was used by the researcher in this study.
Unordered choice models may generally be motivated by a random utility model (RUM).
For the i th consumer faced with J + 1 choices, suppose that the utility Uij (of choice j) is:
Uij = zijƟ+ eij where j = 0, 1, 2... J. If the consumer makes choice j in particular, then we assume that
Uij is the maximum among the J + 1utilities. Hence, the statistical model for Y i random choice
variable is driven by the probability that choice j is made:
J
Pr(Yi = j ) = Pij = Pr(Uij > Uik ) = e / ∑ e for all k 6= j. The model is made operational by a
zijθ zijθ

j=1

particular choice of distribution for the disturbances.

63
This implies:
zijθ wiα + xij wiα xijβ
e e e ∗e
J J
¿ J
Pr(Yi = j ) = Pij = =
∑e zijθ
∑e wiα + xij
e ∗∑ ewiα +xij
wiα

j =1 j =1 j=1

The type of multinomial model to be used, therefore, varies with the form of these regressors. In the
simplest case, (if all regressors are case-specific), we may use typical multinomial logit (mlogit)
model. In more complicated applications, (if some or all the regressors are alternative-specific), we
may use the alternative-specific conditional logit model.
Let Yi be a random variable that indicates the choice made and wi be case specific covariates.
wiαj wiαj
e e
J J
The probabilities for J + 1 choices is given by: Pr(Yi = j/wi ) = Pij = =
∑e wiαj
1+ ∑ e wiαk
j =1 k=1

for α 0 = 0 where j = 0, 1, 2, ..., J. This is called the multinomial logit (mlogit or MNL) model.
Note that if J = 1, it becomes the typical binary logit model. It is used if all regressors are individual-
or case-specific (wi ). To avoid indeterminacy, we need only to estimate J parameters to obtain
probabilities for J + 1 choice (that is why we assumed α 0 = 0). This is also done to make sure that
the sum of the J + 1 probability is equal to 1.
Given for the ίth respondent faced with j choices, assume the utility choice j as:
Uij= Zijβ + Ԑij.......................................................................................................1
If the respondents make choice j in particular, then researchers assume that Uij is the maximum
among the j utilities. So, the statistical model is derived by the probability that choice j is made,
which is:
Prob (Uij>Uik) for all other k≠j............................................................................2
The model can be also be written as;
Y = βo + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4 + β5X5 + β6X6 +…………….. βiXi+Ɛ
Where,
Y= Job choices which are categorized as: Unemployed (0), wage employed (1) and self-employed
(2)
3.9 Description of Variables
3.9.1 Dependent Variable (Employment Status)

64
To identify the employment status of youths, the study employed current activity status approach.
This approach measures the economic activity status of a person in a short reference period, that is,
the seven days prior to the date of the interview. In this approach a series of inquiries were
administered to determine the economic activity status of the population during the reference week
such as engagement in economic activity, attachment to jobs, seeking and availability to work,
reason for not seeking or available to work, etc.,
These questions were presented to those persons aged 15 to 29 years. The dependent variable in this
study was youth employment status. In the binary logit regression analysis, it was denoted by 1 if the
respondent was unemployed; otherwise 0 if the respondent was employed at the time of the survey.
But for multinomial logit regression analysis employment status was classified into three categories
such us wage employed coded as 0, unemployed coded as 1, and self-employed coded as 2.
In addition, persons who had regular jobs or business, or holdings to return to work but who were
temporarily absent from work (not at work or worked less than four hours) for various reasons such
as illness or injury, holiday or vacation, strike or lockout, and seasonality of work, annual leave,
temporary closure of establishment were also considered as employed. For a person to be considered
as absent from work, he/she must have formal attachment to the job.
The currently unemployed population also comprises those people’s individuals without work but
looking for work or available and ready to work if any job is found during the reference period of
the coming one month. The reference period of the coming one month refers to the survey week plus
the next three weeks. If a person who is looking for work but engaged in productive activity during
the reference week is recorded as employed but not as unemployed.
3.9.2 Independent Variables
Sex
Sex of a respondent is one of the variables that can be considered in the model, being categorized as
female (0) male (1). The reference category used in the model was female.
Migration Status
Migration status is also expected to influence the employment status of a respondent. Migration in
this case refers to the internal migration from rural area to the urban areas (rural-urban) migration. It
was categorized as (1) migrant (0) non-migrant. Hence, in the regression analysis, the non-migrant
was the reference category.

65
Educational Status of Youth
Educational status of a respondent refers to the highest grade level of a respondent completed rather
than institutional participation. Categorization of such variable was done in such a way that it
reflects the variation in the level of respondent's knowledge in supporting access to employment.
Considering the educational system of the country, level of education of respondents was
categorized in to 4 groups: primary (1-8), secondary (9-12), diploma, and (degree and above). The
reference category used in the model was primary education level.
Job Training Service
The variable refers to whether the respondent has got advisory services in the form of training, skill
upgrading, entrepreneurial management and other services from government or NGO's.
Accessibility to business advisory service is, therefore, expected to influence the employment status
of a respondent, can be categorized as (0) not received job training services (1) received at least
once. In the model, respondents who did not have received training service at least once were taken
as a reference category.
Job Preference
Job preference refers to the choice of youth for a given job among various jobs available in the labor
market, is expected to influence the employment status of a respondent. It was categorized as
preferring paid employment (in government or private institutions) coded as 0, self-employment
coded as (1), and any available jobs in the labor market coded as (2). In the model, preferring a paid
employment was taken as a reference category.
Social Network Density
Social network density refers the number of persons such as friends, relatives ... etc an individual
would have in exchanging information about jobs available in the labor market using any form of
communication channels. The density of the networks is expected to influence the employment
status of a respondent can be considered in the model, being categorized as, no social networks,
medium social network(1-5), high social networks(>5). The researcher used (Asfaw, 2011) as a
bench mark to classify the social network factor. The reference category used in the model was no
social network.
Household Head Education Status

66
Household head educational status refers to the highest grade level respondents household head
completed at the time of the survey. The level of household head education is expected to influence
the employment status of a respondent, and grouped in to illiterate (0), read and write, primary (2),
secondary (3) and higher education level (4). In the regression model, illiterate was taken as a
reference category.
Marital Status
It refers to the marital status of respondents at the time of survey. The variable marital status was
categorized into two groups Such as married coded as 1 and unmarried coded as 0. The reference
category in the model was unmarried (single) at the time of survey.
Work Experience
Work experience refers to the length of time period that the respondents had been engaged in
productive works such as self-employment, paid employment or others type of works prior to the
survey date. The variable was taken as a continuous variable and measured in year.
Generally, explanatory variables and their expected sign are described below as follows:
The dependent variable employment status of urban youth was categorized in two groups for binary
logit model and coded as 1 for unemployed and 0 for employed category. However, for multi
nominal logit model, employment status was grouped into three categories and coded as 1 for
unemployed, 0 for wage employed and 2 for self-employed.
Table 3.2: Summary of Explanatory Variables and Their Expected Sign
Variable Values Reference category Expected sign
Age Continuous variable - -
Sex 0 = female and 1= male Female -
Migration status 0=non-migrant and 1= migrant Non-migrant +
Marital status 0 = married and 1= unmarried Married +
Education 0= primary education Primary education -
1= secondary education level
2= Diploma
3=Degree

Work Experience Continuous variable - -

Access of credit 0 = no access for credit No credit access -
1 = has access for credit
Family’s poverty 0 =poor, 1 non-poor Poor -

67
 status
Job training 0=non trained, 1= trained Non trained +
Job preference 0=paid job Paid job -
1=own job
2=any job
Social network 0=no social network No social network -
density 1=medium social network(1-5)
2=high social network(>5)
Household head 0=illiterate Illiterate -
education 1=read & write
2=primary
3=secondary
4=Higher education
Source: Survey, 2023

3.10 Reliability and Validity of the Study

Validity, on the one hand, is defined as the means through which the researcher ascertains the
correctness of the study findings by implementing critical instruments such as authenticity,
credibility, trustworthiness, transferability and dependability (Creswell, 2014).
Reliability, on the other hand, is the mechanism put in place to examine the consistency of adopted
methods and approaches. Validity and reliability in this study will be ensured by using a
triangulation of different data sources that are presented in the case of determinants of youth
unemployment in Injibara town administration. According to Maree (2007), the personal
involvement and in-depth responses of study participants help to secure a satisfactory level of
validity and reliability in qualitative data collection.\
3.10.1 Pre-test
As a part of training, the Amharic version of the questionnaires was pre-tested on 10 respondents
who was not be taken as the sample in the study area. The pretest results were used to make the
necessary correction of the questionnaire and to estimate the actual time required to fill the
questionnaire.
3.10.2 Test-Retest Reliability
It is a measure of consistency between measurements of the same construct administered to the same
sample at two different points in time (Drost, 2011). If the correlation between the two sets of test is

68
significant then observations have not changed substantially hence the aspect of time is very critical
for this type of reliability.
3.10.3 Validity Test
Validity consists of the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and
performs as it is designed to perform. In order to test the validity of the questionnaire, the researcher
was used content validity test recommended by Yaghmale (2003, p.25).The research was tested the
questionnaire for validity through the following four key elements:
Table 3.3: Criteria for Testing Content Validity

A Relevance C Simplicity
 Not relevant  Not simple
 Item need some revision  Item need some revision
 Relevant but need minor revision  Simple but need minor revision
 Very relevant  Very clear
B Clarity D Ambiguity
 Not clear  Doubtful
 Item need some revision  Item need some revision
 Clear but need minor revision  No doubt but need minor revision
 Very clear  Meaning is clear
Source: Yaghmale (2003).

3.11 Ethical Consideration

In this study ethics and the safety of participants were given due attention. Hence, before asking any
questions about the research topic, the researcher asked the consents of each research participants.
Apart from this, the researcher briefed participants on appropriate details of the research and value
of their participation. The involvement of the study participants in the research was totally voluntary
and all of them were informed that they will not expect financial benefit from the study.
Greatest care was taken to guarantee anonymity and safety of the participants. In addition,
participants in this study were ensured that their personal identities could not be described at any
point. As part of the consent procedure, respondents were informed about the confidentiality of the
collected data that should be kept by avoiding personal identifier. Oral and written consent were
taken from participants of the study. Informed consent was written in English language and
translated in to Amharic by the researcher.

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 Chapter Four: Analysis and Discussion

4.1 Descriptive Analysis

4.1.1 Trends of youth Unemployment

The trend of unemployment refers to the pattern that unemployment looks like over time. In
order to examine the trend of urban youth unemployment in Injibara town administration, the
study used the number of registered from Injibara town labor & training office of those three
sampled one shop services for five consecutive years as a proxy. Though, it could be more
explicatory, if it were taken longer time than this, the study assessed the trend of unemployment
over the past five years due to data constraints. The trend of unemployment of five years is
mentioned in table 4.1 as below.
Table 4.1: Trends of youth Unemployment in Years
Year Registered Unemployed Youth in One Shop Services Incremental Rate
01 02 03 Total
2019 1485 1230 1142 3857
2020 1556 1462 1378 4396 13.98
2021 2472 2251 2093 6816 55.05
2022 2554 2312 2198 7064 3.64
2023 3385 3118 2752 9255 31.02
Source: Injibara Town Labor & Training Office, 2023

As it is shown in the table 4.1 above, the pattern of youth unemployment is increasing over time and
getting serious attention in Injibara town administration. Accordingly, the table revealed that the
number unemployed urban youth register in 2020 is by 13.98% higher than 2019. And this number

70
of unemployment increased at increasing rate of 55.05% in 2021. In 2022 the number of registered
unemployed youth increased by 3.64%, while this rate of increment reached 31.02% in 2023. In
these five years the change from 2020 to 2021 year recorded highest increment of 55.05%.
According to Injibara town labor & training office report this tremendous increment is due to the
national war between Ethiopian national defense force and woyanie rebel’s and based on political
unrest of our nation, region and local government /town administration in 2021. Generally, this
unemployment has been increasing as a result of weak job creation in Injibara town administration
of three one shop services. In fact, the government tried to minimize unemployment in the study area
by taking different strategies, mechanisms or measurements as follows.

4.1.2 Demographic and Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents

The survey has collected a wide range of data from 383 sample respondents which are essential to
the interpretation of the findings. The major demographic and socio-economic profile of respondents
replied that in the study area were as age, sex, migration status, and marital status, level of
education, social network density, job training, household poverty status, and education level of
household head, job preference, work experience and family size. Thus, this section of the study
presents the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of sample respondents using the
summarization tables below.
Table 4.2: Summary Statistics
Variable Frequency Mean Std. Dev.
Unemployment (Dependent Variable)

Age 383 22.6209 2.8639878

Work Experience 383 1.1825 1.5839654
Poverty 383 .6631 .4423997
Credit Access 383 .3256 .4541442
Job Training 383 .2968 .4433918
Marital Status 383 .2298 .4094442
Sex 383 .4548 .47875
Youth Education 383 1.3932 1.0383092
Job Preference 383 .8594 .7917217

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 Migration 383 .4261 .4764407
HH head education 383 2.0634 1.351043
House Hold Size 383 4.28 1.0096426
Paid Job 383 .3806 .4691692
Own Job 383 .2944 .4423997
Any Job 383 .2825 .4372078
No Network 383 .3543 .462864
Medium Network 383 .3543 .462864
High Network 383 .2489 .4205183
Youth’s Education Level
Primary 383 .2489 .4205183
Secondary 383 .2178 .4019039
Diploma 383 .2968 .4433918
Degree 383 .1939 .3852654
Head Education Level
Illiterate 383 .1747 .3703034
Red and Write 383 .1508 .3492268
Primary Level 383 .1963 .3870284
Secondary Level 383 .2226 .4049795
Higher Level 383 .213 .3987471
Source: Survey, 2023
The dependent variable is employment status of respondents. And from the total of 383 sample
respondents, 196 (51.2%) were unemployed youth while 187 (48.8%) employed. Sex is one of the
demographic variables that are expected to have a significant impact in determining the employment
status of urban youth. Table 4.2 below shows that among the respondents 201 (52.5%) were female
while the remaining 182 (47.5%) were male. On the basis of age distribution the minimum age is 15
while the maximum age of respondents is 29 year. And the mean age of respondents is indicated to
be 22.6 year. Another demographic characteristic of respondents is marital status of respondents and
out of the total youth respondents, only 291 (76%) were found to be non-married while the
remaining 92 (24%) were married during the time of survey. According to the survey result of the

72
study, 213 (55.6%) of respondents were non migrants while the remaining 170 (44.4%) of sample
youth were migrants from different rural areas into the town administration.

From the information collected from sample respondents on their job preference, 152 (39.7%) of
respondents replied that they prefer to work for a salary job while the 118 (30.8%) prefer to work for
their own job. The remaining 113 (29.5%) of respondents prefer to work for any available work.

Information was also collected about the density of social network that respondents have.
Accordingly, 142 (37.1%) of respondents mentioned to have no social network and as same as 142
(37.1%) had a social network less than five to share about any vacancy and available work. The
remaining 99 (25.8%) of respondents had more than five social networks to get any information
about any available work see (table 4.2). According to the information obtained from sampled
respondents on their job experience, 211 (55.1%) of youth had no work experience on the time of
survey. And the remaining 172 (44.9%) had job experience from 1-above 6 years or with the lowest
to highest job experience of 7 years.

The data based on the poverty status was also collected from sampled respondents using multi-
dimensional poverty measure approach. According to the information obtained, 266 (69.5%) of
respondents were from the non-poor household while the remaining 117 (30.5%) of respondents
were from the poor household. Table 4.2 below summarizes that the poverty status of household of
which the sampled respondents’ belonged. Conferring /Based on/ the data obtained from
respondents on their access of credit, 126 (32.9%) of youth replied that to have an access of credit,
whereas, 257 (67.1%) of youth had no access of it.

Another data collected from respondents was their job training status. Accordingly, only 119
(31.1%) of youth have got job training, while 264 (68.9%) of youth revealed to have any job
training. Another data collected from respondents was their highest educational level they have
completed. Accordingly, the lowest educational level was primary whereas the highest educational
level that the sampled youth completed was second degree. The data indicates that the highest share
of respondents were diploma holders which accounts 119 (31.1%) of the total sampled respondents.
On the other hand, the lowest shares of respondents have a Degree & above which covers only 77
(29.5%).

73
Information was also collected from respondents on the educational status of their household heads.
Based on the data obtained from household heads respondents, 70 (18.3%) of respondents were
illiterate household heads whereas, 85 (22.2%) of respondents of a household heads were completed
higher education level.
Respondents were also asked to give response that, the size of household they belonged.
Accordingly, it is shown that the smallest household size is 2 with frequency of 12 (3%) while the
highest household size was 6 with a frequency of 67 (17.5%). And the mean household size was
4.28.
4.2 Inferential Analysis
4.2.1 Demographic and Socio Economic-Factors Associated with Youth
Unemployment
The bi-variate analysis evaluates the association between the employment status of respondents and
its determinant variables. The study employed the chi2 test statistics to examine the existence of
relation between the dependent and independent variables. Besides, the study also applied the cross
tabulation technique for this purpose.
Table 4.3: The Cross-Tabulation Result
Variable Variable Total Employment Status Chi2 P-Value
Category Employed Unemployed
Number Percent Number Percent
Age 15-19 41 0 0 41 100
20-24 226 92 40.7 134 59.3 12.52 0.0004
25-29 116 95 81.9 21 18.1
Total
Sex Male 182 107 59 75 41 9.32 0.0023
Female 201 79 39 122 61 ......... ........
Migration Migrant 170 50 29 120 71 6.89 0.0087
Status Non-migrant 213 137 64 76 36 ....... ....
Marital Married 92 68 74 24 26 4.9 0.0269
Status Non-married 291 119 41 172 59 ...... .....
Educationa Primary 100 5 5 95 95 ..... .......

74
l Level Secondary 87 40 46 47 54 5.39 0.0203
Diploma 119 86 72.3 33 27.7 6.55 0.0105
Degree & 77 55 71.4 22 28.6 8.19 0.0042
above
Social No Network 142 31 21.2 112 78.8
Network Medium 142 82 58 59 42 5.5 0.019
Density Network
High Network 99 74 75 25 25 5.65 0.0175
Job 0 Year 211 41 19.3 171 80.7
Experience 1-3 Years 128 103 80.5 25 19.5
4-6 Years 42 40 97.6 2 2.4 15.24 0.0001
Above 6 Years 2 2 100 0 0
Access for Have Access 126 106 81.5 24 18.5 9.82 0.0017
Credit
No Access 257 81 32 172 68 ...... ......
Access for Have Access 119 89 74.8 30 25.2
Job
No Access 264 97 36.7 167 63.3
Training
Poverty Poor 117 35 30 83 70 5.39 0.0202
Status Non Poor 266 151 57 114 43 ...... .....
Job Paid Job 152 39 25.7 113 74.3 ...... .......
Preference
Own Job 118 68 57.6 50 42.4 9.47 0.0021
Any Job 113 79 70 34 30 13.13 0.0003
House Illiterate 70 24 34.3 46 65.7 ....... ......
Hold Head
Read& Write 60 15 25 45 75 0.54 0.4611
Education
Level Primary 79 25 31.6 54 68.4 0.67 0.4148
Secondary 89 55 61.8 34 38.2 4.21 0.0402
Higher 85 68 80 17 20 6.81 0.0090
Household 2-3 74 57 77 17 23
Size 4-5 242 110 45.6 131 54.4 5.61 0.0178
6 67 20 29.4 48 70.6
Source: Cross Tabulation Result, 2023

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According to the cross tabulation result shown above, age of respondents is among the
demographic factors that affect the unemployment of urban youths. As depicted in the cross
tabulation table (4.3) above, the increase in age of respondents reduce the percentage share of
unemployed respondents and increase the percentage share of employed respondents. The table
also shows that all of sample respondents whose age is below twenty are found to be
unemployed.

According to the X2 -test result, sex of respondents is another demographic factor that affect the
employment status urban youth. As it is summarized in the cross tabulation result of employment
status and sex of respondents in the table (4.3) above, among 201 females included in the
sample, 122 (60.7%) were unemployed while only 79 (39.3%) of them were employed at the
time of survey. And from 182 males included in the sample, 107 (59%) percent were employed
while 75 (41%) percent were found to be unemployed. These numeric figures show that
vulnerability to unemployment is higher for females than the male urban youth.

Another significant variable that determine the employment status of urban youth is migration.
According to the X2- test result the, p value is by far less than 5% which results in the rejection
of the null hypothesis of no relationship between employment stats and migration. The survey
result reveals that from 170 migrant youth, only 50 (29%) were employed while the rest 120
(71%) of migrant youth were found to be unemployed during the time of survey. However, from
213 citizens /non-migrants/ youth included in the sample,137 (64%) were employed while the
remaining 76 (36%) were unemployed. This data indicates that unemployment is worse for those
youth who are migrant than those of citizens /non-migrants/.

The p value of the X2 -test for the variable marital status is 0.0269 which is less than 5 percent.
This results the rejection of the null hypothesis which states that no significant relation between
the employment status of urban youth and their marital status (see table 4.3). Accordingly,
among the 92 married youth included in the sample, 68 (74%) were employed whereas only 24
(26%) of married urban youth were unemployed. Despite, among the 291 unmarried urban youth
involved in the sample, 119 (41%) were employed whereas the rest 172 (59%) of unmarried
urban youth were unemployed. Hence, this survey result indicates that the problem of urban
youth unemployment is more prevalent for unmarried youth than the married respondents.

76
The bi-variate analysis result confirmed that youth level of education is one of the significant
factors to determine the employment status of urban youth. The X2-test result for education level
of urban youth shows that the p-value of 0.0203, 0.0105 and 0.0042 for secondary, diploma, and
bachelor degree education level categories respectively provided that the primary education level
is taken as a reference category (see table 4.3). Hence the X2 -test result leads to the rejection of
the null hypothesis which states that there is no parametric difference between the reference
category and the other education levels.

The cross tabulation result supports this idea. The reference category (primary education) had
100 numbers of respondents. From those urban youth who completed primary education, 95
(95%) were unemployed while only 5 (5%) were found to be employed till the time of survey.
Another category is secondary education level. From 87 urban youth found in this category, 40
(46%) were employed while 47 (54%) of urban youth were unemployed. Hence this figure
reveals that the problem of urban youth’s unemployment is more prevalent for those who
completed only primary education than the youth with secondary school education level.

From 119 diploma holder urban youth, 86 (72.3%) were employed, whereas 33 (27.7%) of them
were found unemployed. This implies that diploma holders are by far less vulnerable for
unemployment compared to the reference category.

The last group of youth in their education level is youth having bachelor degree and above.
From 77 urban youth found in this category, 55 (71.4%) were employed, while the remaining 22
(28.6%) of youth were unemployed. This result also indicates that urban youth having bachelor
degree and above are less likely to be unemployed than the reference category. Generally, the
above numerals infer that educational level of respondents is one of the significant factors to
determine the employment status of youth.

Another socio-economic factor with significant impact on youth’s unemployment is the density
of social network. From the above cross-tabulation table, the percentage distribution implies that
only from 142 urban youth 31 (21.2%) of respondents with no access for social network are
found to be employed, while the rest 112 (78.8%) of respondents remained unemployed. The
table also implies that, from 142 respondents who had a medium network 82 (58%) were

77
employed, while 59 (42%) were unemployed. And from those respondents who had a highest
social network density, only 25 (25%) of respondents remained unemployed, whereas 74 (75%)
of them were engaged in productive work.

Having the X2 -test result of the variable work experience, one can reject the null hypothesis of
zero coefficients for work experience of urban youth (see table 4.3). And it directs that work
experience is among the significant factors that affecting youth’s unemployment status. The table
(4.3) above shows that the highest percentage of unemployed has no work experience and as
work experience of urban youth’s increases, their vulnerability to unemployment gets lower.

The bi-variate analysis result reveals that youth’s access for formal credit has an impact on their
employment status (see table 4.3). The cross tabulation between respondent’s access for credit
and their employment status shows that from 130 respondents 106 or 81.5 percent of urban youth
who have an access for credit are employed, while 24 or 18.5 percent of urban youth who had an
access for credit were found remained unemployed. Contrarily /On other hands/, from 253
respondents with no access for credit, 172 or 68% stayed unemployed while only 81 or 32% of
respondents were engaged in a productive work despite no any access for credit.

Another significant factor is an access for job training. The cross tabulation result between
employment status of respondents and access for job training indicates that, from those 119
respondents who had an access for job training, 89 (74.8%) were found to be employed, while
only 30 (25.2%) of respondents had an access job training were found to stay unemployed. The
result also shows that from 264 of respondents 167 (63.3%) of youth with no access for job
training remained unemployed, whereas 97 (36.7%) of respondents who had an access for job
training were found to be employed. (See table 4.3).

Given the X2 -test result, poverty status of household that the urban youth belonged to was one of
the determinant factors for employment status of urban youth (see table 4.3). The percentage
distribution of cross tabulation result between the employment status of urban youth and poverty
status of household revealed that 83 (70%) of respondents from multi-dimensional 119 poor
families are unemployment, while 35 (30%) of them were employed. The result also indicates

78
that, 151 (57%) of respondents from 265 non-poor household were employed, whereas 114
(43%) of them were found to be unemployed.

Taking a paid job as a reference category, the X 2-test result is found to be 0.0021 for own job
category and 0.0003 for any job preference category (see table 4.3) above. This test results in the
rejection of the null hypothesis of no relationship between job preference and the employment
status of urban youth. Therefore, job preference is another socio-economic characteristic related
to urban youth employment status. As explained in various literatures, a substantial proportion of
young people prefer to work in the formal sectors. In this regard, as shown in table 4.3 above,
highest percent of the unemployed respondents preferred to work in the formal sectors
(government and private institutions) as paid workers.

The table also shows that from 152 of respondents only, 39 youth or 25.7 percent of urban youth
who preferred a paid for jobs are found to be employed while 113 youth or 74.3 percent were
unemployed. However, from 118 youth 68 or 57.6 percent of youth who preferred to work their
own job were employed, while the remaining 50 youth or 42.4 percent of youth in this category
were found be unemployed.

Moreover, the percentage of youth being employed is highest for those urban youth who are
willing to do any available work which is 79 or 70 percent as shown in the table above. One can
be concluded here is that, the vulnerability for unemployment is highest for those urban youth
who preferred to work in the paid job, while it is lowest for those who are willing to work for
any available work.

Taking the alliterated category as a reference, all household education levels have a p-value of
less than five percent except the read and write group. The implication here is whether the
household head can read and write or illiterate, there is no significant impact on the employment
status of urban youth. But for other education level, the X 2 -test result led to the rejection of the
null hypothesis which hypothesizes that there is no coefficient of difference between the illiterate
category and other levels of household head education. The cross tabulation result above
illustrates that, the association between education level of the household head and employment
status of respondents they belongs to (table 4.3).

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The above X2- test result rejects the null hypothesis of no relationship between size of household
that the responds belongs to and their employment status (see table 4.3) above. The table (4.3)
above shows that, as the size of household increases, the percentage of respondents being
employed gets reduces, while the percentage share of unemployed respondents increases.
Therefore, this bi-variate analyses shows that, there is an inverse relationship between household
sizes and employment status of urban youth.

4.2.2 Determinants of Urban Youth Unemployment (Multivariate Analysis)

Besides of the bi-variate analysis, the researcher made a multivariate analysis to examine
demographic and socio-economic determinants of youth unemployment. To do this, a binary
logistic regression model is employed since the dependent variable (employment status) is
dichotomous provided that unemployed coded as 1 and employed coded as 0. Logistic regression
is a popular modeling approach used when the dependent variable is categorical (nominal or
ordinal scale). The model allows one to predict the log odds of outcomes of a dependent variable
from a set of variables that may be continuous, discrete, categorical, or a mix of any of these.
4.2.2.1 Diagnostic Tests
Prior to predicting the probability of the unemployment and making any empirical analysis using
binary logistic regression model, basic econometric tests such as correlations, the overall
significance, significance of individual variables, goodness of fit of the model, and multi
collinearity diagnoses were made.

Statistical Significance of Coefficients: In order to evaluate the statistical significance of a

coefficient, the researcher used the (standard normal) ‘Z’ statistic. Accordingly, except the read
and write category of household head education level, all explanatory variables were found to be
significant at 5% level of confidence.

Goodness of Fit: To measure the goodness of fit of the model, the researcher employed both the
pseudo R2 and the Hosmer-Lemshow Test. The value for psedo R2 for this model was found to be
0.8. Hence, this value assures that the model is good and explains 80% of variations in the
model.

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Moreover, Hosmer and Lemeshow test, one of the techniques used to examine the goodness of
fit of a model. The test is used to accept or reject the alternative hypothesis "the model
adequately describes the data. In this research case, the p-value of the Hosmer-Lemshow
goodness of fit test statistic is greater than 0.05 so, fail to reject the null hypothesis that there is
no difference between observed and predicted values, implying that the model fits the data at an
acceptable level.

Overall Significance of the Model: To test the null hypothesis that all the slope coefficients are
simultaneously equal to zero, the researcher employed the likelihood ratio (LR) statistic which is
equivalent of the F test in the linear regression model. Given the null hypothesis, the LR statistic
follows the χ2 distribution with df equal to the number of explanatory variables. Accordingly the
likelihood ratio test statistics result of the model is found to be (LR chi2 (20) = 429.5 with Prob
>chi2 = 0.0000). This value results in the rejection of a null hypothesis. Meaning the model is
significant overall.

Multi Collinearity: Multi collincarity in logistic regression is a result of strong inter-correlation

among the explanatory variables. To examine multi collinearity effect in the model, Variance
Inflation Factor (VIF) and Tolerance was used.

Accordingly, for this study the values of VIF were found to be less than 4 (3.8) and Tolerance
was more than 0.575 (approach to 1) for the predictors (see table 4.4). Hence, multicollinearity is
not a threat for the estimation results.
Table 4.4: Variance Inflation Factor
Variable VIF
1/ VIF
Diploma 2.15 0.465116
Degree 1.93 0.518135
Higher Education 1.87 0.534759
Age 1.82 0.549451
Secondary Education 1.80 0.555556
Work Experience 1.71 0.584795
Primary Education 1.67 0.598802
House Hold Secondary Education 1.61 0.621118
Read and Write 1.57 0.636943
High Network 1.48 0.675676
Any Job 1.35 0.740741

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 Midum Network 1.33 0.751880
Own Job 1.29 0.775194
Credit Access 1.24 0.806452
House Hold Size 1.16 0.862069
Job Training 1.14 0.877193
Marital Status 1.10 0.909091
Migration 1.08 0.925926
Sex 1.05 0.952381
Poverty 1.05 0.952381
Mean VIF 1.47
Source: Survey, 2023

4.3 Discussion of the Results

This section presents the multivariate analysis result of demographic and socio economic factors
that have a significant impact on the employment status of urban youth in the study area. Table
4.5 below presents the marginal effect result of the logistic regression model. However, even if
it’s the interpretation of odds ratio is not appealing his section included in the interpretations of
odds ratio and logs of odds ratio for the sake of further explanation and understanding of
findings.

Table 4.5: Binary Logistic Regression Result (Marginal Effects)

Dependent Variable: Unemployment
Independent Variable Referebce Odds mfx Std. Z P>Z [ 95% C.I.]
Age ........ -0.543 -.135 .0386 -3.36 0.000 -.2112 -.0599
Sex (Male) Female -1.757 -.41 .1171 -3.35 0.000 -.6390 -.1799
Marital Status (Married) Un-married -1.399 -.32 .1238 -2.47 0.010 -.5625 -.0772
Migration (Migrant) Non- 1.381 .331 .1158 2.74 0.004 .1040 .55805
Work Experience ..... -0.973 -.242 .0613 -3.79 0.000 -.3632 -.1228
House Hold Poverty (Poor) Non-poor -1.492 -.351 .1329 -2.53 0.007 -.6120 -.0910
Credit Access (Acceaaed) No-access -1.889 -.424 .1110 -3.66 0.000 -.6414 -.2067
Job Training (Trained) Non-trained -2.134 -.462 .1068 -4.15 0.000 -.6716 -.25297
House Hold Size ...... 0.668 .167 .0702 2.27 0.017 .0290 .30420
Job Preferebce Paid Job
Own Job -2.007 -.44 .1177 -3.58 0.000 -.6710 -.2096
Any Job -2.768 -.552 .1042 -5.08 0.000 -.7566 -.3481
Social Network No network
Medium Network -1.363 .322 .1250 -2.47 0.009 -.5669 -.0770
High Network -2.027 -.435 .1364 -3.05 0.001 -.7022 -.1671

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Youth Education Primary
Education
Secondary -2.166 -.447 .1564 -2.80 0.002 -.7493 -.1478
Diploma -2.250 -.481 .1553 -2.97 0.001 -.7855 -.1766
Degree -2.709 -.510 .1277 -3.82 0.000 -.7604 -.2596
House Hold Head Illitrate
Education
Secondary -1.951 -.417 .1540 -2.60 0.006 -.7187 -.1150
Higher -2.672 -.514 .1260 -3.91 0.000 -.7608 -.2671
Number of Respondents = 383, Psedo R2 = 0.7749, Prob> chi2 = 0.0000, LR chi2(20) = 429.52,
Log likelihood = 50.58, mean vif = 1.46
Source: Binary Logistic Regression Result, 2023

4.3.1 Sex of Respondents

Provided that male coded as 1 and female coded as 0 the regression result reveals that, sex is one
of the significant demographic factors that influence the employment status of urban youth.
Moreover, as shown in the table 4.5 above, the marginal effect for the demographic variable sex
is -0.41. The interpretation for this figure is that, other things given constant, being male reduce
the probability of being unemployed by 41% relative to the female respondents on average. And
the coefficient (logs of odds ratio) for the variable sex is found to be -1.76. This implies that,
other things held constant being male reduce the estimated logs in favor of being unemployed on
by 1.76 relative to the female urban youth.

The odds ratio for this variable is obtained by using a logistic command and found to be 0.1532
which below zero. This figure reveals that male urban youth are less likely to be unemployed
than the female urban youth. By subtract 1 from 0.15, and multiply the result by 100, we get a
percent change in the odds for a change in the sex (a change from female to male). This figure
illustrates being male reduces the odds in favor of being unemployed by 76% overage other
things held constant. The binary logistic model showed that the female youth were less likely to
be unemployed compared to males.
A potential reason for this might be that the female are more likely to be engaged in domestic
work than male and lower opportunity for education to update their skill to be competitive on the
labor market. In addition, information obtained from key informant interviewees also confirmed
the findings obtained from household survey. Key informant interviewees stated that in Injibara
town administration, due to low level of education, high responsibility for domestic activities,

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perception of females about themselves, lack of entrepreneurship training, and other factor made
females less employed than males.
The low literacy rate among young women may, in turn explain their higher level of
unemployment, as well as their high participation in the informal economy. It was also noted
that, some women are more prone to unemployment because of gender related occupational
choice by women and some jobs being offered only for male due to the nature of the job.
Generally, the result of this study shows that, the threat of unemployment is higher for female
than male, and this approves the stated hypothesis in the association between sex and youth
unemployment status. This finding confirms with the findings of (Peace, 2015; Gebeyaw, 2011;
Abshoko, 2016& Batu, 2016).
4.3.2 Age
According the logistic regression result, another significant factor for urban youth unemployment
is age of youth with the marginal effect of coefficient for the variable age is found to be -0.14
(table 4.5) meaning that as the age of respondents increased by one year on average the
probability of being unemployed would be reduced by 14% other factors being constant. In
addition, the logit coefficient of age is found to be -0.54. This result illustrates that, the younger
urban youth are more vulnerable for unemployment than the older youth. The regression
coefficient shows that for a one year increase in the age of youth, the logs of odds in favor of
being unemployed would be reduced by a 0.54. The odds ratio for the variable age is 0.543. To
find the percentage change in the odds ratio for a one year increase in age, we can subtract one
from the odds ratio and multiply by 100. Hence the percentage change would be 54.3% with a
negative sign.

This figure reveals that, other things remain constant, a one year increase in age of urban youth
results in the reduction the odds in favor of being unemployed by 54.3%. In other words, as
respondents get older, their chance of being in a productive work would get rise.
4.3.3 Marital Status
According to the multivariate logistic regression, it can be inferred that youth that were married
had less odds of being unemployed. Provided that married respondents coded as 1 and non-
married youth coded as 0 (reference category), the logistic regression result shows that, the
marginal effect coefficient of marital status is -0.32.This numerical value is interpreted as given
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other factors constant, being married reduces the probability of being unemployed by 32 percent
on average relative to unmarried youth. Besides, the logit coefficient for marital status is found
to be 1.39 with a negative sign. This numerical figure proves that, the log likelihood of
unemployment for urban youth who were married at the time of survey is 1.39 times lower than
the non-married respondents.

As shown in the (table 4.5), the odds ratio for this category is 0.1. To determine the percentage
change for the odds in favor of being unemployed, one can subtract 1 form the odds ratio and
multiply by 100. Following this procedure, the percentage change of odds in favor of being
unemployed is 74 percent and this figure implies the percentage reduction in the odds in favor of
being unemployed for the married respondents relative to the unmarried respondents.

According to the information obtained from the key informant interviewees, it may not be the
case that when people get married, they have better likelihood of getting employed. Instead, it
may be that they strive to find a job before getting married as marriage is believed to come up
with responsibilities and most people get married after securing some source of income for future
life or looking for one after getting married. This can be explained by the fact that married
people are more motivated to find a job (moreover, young people who are “single” often live
with their parents and are maintained by them if unemployed).
Since married person has more family responsibility than singles, it would force them to look for
a job to support the family. Normally, in Injibara town administration, as single, youth can
depend on parents, relatives and friends until they get a suitable job. Besides, it also could be
because married and divorced have more commitments and obligations for the family to earn a
living than single. Generally, the issue of urban youth unemployment is higher for urban youth
who are not married. And this result is consistent with the findings of (Peace, 2015; Wangmo,
2017 & Mathebula, 2017), while it controverts with the findings of (Abera, 2011; Birhanu,
2007& Batu, 2007).

4.3.4 Education Level of Youth

Educational level of an urban youth affects his/her employment opportunity. In doing a
multivariate analysis the researcher used the primary education levels as a reference category.
Having this, the marginal effect of the secondary education category is found to be -0.447

85
meaning that the probability of respondents who had completed their secondary education is by
44.7% lower than that of respondents with primary education level (table 4.5) other things
remain constant. The marginal effect for a diploma holders is -0.481 and the interpretation for
this numerical figure is that on average, having diploma reduce the probability of being
unemployed by 48.1% relative to primary education category other factors held constant.

Another educational category of education level is a bachelor degree and above education level.
As shown in the table 4.5 above, the marginal effect for the bachelor degree and above is
indicted to be -0.51 meaning that controlling other things constant, on average having a bachelor
degree and above education level reduce the probability of being unemployed by 51 % as
compared to the primary school categories.

People with the most human capital are said to be the most productive, and thus secure the best
jobs and the highest salaries (Schultz, 1961). On the other hand, when lack of necessary skills
and knowledge, the chance of being unemployed is high. The findings of this study support this
idea, having lower level of education increases the odds of in favor of unemployed. Accordingly,
the likelihood of unemployment is lesser for those urban youth who had diploma relative to
reference category.
The interviewees also noted that, currently, higher numbers of unemployed youth have been
observed among secondary school students in the town. Some of completed grade 10 and grade
12, but they did not get any employment opportunity in various socio-economic sectors of the
town.
4.3.5 Job Preference
This study is conducted by taking those youth who preferred to work for paid jobs as a reference
category. The multivariate analysis regression result revealed that the job preference has a
significant impact on the unemployment status of urban youth. Accordingly, the marginal effect
result of the binary logit model is found to be -0.552 for those who preferred to work any
available work. This numeral is interpreted as on average the probability of being unemployed
for respondents who preferred to work any available job is by 55.2% lower than the probability
of being unemployed for those who preferred to work for a paid job other things held constant
(see table 4.5).

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The regression result also indicates that the logs in favor of being unemployed is 2.77 or 2.8 with
negative sign. This infers that the likelihood of being unemployed for respondents who prefer to
work for any available work is by far less than that of respondents who are interested to work for
paid job only. The odds ratio of 0.057 for this category also supports the notion that youth who
wait the paid job are more likely to be unemployed relative to those who prefer to work for any
available work on the labor market.

Likewise, the marginal effect result for own job category is -0.44 meaning that the probability of
being unemployed for respondents who preferred to work for their own job is by 44% less than
the probability respondents who preferred to work for a paid job other things being constant. In
other word, preferring to work for own job reduce the probability of being unemployed by 44
percent as compared to those urban youth who wait and prefer to work for a paid job.

The binary logit regression result also indicates that likelihood of being unemployed for those
respondents who preferred to work for their own job is found to be 2.001 times lower as
compared to those who preferred to work for a paid job. The exponential of log odds for this
category is 0.117 as shown in table 4.5and by the same technique the percentage change for the
odds in favor of being unemployed 0.843.This figure discloses that preferring to work for own
job reduce the odds in favor of being unemployed by 84.3% relative to the reference category.

The findings of this survey indicates that the major share of the respondents preferred paid
employment in the government or private sectors, thus, youth who preferred paid employment
were unemployed compared to others. In addition, due to limited job vacancies in the public
sector, it is likely that individuals would remain unemployed if they wait for public sectors as
evident from the result. The regression result also directs that the effect of seeking job in
government increases the probability of being unemployed than seeking private job.
The interviewees result obtained from respondents also support the finding. Accordingly, key
informants in interviewees confirmed that preferring decent and productive work is the unique
character of youth. Most of them prefer to work in the informal sectors particularly in the
government office because or job security, safe working place, and optimal working hours.
The findings of this survey indicates that 36.4% of the respondents preferred paid employment in
the government or private sectors, thus, youth who preferred paid employment were unemployed

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compared to others. Confirming this, interviewees remarked that preferring decent and
productive work is the unique character of youth. Most of them prefer to work in the formal
sectors particularly in the government offices, because of job security, safe working place, and
optimal working hours. They also pointed out that, private jobs are seen as a last resort for many
job seekers. So for this reason, many individuals could be waiting to join in government job,
hence they become unemployed. Besides, our role models were males and females who are
working in the government institutions and they have a big influence on local development. This
outcome is similar with findings of (Abera, 2011; Wangmo, 2017&Abera, 2011) while it
contradicts with the finding of (Mohammad, 2014).

4.3.6 Job Training

Job training is another strategy that individuals adopt to improve their skills and grow
professionalism in order to adjust them to the market demand and thereby get rid of
unemployment and even ensuring decent employment. As expected, it was found to have
negative impact on unemployment. As shown in the table 4.5 above the marginal effect for the
variable job training is found to be -0.462 and this coefficient is interpreted as other factors held
constant, having an access for job training reduce the probability of being unemployed by 46.2 %
on average. In other words, those youth who got a job training services are less likely to be
unemployed as compared to those who didn’t get.

Further, the odds ratio result also indicates that likelihood of being unemployed for those who
got a training service was 0.103 times the likelihood of those who didn’t get the service. The
relationship is significant at p < 0 .05. The findings of this survey indicated that higher percent
of youth did not get any form of job training services. The lack of the service could have a
significant impact on youth employment. This result confirms the finding of (Dagume, 2019).

The regression analysis displays that, the risk of unemployment was higher for those youth who
did not get any form of job training services as compared to those who had got. The information
obtained from key informants of interviewees also supports the above empirical analysis.
Accordingly, the participants as they have seen that trained youth create their own jobs and work
in other enterprises. Despite, many of them did not participate in such training or service in the
past since the training service is not easily accessible.

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Hence, they are unable neither to create their own job nor participate to other enterprises. This
inverse relation between job training and unemployment is consistent with the findings of
(Chikako, 2018 & Dagume, 2016).

4.3.7 Work Experience

Regarding to the variable work experience, the marginal effect coefficient is found to be -0.242
and this coefficient is interpreted as on average for a one increase in work experience, the
probability of being unemployed reduced by 24.2% other things being constant. In line with the
prior expectation of the researchers work experience affects unemployment negatively at 5
percent significance level.

Additionally, multivariate analysis result also indicates that the logs of odds ratio of being
unemployed to be -0.973. And the odds ratio for the variable work experience is 0.35 implying
as the work experience of respondents increased by one year the odd of being unemployed
reduced by 0.35 unit other things remaining constant. Using an usual procedure of calculating a
percentage change of odds ratio, the result is -0.613 which illustrates for every year of work
experience, the odds in favor of being unemployed would be reduced by 61.3% given other
things constant. It means that lack of work experience increases the chance of being
unemployment. Having good work experience makes youth either competent on labor market or
run their own business than staying unemployed.

4.3.8 Household Poverty Status

Concerning to the poverty status of household, the marginal effect coefficient is found to be
-0.351 and is interpreted as being from a multidimensional non-poor family reduce the
probability of being unemployed on average by 35.1% controlling other things constant.

As it is shown in the (table 4.5), the multivariate analysis result also indicates that poverty status
of household that the urban youth belonged to is one of the determinant factor for employment
status of urban youth. Provided that respondents from poor households coded as 0 (reference
category, and respondents from a non-poor household coded as 1, the logistic regression result
shows a coefficient to -1.494. And this numerical figure infers being from the non-poor
household reduce the logs of odds in favor of being unemployed 1.49 unit. The exponential

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(odds ratio) is 0.201 meaning youth from non-poor household are less likely to be unemployment
than youth from the poor household.

And the percentage change of odd ratio is 0.756 and it means given other things constant, being
from the non-poor household reduce the likelihood of unemployment by 75.6% (table 4.5). Thus,
the result of this study implies that youth from a poor household are more likely to be
unemployed. This could be the fact that, youth from the poor household have less ability to
search for a job due to financial constraint as search incurs cost or start their own business. This
outcome is similar with the findings of (Abshoko, 2016 & Shita, 2018) while it disproved the
studies of (Dangume, 2005& Abera, 2011).

4.3.9 Access for Formal Credit

The multivariate analysis result shows that an access for formal credit is one of the significant
factors that determine the employment status of urban youth. Thus, taking the urban youth
having no access to credit as a reference category (0), the marginal effect of the variable access
for credit is found to be -0.424 and interpreted as other things being constant, having an access
for credit reduces the probability being unemployed by 42.4%. See table 4.5 above.

Besides, the logit regression result also shows that, the coefficient (logs of odds ratio) to be -
1.889. This number indicates that the logs of odds in favor of being unemployed for youth
having an access for credit is higher than that of youth having no access for credit.

Likewise, the odds ratio is found to be 0.133 which shows that, the odds in favor of
unemployment for respondents who have an access for credit is 0.133 times the odds in favor of
being unemployed for respondents without access for credit. And the percentage change in odds
ratio also shown to be 0.824 with a negative sign which directs an access for credit reduce the
odds in favor of being unemployed by 82.4%. And this positive association between
unemployment and access for formal credit is alike with the findings of (Abera, 2011).

4.3.10 Household Size

As depicted in the table 4.4 above, the size of household is a significant factor that determines
the employment status of urban youth. The binary logit model indicated the marginal effect
coefficient for household size to be 0.167. The interpretations for this value is that on average a

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one unit increases in household size increases the youth probability of being unemployed by 16.7
% given other factors remaining constant.

According to the binary logistic regression analysis result, the coefficient (logs of odds ratio) is
found to be 0.668 and this implies that for every one unit increases in household size the logs of
odds in favor of being unemployed increased by this respective unit. From the result, it can be
assumed that bigger household is associated with heavier household duties. In some society
women are discouraged from working once they are married which could add to unemployment
if the member of family increases. This positive association between unemployment and the size
of household is similar (Wangmo, 2017) while it is contrarily with the finding of (Chikako,
2018& Abshoko, 2016).

4.3.11 Social Network Density

In urban areas social networks are crucial to search any available job. Youth who do not utilize
personal networks could miss job opportunities available through personal networks. Majority of
youth in the study area used to get information from their relatives and friends and some use
vacancy notice boards. And majority of respondents used to watch a vacancy notice board three
times a week. The habit of using internet, Television, Radio and newspaper for the sake of
searching a job is very low. In doing the multivariate analysis the researcher take the
respondents with no access for social network as a reference category. Accordingly, marginal
effect coefficient for this category is 0.435 meaning that having five and more social network
reduces the probability of being unemployed by 43.5% as compared with having no social
network.
Likewise, the marginal coefficient for this category is -0.322 this implies that the probability of
being unemployed is less by 32.2% for respondents with a social network density of one to five
relative to the no social.
This regression result coexists with the finding of (Serneels, 2014). Likewise, the likelihood of
being unemployed for those youth who had social networks less than five was 1.36 times higher
as compared to those youth who has no social networks . The finding of this study shows that
unemployment was higher among youth who had weak social networks as compared to youth

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who had strong social networks. The reason behind for this is that social networks increase the
accessibility of information regarding jobs and areas of job opportunities.
The key informant interviewees also firmly noted that, the advantage of social network in finding
job or employment. They stated that these days, obtaining job or employment has become
difficult unless they have relatives, friend, good social communication, and social networks.
Most of them do not have adequate social networks for searching employment as a result of the
closed social and cultural settings they have grown in, lack of motivation and discouraged in
search of jobs. They missed a number of jobs that came through personal network. And this
result is similar with what (Shita, 2018& Serneels, 2014) found on their analysis on the
determinants of unemployment.

4.3.12 Migration Status

According to the bivariate analysis result, migration status was the other demographic factor that
significantly influenced youth employment status in the study area. As shown in (table 4.5), the
likelihood of being unemployed for migrants was 1.379 times higher than non-migrants. The
regression coefficient between migration and youth unemployment was significant at p < 0 .05·

The exponential of logs of odds ratio for the variable migration is 4.213 meaning being a migrant
increase the odds of being in favor of unemployed by 4.1 units. The marginal effect of this factor
is found to be 0.331 and it is interpreted as being migrant increases the probability of being
unemployed by 33.1 percent relative to the non-migrants (table 4.5).
The finding of this study indicates that migration of youth towards urban areas from rural areas
could worsen the problem of unemployment. And migrants who came from different areas face
the main challenge of unemployment in the town. This might non-migrants may have better
opportunity for education and other advantages, while migrants particularly from rural areas who
had low level of education coupled with weak social networks could increase their vulnerability
for unemployment. People mostly migrate from rural areas to urban areas for various reasons,
around 30.6 percent of the respondents mentioned job related reasons for migration. The
situation is true because in the study area many migrants were entered to urban areas mainly in
search of job. The fact that there is very limited job in the urban areas would lead to
unemployment.

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According to the information obtained from key informant interviewees, it is directed that many
young people migrated towards the town in search of employment opportunities, education and
other services due to the expansion of socio-economic sectors. Nowadays, it is common to see a
strange youth in the town especially in the area of daily laborers and vacancy notice boards.
Therefore, both the report obtained from key informant interviewees and the findings of the
survey confirmed the hypothesis which states the threats of unemployment is higher for migrants
than non-migrants. This positive relation between migration and unemployment is similar with
the findings of (Chikako, 2018; Abera, 2011 and Shita, 2018) though it is contrarily with the
finding of (Gebeyaw, 2011).
4.3.13 Education Level of Household Heads
Conferring from the multivariate analysis, education level of a household heads that the
respondents belongs to a determinant factor for their employment status. In doing the empirical
analysis, the education level of a household heads was categorized in to illiterate, read and write,
primary, secondary and higher education level. And illiterate household heads are taken as a
reference category. However, only secondary and higher education level categories of a
household heads are found to be significant to determine the employment status of respondents.
Thus, for secondary education level of the household heads the coefficient of difference is found
to be -1.951.
Consequently, the exponential of the logs of odds ratio is 0.124. This implies that, respondents
from a household leaded by a heads completed his/her secondary education is less likely to be
unemployed relative to the reference category. Here the percentage changes of odds ratio 83.3%
with negative sign. Furthermore, the marginal effect is -0.412 meaning that being from the
household lead by a heads that completed his/her secondary education reduce the probability by
41.2% relative to the reference category.
Similarly, for higher education level of the household heads the coefficient of difference is found
to be -2.672. As a result, the exponential of the logs of odds ratio is found to be 0.057. This
implies that, respondents from a household leaded by a heads completed his/her higher education
is less likely to be unemployed relative to the respondents from a household headed by a person
who is illiterate. The marginal effect coefficient for this category is found to be -0.417 it implies
that being from the household lead by a head completed his/her higher education reduce the

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probability of being unemployed by 43% relative to the reference category. This result support
the findings of (Wangmo, 2017), while it contradicts with the findings of (Kasssa, 2012;
Abshoko, 2016 and Abera, 2011).
4.4 Determinants of Self-Emploment (The Multinomial Logit Regression
Model)
As the multinomial logit model has the strong assumption of Independence of Irrelevant
Alternatives (IIA). It is a statement that deals with the odds for each specific pair of outcomes do
not depend on other outcomes available (deleting outcomes should not affect the odds among the
remaining outcomes). In this case, it means that the odds ratio in one equation, say "self-
employed" vs "wage employed", is independent from other choices, say "unemployed". In order
to test this assumption, the study carried out the Hausman test. Hence, the result of the taste
revealed that the assumption of IIA has not being violated and so the multinomial model is
consistent (see table 4.6 below).
Given the the marginal effect result of all the multinomial logit model in table 4.6 below, here
discussion and interpretation is done for the self-employment outcome given below.
Table 4.6: Marginal Effect Result of Mlogit Regression Result (Self-Employed Outcome)
Dependent Variable: Self- employment
Variable Mfx Z P>z
Age 0.026 2.51 0.009
Work Experience 0.028 2.14 0.024
Poverty (Non-Poor) 0.066 2.25 0.018
Credit Access 0.090 2.10 0.028
Job Training 0.146 2.40 0.013
Sex (Male) 0.070 3.13 0.039
Edication Level (Degree) 0.361 2.00 0.037

Job Preference
Own Job 0.166 2.42 0.011
Any Job 0.138 2.26 0.018
Number of Respondents = 383, Psedo R2 = 0.7749, Prob> chi2 = 0.0000, LR
chi2(20) = 429.52,
Log likelihood = 50.58, mean vif = 1.46

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 Source: Survey, 2023

Besides of identifying factors that affect unemployment of urban youth by employing binary
logistic regression model, the study has established that the reported motivations for choosing
self-employment are highly multi-dimensional, revealing very considerable heterogeneity within
the self- employed as a group. In very broad terms the different motivational dimensions can be
summarized as relating to the existence of opportunity to start of business, the nature of an
individual’s profession (if they have one), the desire for a particular lifestyle and need to balance
family commitment with working life, and finally the opportunity afforded by having resources
available to support a new business venture.
The multinomial regression model was applied to examine the separated impact of each
demographic and socioeconomic variable especially on the probability of being self-employed.
Given the multinomial regression result, age of youth, work experience of youth, sex, education,
access for credit, access for job training, job preference, and poverty status of youth’s family are
significant variables that affect the probability of being-self-employed.

According to the regression result, researcher has found the variable age to be consistently
correlated with self-employment. The marginal effect result for the demographic factor age is
found to be 0.026. And this numerical figure revealed that there is positive relation between age
of youth and being self-employed. Empirically, it shows Citeris paribus, a one year increase in
age, on the average, leads to the probability of choosing "self-employed" rather than "being
unemployed" or "working for a paid job" to increase by 2.6%. The likely reasons for older youth
to be self- employed are first, older youth have on average a larger amount of several key
resources that facilitate the transition to self-employment. Namely, they have accumulated more
general and specific human capital. The capital in terms of social capital and wide range network
of contacts can facilitate the success of the investment in self-employment. Other likely reasons
could be higher risk taking levels, higher physical and mental availability for long work weeks
and stress situations that are usually associated with some self-employment activities, and less
time to recover the initial investment made at the entry into self-employment
From running the model, one can observe that sex of youth is significant provided that women
are less likely than men to be self-employed on average. This result matches our prediction and

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is in line with previous literature. According to our descriptive statistics, female have indeed
lower rates of self-employment participation than men do. Numerically, the marginal effect
result for the male category is found to be 0.070 which can be interpreted as other things being
constant, being male on the average, results in the probability of choosing "self-employed" rather
than "being unemployed" or "working for a paid job" to increase by 7% relative to the female
urban youth.
Another significant factor for self –employment of urban youth is their education level. The
regression result indicates that the marginal effect result for degree categories is significant and
positive determinants with the coefficients of 0.174. The numerical value for this marginal
coefficient illustrated that being a degree holder increase the probability of being self-employed
than joining to the paid work or staying unemployed by 17.4% than the youth with primary
education level. In fact, the impact of education on self-employment is far from conclusive.
Some argue that those with higher education level could have better job opportunities in the
wage sector and their interest on self-employment would be low-slung.

And other experts argued that higher education level enable youth to identify self-employment
opportunities and might have greater managerial ability, a critical precondition to succeed in self-
employment occupations. Given the above controversial arguments, the result of this study
supports the second argument that higher education level increases the probability of being self-
employed. And the outcome of this study is consistent with the findings of (Shafiur, 2014 & Fox,
2014).
Meaning the likely of entering and staying in self‐employment are greater if the individual has a
higher level of education, because education endows individuals with better skills and
individuals with higher educational levels have less chances of being self‐employed than people
holding primary and secondary education. Findings shown that the probability of becoming self‐
employed in skilled services increases greatly as the level of education rises; however, for the
construction sector the opposite situation prevails. The researcher argues that individuals with
higher levels of education appear to have lower switching costs, and consequently have a great
probability of being self‐employed.
Poverty status of youth family is the other significant factor to influence the probability of being
self-employed. The coefficient for the non-poor category is found to be 0.018 which illustrates

96
that other things being constant, being from the multi dimensionally poor family increase the
probability of being self employed by 1.8% relative to the urban youth from the poor family.
Accordingly, parents seem to inspire their children to become self-employed, there is also reason
to believe that there is support for starting up advice in terms of knowledge and experience about
starting and managing businesses, or got financial support and relevant human capital necessary
to start a business.

The job experience variable is another positive and significant determinant factor to influence the
decision of youth to be self-employed. The numerical coefficient for work experience is found to
be 0.012 and interpreted as keeping other factors constant, on average for every one year
increase in job experience the probability of choosing self-unemployment than either being wage
employed or remaining unemployed by 1.2%. This positive relationship between experience and
self-employment is consistent with the findings of (Shane, 2003 & Jovanovic, 20112). The data
obtained from key informant interviewees also indicated that individuals learn from previous
experiences making experience a critical component of human capital which leads them to self-
employment. Over their career, individuals might accumulate different types of experience,
which create better conditions to foster the ability to run one’s own business.

The first is managerial experience, i.e., a set of skills that is critical to make decisions regarding
day-to-day operations and to define the long-term strategy of the firm. Secondly, industry-
specific experience, i.e., with time spent working in a specific sector, individuals are better able
to identify business opportunities, possess a richer network of contacts in terms of suppliers and
clients, know how to find and select better workers, have better chances to obtain external
funding, and strengthen their reputation. Thirdly, previous self-employment experience, which
promotes higher confidence levels, leading the individual to believe that he/she has the capacity
to identify and succeed when good opportunities arise.

The youth’s access for formal credit is another significant factor for self-employment. The theme
marginal effect result for the accessed category is found to be 0.090 which can be interpreted as
keeping other things constant, having an access for formal credit results in the probability of
choosing "self-employed" rather than "being unemployed" or "working for a paid job" to
increase by 9% relative to those urban youth that have no access for credit. The access to credit

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enables the individuals to minimize their financial constraints and helps to start their business.
Moreover, good access to credit also increases the probability of individuals to becoming self-
employed. Hence, financial resource is the lifeblood of business operations and precondition to
make the business startup decisions. Therefore, having sufficient access to credit can improve
individual’s choice for self-employment over paid employment.
Youth’s access for job training is also a positive significant determinant for self-employment.
The numerical value for the marginal effect result for the trained category is indicated to be
0.146. And this can be interpreted as having an access for training increases the probability of
being self-employed than staying unemployed or engaging to a wage employment by 14.6% as
compared to those youth having no access for job training. It could be since, access for job
training improves skills of individuals and also increases his or her productivity so that youth can
motivate to run their own business.

The job preference youth are interested to join is another factor that has a way on self-
employment of urban youth. From the multinomial logistic regression, given those youth who
preferred to work for paid job as a reference category, the marginal effect coefficient for the own
job, and any job category is implicated to be 0.166 and 0.138 respectively. Meaning that other
things held constant, those urban youth who preferred to work for their own job increase their
probability of being self employed by 16.6% relative to those youth who preferred to engage in
wage employ. And for those youth who are willing any available job, their probability of being
self-employed increased by 13.8% relative to the reference category.

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 Chapter Five: Summary of Major Findings, Conclusions and
Recommendations
5.1 Summary of Major Findings

The main objective of this study was to examine determinants of youth unemployment in
Injibara town administration, Awi Administrative Zone. The survey is longitudinal in design, and
largely used primary data obtained through conducting individual survey. In order to evaluate the
determinant factors of youth unemployment, data on the demographic and socioeconomic
characteristics of youth were collected from 383 respondents selected randomly from lists of
registered urban youth. The researcher applied both bi-variate and multi -varate analysis
techniques to examine the association between employment status and determinant factors. For a
bi-variate analysis the X2-test statistics and cross-tabulation were applied whereas a binary logit
and multinomial logit models were employed to make a multivariate analysis.
In this model, the dependent variable was employment status of urban youth and 13 explanatory
variables were included. From these variables, age, work experience, and household size were
taken as continuous variables while the remaining factor variables were specified as a categorical
variable. The result from multivariate analysis shows that all explanatory variables were found to

99
be significant except the ‘read and write’ and the primary education categories of household
heads education levels.
The binary logit model revealed that age, sex, job preference, work experience, access for credit,
job training, marital status, social network density, education level of youth, and education level
of household head were negative determinants of urban youth unemployment. However, factor
variables such as poverty status of household, migration status and household size were found to
have a positive impact for unemployment.

Besides, the density of social network for the youth has a negative influence for unemployment.
Concerning to the job preference, youth that prefer to run their own business and who are willing
to work any available job on the labor market are less likely to be unemployed. Moreover,
education level of youth and household heads also found to be negative determinants of
unemployed while poverty has a positive impact on unemployment of urban youth.

Regarding to the determinants of self-employment, age, sex (being male), work experience,
access for formal credit and job training, education level of youth and job preference (own and
any job) are found to be positive significant factor while poverty status (being poor) reduce the
probability of being self-employed. In evaluating the trend of unemployment in Injibara town
administration, the study used the number of registered unemployed youth from Injibara town
administration labor and training office of those three sampled one shop services for five
consecutive years as a proxy. And the study found an increasing trend of unemployment over
time.
Unemployment of urban youth is increasing over time in Injibara town administration.
Concerning to sex factor, vulnerability for unemployment is more prevalent for female urban
youth’s relative to males.
Migrants are not getting employment opportunity in different socio economic sectors found in
Injibara town administration and mostly uncovered to unemployment.
The threat of unemployment is challenging for youth who have no work experience.
Regarding to poverty status of household, youth from the poor family are more susceptible for
unemployment.
The risk of unemployment is more perilous for urban youth who have no access for job training.

100
The threat of unemployment is less risky for married youth relative to unmarried youth.
Having lower education level lets urban youth subjected to unemployment.
Waiting for a paid job is exposing youth for unemployment.
Having weak social network density increases susceptibility of being unemployed.
Being in a family has large members exposing youth to unemployment
5.2 Conclusions
The purpose of this study is to examine major factors that determine the employment status of
urban youth in Injibara town administration. And the finding shows that the issue of youth
unemployment is the result of different demographic and socio-economic factors.
All explanatory variables were found to be significant except the ‘read and write’ and the
primary education categories of household heads education levels.
Age, sex, job preference, work experience, access for credit, job training, marital status, social
network density, education level of youth, and education level of household head were negative
determinants of urban youth unemployment.
However, factor variables such as poverty status of household, migration status and household
size were found to have a positive impact for unemployment.
The density of social network for the youth has a negative influence for unemployment.
Youth that prefer to run their own business and who are willing to work any available job on the
labor market are less likely to be unemployed.
Education level of youth and household heads also found to be negative determinants of
unemployed while poverty has a positive impact on unemployment of urban youth.

In Injibara town administration ,the study found an increasing trend of unemployment over time.
Unemployment of urban youth is increasing over time in Injibara town administration.
Concerning to sex factor, vulnerability for unemployment is more prevalent for female urban
youth’s relative to males.
Migrants are not getting employment opportunity in different socio economic sectors found in
Injibara town administration and mostly uncovered to unemployment.
The threat of unemployment is challenging for youth who have no work experience.
Regarding to poverty status of household, youth from the poor family are more susceptible for
unemployment.

101
The risk of unemployment is more perilous for urban youth who have no access for job training.
The threat of unemployment is less risky for married youth relative to unmarried youth.
Having lower education level lets urban youth subjected to unemployment.
Waiting for a paid job is exposing youth for unemployment.
Having weak social network density increases susceptibility of being unemployed.
Being in a family has large members exposing youth to unemployment.
5.3 Recommendations
The researcher put the following recommendations based on the findings of the study.

 Efforts should be made by the government and other organizations to empower females in
order that they can further improved and increase their participation in to different business
activities and job opportunities. This can be done by organizing them in to cooperatives,
providing an access for credit, improve their education and skills.
 Youth should be inspired to improve their level of educational level.
 Government and NGOs should design a strategy such as funding their education, provide
opportunities in government educational institution and, initiate private educational
institutions to give chance for those youth who are unable to continue their education.
 Government policies that promote education and create more job opportunities should be
implemented.
 Injibara polytechnic college should facilitate accessibility for job training services need to be
improved so that youth can enhance their job creating skills and increase their
competitiveness in the labor market.
 TVET programs should be adequately integrated into the national development strategies.
 Awareness should be created for youth on how to increase the social networks density
 Recommendations should be given for youth not to be dependent and wait for a paid job only
rather either create their own job or work any available work in the economy.
 Injibara town administration labor and training office and others stake holders should be
made on creating awareness for urban youth based on job preference.
 The government should increase an access of credit for youth in order that they can create
their own job and this would encourage more youth to go to work and thus generate the

102
 income required that would enable more youth in the town administration to be able to
increase their living standards.
 The problems of migrants should be addressed. This can be done by identifying the pushing
factors that expose youngster to migrate in to the urban areas and setting solutions to those
pushing factors.
 Since the highest share of respondents working for a paid job is incorporated by private
sectors, government should encourage more innovations and in creativity of job creation in
the private sectors by providing start-up capitals, conducting courses on entrepreneurship
development and exemption of taxes for the initial periods so that they can create more job
opportunities for urban youth.

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4 Appendices

Injibara University
College of Business and Economics
Department of Management
4.1 Appendix I
Questionnaires for Job Seekers
Dear Respondents, the purpose of this questionnaire is to examine Determinants of Youth
Unemployment in Injibara Town Administration for the partial fulfillment of the Masters of
Business Administration Degree in Department of Management at Injibara University.

Undoubtedly, the outcome of the research will serve as invaluable input for political and
managerial decision making. Hence, your genuine responses and comments have a real
contribution to the accuracy, usefulness and successful completion of the research. It should be
noticed here that, all the data/information gathered is being sought for academic purposes only
and shall be kept confidential. Therefore, you are kindly requested to provide genuine responses
related with demographic, socio-economic and other important information. Thank you for your
time and cooperation!

Sincerely, KindieTiru
Instruction

109
 This questionnaire contains both objective and subjective types of questions. Put tick (√) marks
in the boxes or choose the most appropriate answer to indicate your current information for
objective types and it is possible to choose more than one option, and write your answers in the
space provided for the subjective questions, please try to answer the possible responses briefly
and precisely. If the space provided is not sufficient, you can use the back pages.

For any question and clarification you can contact the researcher through the following
addresses:
Email: [email protected]
Mobile: +251918058499

Part I: Demographic Information of Respondents

1. Sex: Male Female
2. Age: 15-19 20-24 25-29
3. Educational Levels:
Write and read Primary level Secondary level
TVET/ Diploma 1st Degree and Above
1. Marital Status: Single Married Divorced Widowed
2. How many members are there in the household you live? 2 3 4 5 6
3. Have you received any TVT training /job training in any government or private institutions?
Yes No
4. If your answer for question 6 is yes, are you working by the training you received?
Yes No
5. Did you born in this town? Yes No
6. If your answer for question number 8 is no, how long have you been here?..........................
7. Have you had accesses of credit if you want to start a business? Yes No
Part II: Multi-dimensional Poverty Measures
Yes No
11 Is there any school age child in your family who does not attend school?
12 Is there anyone who seeks job in your family?

110
 13 Does your family have access of electricity?
14 Is there any child or adult family member who is malnourished?
15 Does your family have access of clean water or can get by travelling below 20
minutes?
16 Does your family has improved toilet or shared a toilet?
17 Is your family’s floor made of cement?
18 Is your family use electricity for cooking?
19 Does your family has one of these materials; TV, radio, telephone, bike/motor
bike?
20 Is there any household member who completed?

Part III: Socio-Economic Information of Respondents

21. During the last 10 days were you engaged in any kind of productive activities? Such as: work for
payment for family gain or profit produce for own consumption
22. What you are working for? Self-employee Government employee
Private sector employed
23. Have you been engaged in a productive work before? Yes No
24. If your answer for question 23 is yes, how long did you work for?.......................
25. Do you satisfied with the existing work you are working for? Yes No
26. What type of work do you prefer? Own job Paid job Any available job

27. Do you have an access for social network /contacts with other people who share your
information about job? Yes No
28. If your answer for question 27 is yes, which media you have been following for the search of

job? Vacancy notice Newspaper Radio &TV Internet Relatives/friends

29. How many friends/relatives do you have to share you information about the available job or
vacancy? One Two Three Four Five
30. How often do you follow Medias for search of job? Always Ones a week
Twice a week monthly

111
 Injibara University
College of Business and Economics
Department of Management
4.2 Appendix II
Dear Respondents: The purpose of this interview is to examine determinants of youth
unemployment in Injibara town administration. This interview will be forward for those who
have more relation to the issue of this study: Such as, Mayor Office, Labor and Training Office,
Injibara Polytechnic College, Youth and Sport Office, Tsedey Bank, Injibara Industry and
Infrastructure Development Office and Women, Children and Social Affairs. Therefore, the
study depends on your truthful responses. So you are kindly requested to provide me necessary
information’s for my interview questions.
Interview Questions for Office Heads
Background of the Key Informant
Name of the organization______________ Position __________
Education level ________ Sex ______ Age _________
Key Informant Interview Questionnaires Guide for Office Heads
1. What are the common youth unemployment problems and factors that enhance the youth
unemployment in the town administration?
2. How is the risk of youth unemployment in the town administration?

112
3. Are there any job opportunities available and access of credit for youth in the town
administration?
5. What measures taken to reduce the problem and to minimize the risk of youth unemployment
in the town administration?
6. What are the major problems that affect people who attempt to participate in the self-
employment effort?
7. Among the educated youth group, which level of educated youth highly affected by the risk of
unemployment? Why?
8. What is the magnitude of females unemployment compared with male unemployment?
9. Is there given an adequate entrepreneurship and technical training for youth before who joins
with job or who gets job?

እንጅባራ ዩኒቨርሲቲ

የንግድ እና ኢኮኖሚክስ ኮሌጅ

ማኔጅመንት ትምህርት ክፍል

ውድ ምላሽ ሰጪዎች የዚህ መጠይቅ አላማ በእንጅባራ ዩንቨርስቲ ማኔጅመንት ትምህርት ክፍል በቢዝነስ
አስተዳደር የማስተርስ ዲግሪየን ለመስራት በእንጅባራ ከተማ የወጣቶች የስራ እድል ፈጠራ
ፈተናዎችን/ተግዳሮቶችን/ በመፈተሽ የመፍትሄ አቅጣጫ ለማስቀመጥ ነው።

መጠይቁ የወጣቶች የስራ አጥነት ወሳኝ ነገሮችን አስመልክቶ ሀሳብ እና አስተያየት ለማግኘት ያለመ ነው።
ለወጣቶች የስራ አጥነት የማህበረ-ኢኮኖሚያዊ ችግሮች መነሻ ምክንያቶች ምንድን ናቸው? ለወጣቶች ስራአጥነት
መንስኤ የሚሆኑ የማህበረ-ኢኮኖሚያዊ ችግሮች በአካባቢ አስተዳደር እና በአጠቃላይ በከተማው ላይ የሚያሳድረውን
ተፅዕኖ ለማመላከት ነው፡፡ በመጨረሻም የወጣቶችን የስራ አጥነት ለመቅረፍ ምን አይነት የመፍትሄ አቅጣጫ
ሊቀመጥለት ይገባል የሚሉ ጥያቄዎችን ለመመለስ ታሰቦ የተዘጋጀ መጠይቅ ነው፡፡

የጥናቱ ውጤት ለፖለቲካዊ እና ለአመራር ውሳኔዎች ጠቃሚ ግብአት እንደሚሆን ጥርጥር የለውም። ስለዚህ፣
የእርስዎ እውነተኛ ምላሾች እና አስተያየቶች ለምርምሩ ትክክለኛነት፣ ጠቃሚነት እና በተሳካ ሁኔታ እንዲጠናቀቅ
አስተዋፅዖ አላቸው። እዚህ ላይ ሁሉም የተሰበሰበ መረጃ የሚፈለገው ለአካዳሚክ ዓላማ ብቻ እንደሆነ ልብ ሊባል
ይገባል።

ክንዴ ጥሩ

መመሪያ፡ ይህ መጠይቅ ሁለቱንም ክፍት እና ዝግ የጥያቄ ዓይነቶችን ይዟል። መልስ ነው ያሉትን ምርጫ በሳጥኖቹ
ውስጥ የ(√) ምልክት ያድርጉ ወይም ትክክለኛውን መልስ ይምረጡ፡፡ ትክክለኛ እና ወቅታዊ መረጃዎን ለማመልከት
ከአንድ በላይ አማራጮችን መምረጥ ይቻላል እና መልሶችዎን በተዘጋጀው ቦታ ላይ ይፃፉ፡፡ እባክዎን ትክክለኛ

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ያሏቸውን ምላሾችን በአጭሩ እና በትክክል ይመልሱ። የተሰጠው ቦታ በቂ ካልሆነ የኋላ ገጾችን መጠቀም
ይችላሉ፡፡

ለማንኛውም ጥያቄ እና ማብራሪያ ተመራማሪውን በሚከተሉት አድራሻዎች ማግኘት ይችላሉ።

ኢሜል: [email protected]
ሞባይል: +251918058499

ለትብብርዎ አመሰግናለሁ

ክፍል አንድ፡- የምላሽ ሰጭዎች አጠቃላይ መረጃ

1. ፆታ - ወንድ ሴት
2. ዕድሜ፡- 15-19 20-24 25-29
3. የትምህርት ደረጃ፡- ማንበብ እና መፃፍ የሚችሉ የመጀመሪያ ደረጃ
ሁለተኛ ደረጃ TVET/ ዲፕሎማ ዲግሪና በላይ
4. የጋብቻ ሁኔታ፡- ትዳር የሌላቸው ባለትዳር የተፋቱ ባል /ሚስት/የሞተባቸው
5. በምትኖርበት ቤት ውስጥ ስንት አባላት አሉ? 2 3 4 5 6
6. በየትኛውም የመንግስትም ሆነ የግል ተቋማት ውስጥ የቲቪቲ ስልጠና /የስራ ስልጠና አግኝተሃል/ሻል? አዎ
አለገኘሁም
7. ለጥያቄ 6 መልስህ አዎ ከሆነ በአገኘሃው ስልጠና እየሰራህ ነው? አዎ አይደለም
8. በዚህ ከተማ ተወልደሃል/ሻል? አዎ አልተወለድኩም
9. ለጥያቄ ቁጥር 8 መልስህ አልተወለድኩም ከሆነ ከመቼ ጀምሮ ነው እዚህ ከተማ /ቀበሌ/ የኖርከው/ እዚህ ከተማ
/ቀበሌ/ ምን ያህል ጊዜ ኑረሃል?..........................
10. ንግድ ለመጀመር ከፈለጉ የብድር አቅርቦት ነበሩዎት? አዎ አልነበሩኝም
ክፍል ሁለት፡- ባለብዙ ገጽታ የድህነት መለኪያዎችን አስመልክቶ የተዘጋጀ መጠይቅ
አዎ አይደለም

11 በቤተሰብህ ውስጥ በትምህርት ቤት ያልተካፈሉ ልጆች ይኖሩ ይሆን?

12 በቤተሰብህ ውስጥ ሥራ የሚፈልግ ሰው አለ?
13 ቤተሰቦችህ የኤሌክትሪክ ኃይል አላቸው?
14 የተመጣጠነ ምግብ እጥረት የተፈጠረበት ልጅ ወይም አዋቂ የቤተሰብ አባል ይኖር
ይሆን?
15 ቤተሰቦችህ ንጹሕ ውኃ ማግኘት ይችላሉ ወይስ ከ 40 ደቂቃ በታች ርቀት

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 በመጓዝ ውኃ ማግኘት ይችላሉ?
16 ቤተሰቦችህ የተሻሽለ /ዘመናዊ/ መጸዳጃ ቤት አላቸው?
17 የቤተሰብህ ወለል የተሠራው ከሊሾ ነው?
18 ቤተሰቦችህ ምግብ ለማብሰል ኤሌክትሪክ ይጠቀማሉ ወይ?
19 ቤተሰብህ ከእነዚህ ቁሳቁሶች አንዱ አለው? ቴሌቪዥን, ሬዲዮ, ስልክ,
ብስክሌት/ሞተር ብስክሌት?
20 10 ኛ/12 ኛ ክፍል ያጠናቀቀ የቤት ውስጥ አባል ይኖር ይሆን?

ክፍል ሦስት፡- የምላሽ ሰጭዎች ማህበረ-ኢኮኖሚያዊ መረጃን አስመልክቶ የተዘጋጀ መጠይቅ

21. ባለፉት 10 ቀናት ውስጥ በማንኛውም ዓይነት ፍሬያማ እንቅስቃሴ ውስጥ ተሳትፈሃል? ለምሳሌ ለስራ ለቤተሰብ
ትርፍ ወይም ትርፍ ምርት ለራስ ፍጆታ ክፍያ
22. የምትሰራው ለምንድን ነው? የግል ሰራ የመንግስት ስራ
በግል ዘርፍ ተቀጥሬ
23. ከዚህ በፊት በአመርቂ ስራ ላይ ተሰማርተሃል? አዎ አልተሰማራሁም
24. ለጥያቄ 23 የምትሰጠው መልስ አዎን የሚል ከሆነ ለምን ያህል ጊዜ ሠራህ?.......................
25. እየሰራህ ባለው ስራ ረክተሃል? አዎ አይደለም
26. ምን ዓይነት ሥራ ትመርጣለህ? የራሴን ሥራ የመንግስት ሥራ
ማንኛውንም የተገኘ ስራ
27. ስለ ሥራ መረጃዎን ከሚያካፍሉ ሌሎች ሰዎች ጋር ማህበራዊ ድረ ገጽ /contacts ማግኘት ይችላሉ? አዎ
አልችልም
28. ለጥያቄ 27 መልስህ አዎ ከሆነ ለፍለጋ የትኛውን ሚዲያ ትከተለዋለህ? የስራ ቅጥር ማስታወቂያ ጋዜጣ
ራዲዮ እና ቴሌቪዥን ኢንተርኔት ዘመድ/ጓደኞች
29. ስለ ስራ ወይም የቅጥር ማስታወቂያ መረጃ የሚያካፍሉ ምን ያህል ጓዳኞች አሉህ/ሽ?

አንድ ሁለት ሶስት አራት አምስት

. 30. ለሥራ ፍለጋ ሚዲያዎችን በምን ያህል ጊዜ ትከታተላለህ/ሽ? በሳምንት አንድ ጊዜ

በሳምንት ሁለት ጊዜ በየወሩ

115
 እንጅባራ ዩኒቨርሲቲ

ቢዝነስና ኢኮኖሚክስ ኮሌጅ

ማኔጅመንት ትምህርት ክፍል

ውድ ምላሽ ሰጪዎች የዚህ ቃለ መጠይቅ አላማ በእንጅባራ ከተማ የወጣቶች የስራ አጥነት ማህበረ-ኢኮኖሚያዊ ዋና
ዋና አማላካቾችን ወይም አወንታዊ ሆነ አሉታዊ ተፅዕኖ የሚያሳድሩትን አማላካቾችን ለመፈተሽ ነው። ይህ ቃለ
ምልልስ ከዚህ ጥናት ጋር በተያያዙ ጉዳዮች ላይ ከንቲባ ጽ/ቤት፣ ስራ እና ስልጠና ጽ/ቤት ፣እንጅባራ ፖሊ
ቴክኒክ ኮሌጅ፣ ወጣቶችና ስፖርት ጽ/ቤት፣ ፀደይ ባንክ፣ እንጅባራ ኢንዱስትሪና መሰረተ ልማት ልማት ጽ/ቤት
እና የሴቶች፣ ህፃናትና ማህበራዊ ጉዳይ ላሉ ተቋማት ይቀርባል። ስለዚህ ጥናቱ በእርስዎ እውነተኛ ምላሾች
ላይ የተመሰረተ ነው። ስለዚህ ለጥያቄዎቼ አስፈላጊ እና ትክክለኛ መረጃዎችን እንድትሰጡኝ በአክብሮት
እጠይቃለሁ።
ለትብብራችሁ አመሰግናለሁ

ለጽ/ቤት ኃላፊዎች የቀረቡ የቃለ መጠይቅ ጥያቄዎች

አጠቃላይ መረጃ

የመስሪያ ቤቱ ስም______________ ኃላፊነት _________________

የትምህርት ደረጃ __________ ጾታ _____ እድሜ _________

1. በከተማ አስተዳደሩ የወጣቶችን ሥራ አጥነት የሚያጎለብቱ የተለመዱ የወጣቶች የሥራ አጥነት ችግሮችና ምክንያቶች
ምንድን ናቸው?
2. በከተማ አስተዳደሩ የወጣቶች ስራ አጥነት አደጋ እንዴት ይገለፃል?
3 በከተማ አስተዳደሩ ውስጥ ለወጣቶች የስራ እድል መፍጠሪያ ፀጋዎች እና በቂ የብድር አቅርቦት አለ ወይ?
4. በከተማ አስተዳደሩ የወጣቶችን የስራ አጥነት ችግር አደጋን ለመቀነስ ሊወሰዱ የሚገባቸው እርምጃዎች ምንድን
ናቸው?
5. በራስ ስራ ላይ ለመሳተፍ በሚሞክሩ ወጣቶች ላይ ተፅዕኖ የሚያሳድሩ ዋና ዋና ችግሮች ምንድን ናቸው?
6. ከተማሩት የወጣቶች ቡድን መካከል በሥራ አጥነት አደጋ ከፍተኛ ጉዳት የደረሰባቸው የተማሩ ወጣቶች ቁጥር የትኛው
ነው? ለምን?
7. የሴቶች ሥራ አጥነት ከወንዶች ሥራ አጥነት ጋር ሲነፃፀር በመጠኑ ምን ያህል ነው?
8. ከስራ ጋር ከመቀላቀላቸው በፊት ወይም ስራ ከማግኘታቸው በፊት ለወጣቶች በቂ የስራ ማስጀማሪያ እና
የቴክኒ,ካል/ የሙያ/ ስልጠና ይሰጣቸዋል ወይ?

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