GRADE-12 MATHS AND COMPLETE RESOURCE

FOR JEE COMPILED BY JOE DANIEL

RELATIONS & FUNCTIONS JD

✅ Relation on a Set & its various types
A relation R from a non-empty set A into itself is called a relation on A. In other words if A is
a non-empty set, then a subset of A  A  A2 is called a relation on A.

NOTE If A be a finite set having n elements then, no. of relations on set A is 2nn
2
i.e. 2n .

a) Empty relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be empty relation or a void

relation if R   . In other words, a relation R in a set A is empty relation, if no
element of A is related to any element of A, i.e., R    A  A .
b) Universal relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be the universal relation on
A if R  A  A i.e., R  A2 . In other words, a relation R in a set A is universal
relation, if each element of A is related to every element of A, i.e., R  A  A .
NOTE The void relation i.e.,  and universal relation i.e., A  A on A are
respectively the smallest and largest relations defined on the set A. Also these
are sometimes called Trivial Relations. And, any other relation is called a non-
trivial relation.

 The relations R   and R  A  A are two extreme relations.

c) Identity relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be the identity relation on A if

R  {(a, b) : a  A, b  A and a  b} .
Thus identity relation R  (a, a) :  a  A .
The identity relation on set A is also denoted by I A .

NOTE In an identity relation on A every element of A should be related to itself

only.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 d) Reflexive relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if a R a a  A
i.e., (a, a)  R a  A .
NOTE The identity relation is always a reflexive relation but the opposite may
or may not be true.
e) Symmetric relation: A relation R defined on a set A is symmetric if (a, b)  R
implies (b, a)  R a, b  A i.e., a R b  b R a (i.e., whenever aRb then, bRa).
f) Transitive relation: A relation R on a set A is transitive if
(a, b)  R and (b, c)  R implies (a, c)  R i.e., a R b and b R c  a R c .
g) Equivalence relation: Let A be a non-empty set, then a relation R on A is said to
be an equivalence relation if
(i) R is reflexive i.e. (a, a)  R a  A .
(ii) R is symmetric i.e. (a, b)  R implies (b, a)  R a, b  A .
(iii) R is transitive i.e. (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R implies (a, c)  R .

 Equivalence classes : Let R be an equivalence relation in a set A and let a  A .

Then, the set of all those elements of A which are related to a, is called equivalence class
determined by a and it is denoted by [a]. Thus, [a]  b  A : (a, b)  R .

NOTE (i) Two equivalence classes are either disjoint or identical.

(ii) An equivalence relation R on a set A partitions the set into mutually
disjoint equivalence classes.

An important property of an equivalence relation is that it divides the set into pair-wise disjoint
subsets called equivalence classes whose collection is called a partition of the set. Note that
the union of all equivalence classes gives the whole set.
e.g. Let R denotes the equivalence relation in the set Z of integers given by R = {(a, b) : 2 divides
a  b }. Then the equivalence class [0] is [0] = {0,  2,  4,  6,…}.

 No. of Reflexive relations defined on a set of n elements  2n(n1)

n(n  1)
No. of Symmetric relations defined on a set of n elements  2 2
.
n(n 1)
No. of Reflexive and Symmetric relations defined on a set of n elements  2 2
.

No. of Transitive relations defined on a set having 0, 1, 2, 3 and, 4 elements are 1, 2,

13, 171 and, 3994 respectively.

✅ Function
Defining a Function :

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
Consider A and B be two non- empty sets then, a rule f which associates each element of A
with a unique element of B is called a function or the mapping from A to B or f maps A to
B. If f is a mapping from A to B then, we write f : A  B which is read as ‘f is a mapping
from A to B’ or ‘f is a function from A to B’.
If f associates a  A to b  B , then we say that ‘b is the image of the element a under the
function f’ or ‘b is the f-image of a’ or ‘the value of f at a’ and denote it by f (a) and we
write b  f (a) . The element a is called the pre-image or inverse-image of b.

Thus for a function from A to B,

(i) A and B should be non-empty.
(ii) Each element of A should have image in B.
(iii) No element of A should have more than one image in B.
 Domain, Co-domain & Range of a function :
Let f : A  B be a function. Then set A is called the domain of the function f and the set
B is called the co-domain. The set of the images of all the elements of A under the function
f is called the range of the function f and is denoted as f (A) .
Thus range of the function f is f (A)  {f (x) : x  A} .
Clearly f (A)  B .

 Types of functions :
1) One-one function (Injective function or Injection): A function f : A  B is
one-one function or injective function if distinct elements of A have distinct
images in B.
Thus, f : A  B is one-one  f (a)  f (b)  a  b  a, b  A
 a  b  f (a)  f (b)  a, b  A .
2) Onto function (Surjective function or Surjection): A function f : A  B is onto
function or a surjective function if every element of B is the f-image of some
element of A. That implies f (A)  B or range of f is the co-domain of f.

Thus, f : A  B is onto  f (A)  B i.e., range of f  co-domain of f .

3) ☼ One-one onto function (Bijective function or Bijection): A function f : A  B
is said to be one-one onto or bijective if it is both one-one and onto i.e., if the
distinct elements of A have distinct images in B and each element of B is the
image of some element of A.

✅ Some important facts

 Note that a bijective function is also known as a one-to-one function or
one-to-one correspondence.
 If f : A  B is a function such that,

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 (i) f is one-one  n(A)  n(B) .
(ii) f is onto  n( B )  n(A) .
(iii) f is one-one onto i.e., f is a bijection  n(A)  n(B) .
 For an ordinary finite set A, a one-one function f : A  A is necessarily onto
and an onto function f : A  A is necessarily one-one for every finite set A.

 If A and B have respectively m and n number of elements then the number of

m
functions defined from A to B is n .
 If A and B are two sets having m and n elements respectively such that m  n
, then total number of one-one functions from set A to set B is n Cm  m! i.e., n Pm .

If m  n , then no. of one-one functions from set A to set B will be 0.

 If n(A)  n then the number of injective functions defined from A to itself
is n! .
 If A and B are two sets having m and n elements respectively such that m  n
, then total no. of onto functions from set A to set B is

n m  (1)1  n C1  (n 1)m  (1)2  n C2  (n  2)m  (1)3  n C3  (n  3)m  ... 

n
(1)n 1  n Cn 1  (1)m   (1) r  n C r  (n  r) m .
r 0

If m  n , then no. of onto functions from set A to set B will be 0.

 If A and B are two sets having m and n elements respectively such that m  n
, only then a bijective function can be defined from A to B.
So, no. of Bijections from set A to set B will be m!.
If m  n or, m  n , then no. of bijections from set A to set B will be 0.

☼ Definition of Bijective function has been given so that, there is no learning gap in the
understanding of inverse trigonometric functions.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
 Note the followings and keep them in mind
(i) The symbol sin 1x is used to denote the smallest angle whether positive or negative, such
that the sine of this angle will give us x.
Similarly, cos 1x, tan 1x , cosec 1x , sec 1x and cot 1x are defined.
(ii) You should note that sin 1x can be written as arc sinx . Similarly, other Inverse
Trigonometric Functions can also be written as arc cosx, arc tanx, arc sec x etc.
(iii) Also note that sin 1 x (and similarly other Inverse Trigonometric Functions) is entirely
different from (sin x)1 . In fact, sin 1x is the measure of an angle in Radians whose sine

1
is x whereas (sin x) 1 is (which is obvious as per the laws of exponents).
sin x
9(iv) Keep in mind that these inverse trigonometric relations are true only in their domains i.e.,
they are valid only for some values of ‘x’ for which inverse trigonometric functions are well
defined!

✅ Principal Value of inverse trigonometric functions

Numerically smallest angle is known as the principal value.
 The principal value is never numerically greater than π .

✅ Domain and Range of Inverse Trigonometric functions

Inverse Trigonometric Functions i.e., f (x) Domain/ Values of Range/ Values of
x f (x)

sin 1 x [1, 1]  π π
  2 , 2 

cos1 x [1, 1] [0, π]

cosec1x R  ( 1, 1)  π π
  2 , 2   {0}

sec1 x R  ( 1, 1) π 
[0, π]   
2

tan 1x R  π π
 , 
 2 2

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 cot 1x R (0, π)

✅ Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions ☼

1
1) (a) sin 1 (x)  cosec 1   , x  [1,1] (b)
x
1
cosec 1 (x)  sin 1   , x  (, 1]  [1, )
 
x

☼ Properties of inverse trig. functions have been given so that, there is no learning gap
in the understanding of derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions.
1 1
(c) cos 1 (x)  sec 1   , x  [ 1,1] (d) sec 1  x   cos 1   , x  ( , 1]  [1, )
x x
 1  1   1  1 
 cot  x  , x  0  tan  x  , x  0
     
(e) tan 1 (x)   (f) cot 1 (x)  
 π  cot 1  1  , x  0  π  tan 1  1  , x  0
     
x x
2) (a) sin 1(x)   sin 1 x, x [1, 1] (b) cos1(x)  π  cos1 x, x [1, 1]
(c) tan 1(x)   tan 1 x, x  R (d) cosec1(x)  cosec1x, | x |  1
(e) sec1(x)  π  sec1 x, | x |  1 (f) cot 1(x)  π  cot 1 x, x  R
π
3) (a) sin 1 x  cos 1 x  , x  [1,1]
2
π
(b) tan 1 x  cot 1 x  , x  R
2
π
(c) cosec1x  sec 1 x  , | x |  1 i.e., x  1 or x  1 i.e., x  R  ( 1,1)
2
  xy 
 tan 1   , xy  1
  1  xy 
  xy 

4) (a) tan 1 x  tan 1 y   π  tan 1   , x  0, y  0, xy  1
  1  xy 

 π  tan 1  x  y  , x  0, y  0, xy  1
  1  xy 

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
   xy 
 tan 1   , xy  1
  1  xy 
  xy 

(b) tan 1 x  tan 1 y   π  tan 1   , x  0, y  0, xy  1
  1  xy 

 π  tan 1  x  y  , x  0, y  0, xy  1
  1  xy 

 2x  1  1 x2 
(a) 2 tan 1 x  sin 1 
1
5) 2 
, | x |1 (b) 2 tan x  cos  2 
, x0
 1 x   1 x 
 2x 
(c) 2 tan 1 x  tan 1  2 
, 1  x  1
 1 x 
π π
*6) (a) sin 1  sin x   x,   x  (b) cos 1  cos x   x, 0  x  π
2 2
π π
(c) tan 1  tan x   x,   x  (d)
2 2
π π
cosec1  cosec x   x,   x  , x  0
2 2
π
(e) sec1  sec x   x, 0  x  π, x  (f) cot 1  cot x   x, 0  x  π
2
*Note that, NCERT Textbook doesn’t include it in properties.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 ALGEBRA Of MATRICES & DETERMINANTS
✅

Matrix
Def. A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers (real or complex) or functions which
are known as elements or the entries of the matrix. It is denoted by the upper case letters
i.e. A, B, C etc.
The array is enclosed by brackets   , the parentheses   and the double vertical bars

 A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m  n (read as ‘m by n’

matrix). And a matrix A of order m  n is depicted as A   aij 
  mn ; i, j  N .
 Also in general, aij means an element lying in the i th row and j th column.
 No. of elements in the matrix A   aij 
  mn is given as (m)(n) .

 Types Of Matrices :
a) Column matrix : b) Row matrix :
A matrix having only one column is called a column A matrix having only one row is called a row
matrix or column vector. matrix or row vector.
General notation: A  [aij ]m1 . General notation: A  [aij ]1n .

c) Square matrix :
It is a matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns i.e., an m  n
matrix is said to constitute a square matrix if m  n and is known as a square matrix of
order ‘n’.
General notation: A  [aij ]nn .

d) Diagonal matrix :
A square matrix A  [a ij ]mm is said to be a diagonal matrix if a ij  0 , when i  j i.e., all its

2 0 0
 
non- diagonal elements are zero. For example,  0 5 0  .
0 0 4
 
 Also there is one more notation specifically used for the diagonal matrices. For instance,
consider the matrix depicted above, it can be also written as diag  2 5 4  .

 Note that the elements a11 ,a22 ,a33 ,...,amm of a square matrix A   aij 
  mn of order m are said to
constitute the principal diagonal or simply the diagonal of the square matrix A. And these
elements are known as diagonal elements of matrix A.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
e) Scalar matrix :
A diagonal matrix A  [a ij ]mm is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal
i.e.,
 0, when i  j
a ij   .
k, when i  j for some constant k
f) Unit matrix or Identity matrix :
A square matrix A  [a ij ]mm is said to be identity matrix if the element a ij is given by

1, if i  j
a ij   .
0, if i  j
A unit matrix can also be defined as the scalar matrix each of whose diagonal elements is
unity.
We denote the identity matrix of order m by I m or I.
g) Zero matrix or Null matrix :
A matrix is said to be a null matrix if each of its elements is ‘0’ (zero).
It is denoted by English alphabet ‘O’.

 Equality of Matrices :
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal and written as A = B, if they are of the same
orders and their corresponding elements are identical i.e. a ij  b ij for all i and j.
That is a11  b11 , a 22  b 22 , a 23  b 23 , a 32  b32 , a 33  b33 etc.

 Addition of matrices :
If A and B are two m  n matrices, then another m  n matrix obtained by adding the
corresponding elements of the matrices A and B is called the sum of the matrices A and B
and is denoted by ‘A + B’.
Thus if A  [a ij ], B  [bij ]

 A  B  [a ij  b ij ] .

 Properties of matrix addition :

(a) Commutative property : A  B  B  A
(b) Associative property : A  (B  C)  (A  B)  C
(c) Cancellation laws : (i) Left cancellation - A  B  A  C BC
(ii) Right cancellation - B  A  C  A BC.
 Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar :

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
If an m  n matrix A is multiplied by a scalar k (say), then the new kA matrix is obtained by
multiplying each element of matrix A by scalar k. Thus if A  [a ij ] and it is multiplied by a
scalar k then, k A  [k a ij ] .
That is, A  [ a ij ] implies k A  [k a ij ] .

 Multiplication of two matrices :

Def. Let A  [a ij ] be a m  n matrix and B  [b jk ] be a n  p matrix such that the number
of columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B, then the m  p matrix C  [cik ] such
n
that Cik  a b
j1
ij jk is said to be the product of the matrices A and B in that order and it is

denoted by AB i.e. ‘C = AB’.

 Properties of matrix multiplication :

(a) Note that the product AB is defined only when the number of columns in
matrix A is equal to the number of rows in matrix B.
(b) If A and B are m  n and n  p matrices respectively then the matrix AB will
be an m  p matrix i.e., order of matrix AB will be m  p .
(c) In the product AB, A is called the pre-factor and B is called the post-factor.
(d) If two matrices A and B are such that AB is possible then it is not necessary
that the product BA is also possible.
(e) If A is a m  n matrix and both AB as well as BA are defined then B will be a
n  m matrix.
(f) If A is a n  n matrix and I n be the unit matrix of ‘order n’ then, A I n  I n A  A
.
(g) Matrix multiplication is associative i.e., A( BC)  (AB)C .
(h) Matrix multiplication is distributive over the addition i.e.,
A( B  C)  AB  AC .

 Idempotent matrix : A square matrix A is said to be an idempotent matrix if A 2  A .

✅ Transpose of a matrix
Def. If A  [a ij ]mn be a matrix of order m  n , then the matrix which can be obtained by
interchanging the rows and columns of matrix A is said to be a transpose of matrix A.
The transpose of A is denoted by A or A
T
or A
c
i.e., if A  [a ij ]mn then, AT  [a ji ]nm .

 Properties of Transpose of matrices :

(a) (A  B)T  A T  BT (b) (A  B)T  A T  BT

(c) (A T )T  A (d) (k A)T  k A T where, k is any constant

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 (e) (AB)T  BT AT (f) (ABC)T  CT BT AT

 Symmetric matrix :
A square matrix A  [a ij ]mm is said to be a symmetric matrix if AT  A .

That is, if A  [a ij ] then, AT  [a ji ]  [a ij ]  AT  A .

 Skew-symmetric matrix :
A square matrix A  [a ij ] is said to be a skew-symmetric matrix if AT  A i.e., if A  [a ij ]

then, AT  [a ji ]   [a ij ]  AT  A .

✅ Facts you should know :

(a) All the diagonal elements in a skew-symmetric matrix are zero.
(b) The matrices AAT and A T A are symmetric matrices.
(c) For any square matrix A, the matrix A + AT is a symmetric matrix and A – AT is a
skew-symmetric matrix always.
(d) Also note that any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a
1 1
symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix i.e., A  (P)  (Q) , where P  A  AT is a
2 2
symmetric matrix and Q  A  A T is a skew-symmetric matrix.

 Orthogonal matrix :
A matrix A is said to be orthogonal if A.AT = I where AT is transpose of A.
For an orthogonal matrix A, we always have Det.(A)  1 i.e., A  1 (to be discussed later
in the Determinants topic).
 Invertible Matrix :
Def. If A is a square matrix of order m and if there exists another square matrix B of the same
order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by
A-1.
A matrix having an inverse is said to be invertible.

 It is to note that if B is inverse of A, then A is also the inverse of B. In other words, if it is known
that AB  BA  I then, A1  B  B 1  A .
✅ Determinants
 Inverse
Def. A unique of number
a square(real
matrix A exists ifcan
or complex) andbeonly if A is non-singular
associated matrix
to every square matrix  0] (explained
i.e., /AA/ [a
ij of
later in the Determinant section).
order m.
 If B is inverse of A, then A is also the inverse of B.
This number is called the determinant of the square matrix A, where a ij   i, j element of A.
th

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 a b  a b
For instance, if A    then, determinant of matrix A is written as A   det .(A )
c d  c d
and its value is given by “ ad  bc ".
 Minors :
Minor of an element a ij of a determinant (or a determinant corresponding to matrix A) is the

determinant obtained by deleting its ith row and jth column in which a ij lies. Minor of a ij is

denoted by M ij .
Hence we can get 9 minors corresponding to the 9 elements of a third order (i.e., 3  3)
determinant.
 Cofactors :
Cofactor of an element a ij , denoted by A ij , is defined by, Aij  (1)i j Mij , where M ij is
minor of a ij . Sometimes C ij is used in place of A ij to denote the cofactor of element a ij .
 Expanding a Determinant :
A determinant can be expanded along any row (or, column) as follows -
Adding the Products of each element of any row (or, column) with its corresponding Cofactor,
gives the value of the determinant.
 Area of triangle :
Area of a triangle whose vertices are  x1 , y1  ,  x2 , y2  and  x3 , y3  is given by,
x1 y1 1
1
  x2 y2 1 Sq.units . …(A)
2
x3 y3 1

 Since area is a positive quantity, we take absolute value of the determinant in (A) above.
 If the points ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x3 , y3 ) are collinear then   0 .
 The equation of a line passing through the points  x1, y1  and  x2 , y2  can be obtained by the
x y 1
expression given here : x1 y1 1  0 .
x2 y2 1

✅ Adjoint of a square matrix

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
Def. Let A  [a ij ] be a square matrix. Also assume B  [A ij ] where A ij is the cofactor of the

elements a ij in matrix A . Then the transpose BT of matrix B is called the adjoint of matrix
A and it is denoted by “adj.A”.

a b   d b 
To find the adjoint of a 2  2 matrix : Follow this, A     adj.A   .
c d   c a 

✅ Singular matrix & Non-singular matrix

(a) Singular matrix :
A square matrix A is said to be singular if A  0 i.e., its determinant is zero.
(b) Non-singular matrix :
A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if A  0 .

 A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is non-singular.

✅ Algorithm to find A 1 by Determinant method

STEP 1 Find |A|.
STEP 2 If |A| = 0 then, write “A is a singular matrix and hence not invertible”.
Else, write “A is a non-singular matrix and hence invertible”.
STEP 3 Calculate the cofactors of elements of matrix A.
STEP 4 Write the matrix of cofactors of elements of A and then obtain its transpose to
get adj.A (i.e., adjoint A).
1
STEP 5 Find the inverse of A by using the relation A 1  adj.A .
|A|
✅ Properties associated with various operations of Matrices & Determinants
(a) AB  I  BA  A 1  B and B1  A (b) AA–1  I or, A–1A  I, A–1I  A–
1

1
(c) (AB)1  B1A 1 (d)  ABC  C1B1A1

(e) (A 1 ) 1  A (f) (A T ) 1  (A 1 )T

(g) A  adj.A    adj.A  A  |A| I (h) adj.  AB   adj.B adj.A 

(i) adj.(AT )  (adj.A)T (j) (adj.A) 1  (adj.A 1 )

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 (k) adj.A  | A |n1 , where n is order of A (if | A |  0 i.e., A is a non-singular matrix)
(l) |AB|  |A||B| (m) |A.adj.A|  |A|n, where n is
order of A
1
(n) A 1  , iff matrix A is invertible (o) |A|  |AT|
A
(p) kA  k n A where n is order of square matrix A and k is any scalar.
n2
(q) If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then adj.(adj.A)  A A.
(r) If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then
n 1 ( n 1)( n 1) ( n 1) 2

adj.(adj.A)  adj.A  A  A .

(s) If A is a matrix of order n then, adj.(k A)  k n 1 (adjA), k  R .

(t) If A is skew-symmetric matrix of odd order then A  0 .

(u) For a square matrix A, An  | A |n , where n  N .

✅ Solutions of System of Linear equations

(a) Consistent and Inconsistent system :
A system of equations is said to be consistent if it has one or more solutions otherwise it is
said to be an inconsistent system. In other words an inconsistent system of equations has no
solution.
(b) Homogeneous and Non-homogeneous system :
A system of equations AX  B is said to be a homogeneous system if B  O .
Otherwise it is called a non-homogeneous system of equations.
✅ Solving of system of equations by Matrix method (Inverse Matrix Method)
Consider the following system of equations,
a1x  b1y  c1z  d1 ,
a 2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d 2 ,
a 3 x  b 3 y  c3z  d 3

 a1 b1 c1   d1  x 

STEP 1 Assume A  a 2 b2   
c 2  , B  d 2  and X   y  .

 a 3 b3 c3   d 3   z 
STEP 2 Find |A|.
Now there may be following situations:
1
(a) A  0  A exists.
It implies that the given system of equations is consistent and therefore, the
system has unique solution.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 In that case, write AX  B
Pre-multiplying by A 1 both sides, we get : A1AX  A 1B
 I X  A 1B
 1
 X  A 1B 1
 where A   adj.A 
 A
Then by using the definition of equality of matrices, we can get the values
of x, y and z.

☼(b) A  0 implies A1 doesn’t exist.

It implies that the given system of equations may be consistent or
inconsistent.
In order to check proceed as follow:
 Find (adj.A) B.
Now we may have either ( adj.A) B  O or ( adj.A) B  O .

(i) If ( adj.A) B  O , then the given system may be consistent or

inconsistent.
To check, put z  k in the given equations and proceed in the same manner
in the new two variables system of equations assuming di  ci k, 1  i  3 as constant.

(ii) If ( adj.A) B  O , then the given system is inconsistent with no

solutions.

CONTINUITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY

✅ Important terms and facts about Limits and Continuity of a function
(a) For a function f (x), lim f (x) exists iff lim f (x)  lim f (x) .
x m x m x m

(b) A function f (x) is continuous at a point x  m iff lim f (x)  lim f (x)  f (m) , where
x m x m

lim f (x) is Left Hand Limit of f (x) at x  m and lim f (x) is Right Hand Limit of f
x m x m
(x) at x  m .
Also f (m) is the value of function f (x) at x  m .

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 (c) A function f (x) is continuous at x  m (say) if, f (m)  lim f (x) i.e., a function is
xm
continuous at a point in its domain if the limit value of the function at that point
equals the value of the function at the same point.
(d) For a function f (x) which is continuous at x  m , value of lim f (x) can be directly
x m
obtained by evaluating f (m) .

(e) Indeterminate forms or meaningless forms :

0 
, , 0.,   , 1 , 00,  0
0 

(f) Constant function, Identity function, Polynomial function, Modulus function,

Exponential function, Sine and Cosine functions are continuous for all real values of
x.
(g) Logarithmic function, Rational function, All inverse trigonometric functions; tangent,
cotangent, secant and cosecant functions are continuous in their respective domains.
1
(h) If f is continuous function, then f and are continuous in their domains. .
f
✅ Important terms about Derivatives and Differentiability of a function
Left Hand Derivative of f (x) at x  m ,
f (x)  f (m)
Lf (m)  lim and,
x m xm
Right Hand Derivative of f (x) at x  m ,
f (x)  f (m)
Rf (m)  lim .
x m xm
 For a function to be differentiable at a point, the LHD and RHD at that point should be
equal.
dy y
Derivative of y w.r.t. x :  lim .
dx x 0 x
✅ Relation between Continuity and Differentiability
(a) If a function is differentiable at a point, it is continuous at that point as well.
(b) If a function is not differentiable at a point, it may or may not be continuous at that
point.
(c) If a function is continuous at a point, it may or may not be differentiable at that point.
(d) If a function is discontinuous at a point, it is not differentiable at that point.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Note that the sum, difference, product, quotient and composition of two differentiable
functions is also differentiable.

✅ Formulae for Limits

sin x tan x
(a) limcos x  1 (b) lim 1 (c) lim 1
x 0 x 0 x x 0 x

sin 1 x tan 1 x
(d) lim 1 (e) lim 1 (f)
x 0 x x 0 x
a x 1
lim  loge a , a  0
x 0 x
ex  1 log e (1  x) xn  an
(g) lim 1 (h) lim 1 (i) lim  na n 1
x 0 x x 0 x x a x a
(j) lim(1  kx)  e , where k is any constant.
1/x k
x 0

 Do you know for trigonometric functions, angle ‘x’ is in Radians, in the above formulas?

✅ Differentiation
Process of finding the derivative (i.e., differential coefficient) of a function is called
differentiation.

✅ Formulae for Differentiation

(a)
dx

d n
x   n x n 1 (b) 
d x
dx
a   a x log e a , a  0

(c)
dx

d x
e   ex (d)
d
dx
 log a x  
1 1
 log a e
x log e a x
d 1 d
(e)  log e x   (f)  sin x   cos x
dx x dx
d d
(g)  cos x    sin x (h)  tan x   sec2 x
dx dx
d d
(i)  sec x   sec x tan x (j)  cot x   cosec2 x
dx dx

(k)
d
 cosec x   cosec x cot x (l)
d
 
sin 1 x 
1
, x   1,1
dx dx 1 x2

(m)
d
 
cos 1 x  
1
, x   1,1 (n)
d

tan 1 x  
1
1 x2
,x R
dx 1 x2 dx

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 (o)
d
 
cot 1 x  
1
1 x2
,xR (p)
d
 
sec 1 x 
1
, where
dx dx x x2 1
x  R  [1, 1]

(q)
d

cosec 1x    1
, where x   , 1  1,  
dx x x2 1
 Let f (x) and g (x) be two functions such that their derivatives are defined in a common
domain. Then
d d d d d
(a) f (x)  g(x)  f (x)  g(x) (b)  λ f (x)  λ f (x)
dx dx dx dx dx
d d d d
(c) (k)  0, where k is any constant (d) (x)  1, (y)  1, (t)  1 etc.
dx dx dy dt
 Following derivatives should also be memorized by you for quick use:


d
dx
 
x 
2 x
1

d 1 1
  2
dx  x  x


dx
 x   x x 1  log x 
d x

✅ Rules of derivatives
d d d
 Product or Leibnitz Rule of derivatives:  u v   u  v   v  u   u v  v u
dx dx dx
d d
v u   u  v
d u dx dx v u  u v
 Quotient Rule of derivatives:    .
dx  v  v 2
v2
✅ Different types of derivatives
 Derivatives of Composite functions
 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric functions
 Derivatives of Logarithmic functions & logarithmic differentiation
 Derivatives of Implicit functions
 Derivatives of Parametric functions
 Second Order Derivatives

APPLICATIONS Of DERIVATIVES JD
✅ Tangents & Normals

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Pictorial representation of tangent & normal :

Note that the point of contact A is that point which satisfies the equation of
curve, the tangent at A and the normal at A simultaneously.

 Slope or gradient of a line :

If a line makes an angle  with the positive direction of X-axis in anticlockwise direction, then
tan  is called slope or gradient of the line. [Note that  is taken as positive or negative
according as it is measured in anticlockwise (i.e., from positive direction of X-axis to the
positive direction of Y-axis) or clockwise direction respectively.]
 Important Facts about the slope of a line :
(a) If a line is parallel to x- axis (or perpendicular to y - axis) then, its slope is 0 (zero).
1
(b) If a line is parallel to y- axis (or perpendicular to x- axis) then, its slope is i.e., not
0
defined.
(c) If two lines are perpendicular then, product of their slopes equals –1 i.e., m1  m 2  1 .
Whereas for two parallel lines, their slopes are equal i.e., m1  m 2 .
(Here in both the cases, m1 and m 2 represent the slopes of respective lines).

 Equation of Tangent at (x1 , y 1 ) :

dy 
 y  y1   mT  x  x1  where, m T is the slope of tangent such that mT 
dx  at (x1 ,y1 )
 Equation of Normal at (x1 , y 1 ) :

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
  y  y1   mN  x  x1  where, mN is the slope of normal such that
1 1
mN    .
m T dy 
dx  at (x1 ,y1 )
 Note that mT  mN  1 , which is obvious because tangent and normal are perpendicular
to each other. In other words, the tangent and normal lines are inclined at right angle on each
other.

 Acute angle between the two curves whose slopes m 1 and m 2 are known :

m 2  m1
tan  
1  m1.m 2
m 2  m1
   tan 1 .
1  m1.m 2
It is absolutely sufficient to find one angle (generally the acute angle  ) between the two
curves. Other angle between the two curve is given by    .
 Note that if the curves cut orthogonally (i.e., they cut each other at right angles) then, it
means m1  m2  1 where m1 and m2 represent slopes of the tangents of curves at the
intersection point.
 Note that the slope of a line a xb y c 0 can be directly obtained by
 Coefficient of x 
 .
 Coefficient of y 
Alternatively, the line can be written as y  m x  c (slope-intercept form of line). In that
case, coefficient of x will give slope of the line.

✅ Increasing & Decreasing Functions

 Increasing Function :
A function f (x) is said to be an increasing function in [a, b] if as x increases, f (x) also
increases i.e., if ,   [a, b] and     f ()  f () .

 If f (x)  0 lies in (a, b) then, f (x) is an increasing function in [a, b] provided f (x) is
continuous at x  a and x  b .
 Decreasing Function :
A function f (x) is said to be a decreasing function in [a, b] if as x increases, f (x) decreases
i.e. if ,   [a, b] and     f ()  f () .

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 If f (x)  0 lies in (a, b) then, f (x) is a decreasing function in [a, b] provided f (x) is
continuous at x  a and x  b .
 A function f (x) is a constant function in [a, b] if f (x)  0 for each x  (a, b) .

 Monotonic Functions :
By monotonic function f (x) in interval I, we mean that f is either only increasing in I or
only decreasing in the interval I. Here interval I means, an interval where x (a, b).
(a) Monotonic Increasing Function : A function is said to be a monotonic increasing
function in defined interval if,
x1  x 2  f (x1 )  f (x 2 )
or, x1  x 2  f (x1 ) ≮ f (x 2 )
or, x1  x 2  f (x1 )  f (x 2 )
or, x1  x 2  f (x1 ) ≯ f (x 2 ) .

(b) Monotonic Decreasing Function : A function is said to be a monotonic decreasing

function in defined interval if,
x1  x 2  f (x1 )  f (x 2 )
or, x1  x 2  f (x1 ) ≯ f (x 2 )
or, x1  x 2  f (x1 )  f (x 2 )
or, x1  x 2  f (x1 ) ≮ f (x 2 ) .
 If f (x) is strictly increasing (decreasing) function on an interval [a, b], then f–1 exists and it
is also a strictly increasing (decreasing) function. That is, f is one-one and onto function both.

✅ Maxima and Minima

Consider y  f (x) be a well defined function on an interval I. Then,
(a) f (x) is said to have a maximum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that f
(c) > f (x), for all x  I .
The value corresponding to f (c) is called the maximum value of f in I and the point c is
called a point of maximum value of the function f in I.
(b) f (x) is said to have a minimum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that f
(c) < f (x)  x  I .
The value corresponding to f (c) is called the minimum value of f in I and the point c is
called a point of minimum value of the function f in I.
(c) f (x) is said to have an extreme value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that f
(c) is either a maximum value or a minimum value of f (x) in I.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 The value f (c) in this case, is called an extreme value of the function f (x) in I and
the point c is called an extreme point.
 Meaning of local maxima and local minima :
Let f be a real valued function and also take a point c from its domain. Then,
(a) c is called a point of local maxima if there exists a number h > 0 such that f (c) >
f (x), for all x in (c  h, c  h) . The value f (c) is called the local maximum value of the
function f.
(b) c is called a point of local minima if there exists a number h > 0 such that f (c) < f
(x), for all x in (c  h, c  h) . The value f (c) is called the local minimum value of the function
f.

 Critical points: It is a point c (say) in the domain of a function f (x) at which either f (x)
vanishes i.e., f (c)  0 or the function f (x) is not differentiable. That is, a point at which f (x) is 0
or, f (x) deos not exist, is called critical point.

 Turning points (Stationary points): It is a point at which f (x)  0 .

 First
 NoteDerivative
that, allTest :
the turning points are critical points but, all the critical points aren’t turning
Consider y  f (x) be a well defined function on an open interval I.
points.
Now proceed as have been mentioned in the following algorithm :
dy
STEP 1 Find .
dx
dy
STEP 2 Find the critical point (s) by putting  0 . Suppose c  I (where I is the interval)
dx
be any critical point and f be continuous at this point c. Then we may have
following situations:
dy
(a) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, then
dx
the function attains a local maximum at x  c .
dy
(b) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, then
dx
the function attains a local minimum at x  c .
dy
(c) does not change sign as x increases through c, then x  c is neither a
dx
point of local maximum nor a point of local minimum. Rather in this case,
the point x  c is called the point of inflection.

 Second Derivative Test :

Consider y  f (x) be a well defined function on an open interval I and twice differentiable at
a point c in the interval. Then we observe that:

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 (a) x  c is a point of local maxima if f (c)  0 and f (c)  0 .
The value f (c) is called local maximum value of f.

(b) x  c is a point of local minima if f (c)  0 and f (c)  0 .

The value f (c) is called local minimum value of f.
✅ This test fails if f (c)  0 and f (c)  0 . In such a case, we use first derivative test as
discussed above.
 Absolute maxima and absolute minima :
If f (x) is a continuous function on a closed interval I then, f (x) has the absolute maximum
value and f (x) attains it at least once in I. Also f (x) has the absolute minimum value and the
function attains it at least once in I.
ALGORITHM
STEP 1 Find all the critical points of f (x) in the given interval, i.e., find all points x where
either f (x)  0 or f (x) is not differentiable.
STEP 2 Take the end points of the given interval.
STEP 3 At all these points (i.e., the points found in STEP 1 and STEP 2), calculate the values
of f (x).
STEP 4 Identify the maximum and minimum values of f (x) out of the values calculated in
STEP 3. This maximum value will be the absolute maximum value of f (x) and the
minimum value will be the absolute minimum value of the function f (x).
 Absolute maximum value is also called as global maximum value or greatest value.
Similarly, absolute minimum value is called as global minimum value or the least value.

INDEFINITE INTEGRALS
 Meaning of integral of a function
d
 F  x    f  x  , then we say that one
dx 
If differentiation of a function F (x) is f (x) i.e., if

integral or primitive or anti-derivative of f (x) is F (x) and in symbols, we write

 f  x  dx  F  x  .
Therefore, we can say that integration is the inverse process of differentiation.

 List of formulae for standard Integrals

x n 1 1
 x dx   k, n  1  x dx  log x  k
n
A. B.
n 1

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 1 x 1
a dx  a k e dx  eax  k
x ax
C. D.
log a a
1 1
E.  sin  ax  dx   a cos  ax   k F.  cos  ax  dx  a sin  ax   k
G.  tan xdx  log sec x  k H.  cot xdx  log sin x  k
Or   log cos x  k Or   log cosec x  k

I.  sec xdx  log sec x  tan x  k 

J. cosec xdx  log cosec x  cot x  k

 x x
Or  log tan     k Or  log tan k
4 2 2

 sec xdx  tan x  k  cosec xdx   cot x  k

2 2
K. L.

M.  sec x tan xdx  sec x  c N.  cosec x cot xdx   cosec x  k

1 1 1 x
O. x x2 1
dx  sec 1 x  k P. a 2
x 2
dx  tan 1    k
a a
1 1 ax 1 1 x a
Q. a 2
x 2
dx 
2a
log
ax
k R. x 2
a 2
dx 
2a
log
xa
k

1 1
S.  x a2 2
dx  log x  x 2  a 2  k T.  x a
2 2
dx  log x  x 2  a 2  k

1 x
U.  a x2
dx  sin 1    k
2
a

x a2  To keep on tips :
V.  x 2  a 2 dx 
2
x 2  a 2  log x  x 2  a 2  k
2 1 1
 x 2
dx  
x
k
x a2
W.  x 2  a 2 dx 
2
x 2  a 2  log x  x 2  a 2  k
2  
1
dx  2 x  k
x
x 2
X.  a 2  x 2 dx 
x 2 a2
a  x 2  sin 1    k   xdx  x 3/2  k
3
2 2 a
1 1
Y.  ax  b dx  a log ax  b  k , where ‘a’ is any non-zero constant (and k is integral
constant)

Z.   dx  x  k , where λ is a constant (and, k is the integral constant).

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Introduction to the Terms and Symbols used in Integration

Terms Symbols Meaning of Terms Symbols

 f (x)dx Integral of f with respect to x

f (x) in  f (x)dx Integrand

x in  f (x)dx Variable of integration

Integrate / Evaluate Find the integral

Integral value of f A function F such that F(x)  f (x)

Constant of Integration Any real no. denoted by C or k

 Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation

If derivative of a function is given and we have to find its primitive (original function) then, we
have to follow inverse process of finding the differentiation. This process of finding the
primitive is called the antidifferentiation or integration.
Let’s illustrate with a few examples.
d
(i) We know that (3x 2 )  6x . So, the antiderivative of ‘ 6x ’ is 3x 2 .
dx
d
Also note that (3x 2  1)  6x . So, the antiderivative of ‘ 6x ’ is 3x 2  1 .
dx
d
Even, (3x 2  2)  6x . So, the antiderivative of ‘ 6x ’ is 3x 2  2 .
dx
d  2 4 4
 3x    6x . So, the antiderivative of ‘ 6x ’ is 3x  .
2
And,
dx  5 5
We can think of many more antiderivatives of this function.
d
(ii) We know that (cos x)   sin x . So, the antiderivative of ‘  sin x ’ is cos x .
dx
d
Also note that (cos x  2)   sin x . So, the antiderivative of ‘  sin x ’ is cos x  2 .
dx
d
Even, (cos x  3)   sin x . So, the antiderivative of ‘  sin x ’ is cos x  3 .
dx
Here too we can think of many more antiderivatives of this function.
From above examples, we find that the antiderivatives of ‘ 6x ’ are 3x 2 , 3x 2  1 ,
3x 2  2 etc. That is, integration of ‘ 6x ’ isn’t unique. Actually, there may be infinite

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
antiderivatives for ‘ 6x ’. So, for obtaining the antiderivative of ‘ 6x ’, we add the
constant C (which is called the constant of integration). Here C is a parameter
and we get different integrals of the given function for different values of C.
d
In fact, (3x 2  C)  6x . So, the antiderivative of ‘6x’ is 3x 2  C . Here C may be any real
dx
constant.
d
Similarly, (cos x  C)   sin x . So, the antiderivative of ‘  sin x ’ is cos x  C .
dx
d
Hence,
dx
 F(x)  C  f (x) implies that,  f (x)dx  F(x)  C .
Hence the primitive of f (x) is F (x)  C.

 Methods of Integration
Though there is no general method for finding the integral of a function, yet here we have
considered the following methods based on observations for evaluating the integral of a
function:
(a) Integration by Substitution Method
(b) Integration by Partial Fractions
(c) Integral By Parts
 Before we go for further exercises, here are a few useful Quickies
n 1
f  x   f x
(a)  f  x   f   x  dx   f  x  dx  2 f  x   k
n
 k, n  1 (b)
n 1
 n 1
f x f x  f  x  
(c)  f  x  dx  log f  x   k (d)  dx   k
 f  x   n  1
n

1   ax  b  
n 1

(e)   ax  b  dx   k  [f  x   g  x ]dx   f  x  dx   g  x  dx

n
(f)
a  n  1 
(g)  dx  x  k (h)   f  x  dx   f  x  dx, where  R.
 Integration by Substitution Method & Completing the Perfect Square
Method
In this method we change the integral  f (x)dx , where independent variable is x, to another
integral in which independent variable is t (say) different from x such that x and t are related
by x  g(t) .

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 du

Let u  f (x)dx then,
dx
 f (x) .

dx
Again as x  g(t) so, we have  g(t) .
dt
du du dx
Now    f (x).g(t)
dt dx dt
 du 
On integrating both sides w. r. t. t, we get   dt  dt   f (x)g(t)dt
 u   f g(t) g(t)dt
  f (x)dx   f g(t) g(t)dt where x  g(t) .
So, it is clear that substituting x  g(t) in  f (x)dx will give us the same result as obtained
by putting g(t) in place of x and g(t)dt in place of dx.
px  q px  q
 Integrals of the form  ax 2
 bx  c
dx,  ax  bx  c
2
dx,   px  q  ax 2  bx  c dx ☼ :

Express the numerator px  q as shown here, i.e., px  q  A

d
dx
 ax 2  bx  c   B .

Then, obtain the values of A and B by equating the coefficients of like powers of x and
constants terms on both the sides. Then, integrate it after replacing px  q by

A
d
dx
 ax 2  bx  c   B using the values of A and B in the given integral.

Making the Perfect Square of a quadratic expression

STEP 1 Consider the expression ax  bx  c .
2

STEP 2 Make the coefficient of x2 as unity ( i.e.,  1) by taking ‘a’ common, after
 b c
doing so the original expression will look like, a  x  x .
2

 a a
2
 b 
STEP 3 Add and subtract   to the expression obtained in STEP 2 as depicted
 2a 
 2 b

2
c  b   b  
2

here i.e., a  x  x       .

 a a  2a   2a  

 b   c  b  
2 2

STEP 4 The perfect square of ax  bx  c will be a  x         .
2


 2a   a  2a   


Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Integration by using Trigonometric Identities
asin x  b cos x
 Integrals of the form  csin x  d cos x dx :
d
Express Numerator  A  Denominator   B  Denominator  . Then obtain the values of A
dx
and B by equating the coefficients of sin x and cos x on both the sides and proceed.
a sin x  b cos x  c
 Integrals of the form  p sin x  q cos x  r dx :

Note that the previous integral form can be considered as a special case of this form.
d
Express Numerator  A  Denominator   B  Denominator   C .
dx
Then obtain the values of unknowns i.e., A, B and C by equating the coefficients of sin x, cos
x and the constant terms on both the sides and hence proceed.
dx dx dx
 Integrals of the form  asin x  bcos x
2 2
, 
a  bsin x
2
, 
a  b cos 2 x
,

dx dx dx
 (a sin x  b cos x)2 ,  (a sin x  b cos x)(c sin x  d cos x) and  a  b sin2 x  ccos2 x :
Divide the Nr and Dr both by cos x . Replace sec 2 x , if any, in Dr by 1  tan x and then
2 2

substitute tan x  t and proceed.

dx dx dx
 Integrals of the form  asin x  b cos x ,  a  b sin x ,  a  b cos x and

dx
 asin x  b cos x  c :

x x
2 tan 1  tan 2
Use sin x  2 and/ or cos x  2 . Replace 1  tan 2 x in the Nr by sec 2 x and
x x 2 2
1  tan 2 1  tan 2
2 2
x
then substitute tan  t and then after proceed.
2
 Integration by using Partial Fractions
f (x)
Consider defines a rational polynomial function.
g(x)
 If the degree of numerator i.e. f (x) is greater than or equal to the degree of denominator
i.e. g(x) then, this type of rational function is called an improper rational function. And if
degree of f (x) is smaller than the degree of denominator i.e. g(x) then, this type of rational
function is called a proper rational function.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 x2 1
For example, is proper rational function as degree of numerator is 2 which is
x 3  2x  5
smaller than the degree 3 of denominator.
x4  x2 1 x3  1
Whereas, and are both improper rational polynomial functions.
x 3  2x  9 x 3  2x  6
 In rational polynomial functions if the degree (i.e., highest power of the variable) of
numerator (Nr) is greater than or equal to the degree of denominator (Dr), then (without any
doubt) always perform the division i.e., divide the Nr by Dr before doing anything and
thereafter use the following :
Numerator Remainder
 Quotient  .
Denominator Denominator
On doing this, the rational function is resolved into partial fractions. The table given below
lists the types of simpler partial fractions that are to be associated with various kinds of rational
functions which will be dealt in our current study :
Table demonstrating Partial Fractions of various forms

Form of the Rational Function Form of the Partial Fraction

px  q A B
,ab 
(x  a)(x  b) x a x b
px  q A B

(x  a) 2 x  a (x  a) 2
px 2  qx  r A

B

C
, abc
(x  a)(x  b)(x  c) x a x b x c
px 2  qx  r A

B

C
,ab
(x  a)2 (x  b) x  a (x  a) 2
xb
px 2  qx  r A B(2x  b) C
(x  a)(x 2  bx  c)  2  2
x  a x  bx  c x  bx  c
where x 2  bx  c can’t be factorized
further.

 Integration by using By Parts

If  and V be two functions of x then,

  . V dx     Vdx     dx  Vdx dx

 d 
(I) (II)

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
In finding integrals by this method, proper choice of functions  and V is crucial. Though there
is no fixed rule for taking  and V (their choice is possible by practice) yet, following rule is
found to be quite helpful in deciding the functions  and V :
(i) If  and V are of different types, take that function as  which comes first in the word
ILATE .
 Here I stands for Inverse trigonometric function, L stands for Logarithmic function, A stands
for Algebraic function, T stands for Trigonometric function and E stands for the Exponential
function.
(ii) If both the functions are trigonometrical, take that function as V whose integral is easier.
(iii) If both the functions are algebraic, take that function as  whose differentiation is easier.
(iv) Some integrands are such that they are not product of two functions. Their integrals may
be found by integrals by parts taking “1” as the second function. Logarithmic and Inverse
Trigonometric functions are examples of such functions.
(v) Following result can be directly applied in case of the Objective Type Questions :

 e f (x)  f (x) dx  e f (x)  k

x x
(a)

(b)  f (x)  xf (x) dx  xf (x)  k

xe dx  (x 1)ex  k
x
(c)

(d)  log x dx  x log | x | x  k .

 Some Special and Miscellaneous Integral forms
x2  1 1
 Integrals of the form  x4  kx2  1 dx or, x 4
 kx 2  1
dx :

Divide the Numerator and Denominator both by x 2 . Then, convert the new denominator in
2
 1  1  1
the form  x    k 2 . Now introduce d  x   or d  x   in the numerator.
 x  x  x
1 1
Finally, substitute x   t or x   t as the case may be.
x x
sin x  cos x sin x  cos x
 Integrals of the form  dx or,  dx :
Presence of sin 2x Presence of sin 2x
Substitute ‘integral of numerator’ as t. Then differentiate to get the numerator.
Also, (integral of numerator) 2  t 2 and obtain the value of sin 2x in the denominator.
1
 Integrals of the form M N
dx where M and N are linear or quadratic expressions in x :

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 M N Substitutions

Linear Linear t2  N

Quadratic Linear t2  N

1
Linear Quadratic t
M
N 1
Quadratic Quadratic t2  or t 
M x

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
 Meaning of Definite integral of a function
If  f (x)dx  F(x) i.e. F (x) be an integral of the function f (x), then F(b)  F(a) is called the
definite integral of f (x) between the limits a and b (i.e., for x  [a, b] ) and in symbols it is
b

a f (x) dx or, F(x)a .

b
written as

Moreover, the definite integral gives a unique and definite value (numeric value) of anti-
derivative of the function between the given intervals. It acts as a substitute for evaluating
the area analytically.

 Formulae & properties of Definite Integrals

b

a f  x  dx  F  x  a  F  b   F  a 
b
P.01

b a
P.02  f  x  dx   f  x  dx (Effect on value of definite integration by Interchanging
a b
limits)
b b
P.03  f  x  dx   f  t  dt (Value of definite integral is independent of the change of
a a
the variable)
b m b
P.04 a f  x  dx  a f  x  dx  m f  x  dx, amb

b b a a
P.05 (a) a f  x  dx  a f  a  b  x  dx (b) 0 f  x  dx  0 f  a  x  dx

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
  a
2 f  x  dx, if f  x  is even function i.e., f   x   f  x 
a
P.06  f  x  dx   0
a  0, if f  x  is odd function i.e., f   x   f  x 

2a a 2a
P.07 (a)  f  x  dx   f  x  dx 
0 0
a f  x  dx
2a a a
Also,  f  x  dx   f  x  dx   f  2a  x  dx
0 0 0

 a
2 f  x  dx, if f  2a  x   f  x 
f  x  dx   0
2a
(b) 
0  0, if f  2a  x   f  x 


 Proof of some important properties

b b
P.05 a f  x  dx  a f  a  b  x  dx .
b
PROOF Consider a f  x  dx .
Let x  a  b  t  dx  dt . Also when x  a  t  b and, when x  b  t  a .
b a
 b 
So,  f  x  dx   f  a  b  t  dt       f  a  b  t  dt  [By using P.02
a b  a 
b b
  f  x  dx   f  a  b  t  dt
a a
b a
  f  x  dx   f  a  b  x  dx [Replacing t by x,
a b
P.03
b b
Hence, a f  x  dx  a f  a  b  x  dx .
 a
2 f  x  dx, if f  x  is even function i.e., f  x   f  x 
a
P.06 a f  x  dx   0 .
 0 , if f  x  is odd function i.e., f  x   f  x 

a 0 a
PROOF We know that
a
 f  x  dx   f  x  dx   f  x  dx
a 0
…(i) [By using P.04

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 0
Consider  f  x  dx .
a

Let x  t  dx  dt .
Also when x  a  t  a and when x  0  t  0 .
0 0
 a 
So,  f  x  dx   f   t  dt       f   t  dt  [By using P.02
a a  0 
0 a
  f  x  dx   f  t  dt
a 0
0 a
  f  x  dx   f   x  dx [Replacing t by x,
a 0

P.03
Therefore equation (i) becomes,
a a a

 f  x  dx   f  x  dx   f  x  dx
a 0 0
a a
  f  x  dx   f   x   f  x  dx
a 0

 a
2 f  x  dx, if f   x   f  x 
  f  x  dx   0
a

a  0, if f   x   f  x 

 a
2 f  x  dx, if f  x  is even function
  f  x  dx   0
a
.
a  0, if f  x  is odd function

 A few illustrations of even and odd functions
 3  tan x  ILLUSTRATION 02 Let f (x)  x 5 sin13 x
ILLUSTRATION 01 Let f (x)  log  
 3  tan x 
 f ( x)  (x)5 sin13 (x)  x 5 sin13 x
 3  tan( x)   3  tan x 
 f ( x)  log    log    f ( x)  f (x)
 3  tan( x)   3  tan x 
 f (x) is an even function .
 3  tan x 
 f (  x)   log    f (x)
 3  tan x 
 f (x) is an odd function .

ILLUSTRATION 03 Let f (x)  log x  x 2  1  

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 
 f ( x)  log  x  ( x) 2  1 
 x2 1  x x2 1  x 
 f ( x)  log   
 1 2
  
 x 1 x 
 x2 1 x2 1 
 f ( x)  log   
 1 x2 1  x 

 f ( x)  log 
1
 x 1  x 
2


   log x  x  1  f (x)
2

 f (x) is an odd function .
 a
2 f  x  dx, if f  2a  x   f  x 
f  x  dx   0
2a
P.07  .
0  0 , if f  2a  x   f  x 

2a a 2a
PROOF We know  f  x  dx   f  x  dx  a f  x  dx
0 0
…(i)

2a
Consider a f  x  dx .
Let x  2a  t  dx  dt . Also when x  a  t  a and when x  2a  t  0 .
2a 0
 a 
So, a f  x  dx  a f  2a  t   dt       f  2a  t  dt  [By using P.02
 0 
2a a
  f  x  dx   f  2a  t  dt
a 0
2a a
 a f  x  dx  0 f  2a  x  dx [Replacing t by x,

P.03
So equation (i) becomes,
2a a a a

 f  x  dx   f  x  dx  0 f  2a  x  dx   f  x   f  2a  x  dx .
0 0 0
2a a
Clearly, when f  2a  x   f (x), then  f  x  dx  2 f  x  dx
0 0
2a
And, when f  2a  x   f (x), then  f  x  dx  0
0

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
  a
2 f  x  dx, if f  2a  x   f  x 
f  x  dx   0
2a
Hence,  .
0  0, if f  2a  x   f  x 


APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS
Area between a curve and an coordinate axis : In general, if A(x) is the area function under
the curve y  f (x) , then area under this curve y  f (x) from x  a to x  b is given by
b
A   f (x)dx , where f (x)  0, a  x  b .
a

 A few Points for Curve Sketching

(A) Symmetry : Let us assume the given curve to be f (x, y)  0 .
(i) Symmetry about x-axis : If f (x,  y)  f (x, y) then, f (x, y)  0 is symmetrical
about x-axis i.e., the shape of the curve above x-axis is same as the shape of the curve
below x-axis.
e.g. y  4ax is symmetrical about x-axis.
2

(ii) Symmetry about y-axis : If f ( x, y)  f (x, y) then, f (x, y)  0 is symmetrical

about y-axis i.e., the shape of the curve toward right side of y-axis is same as the shape of
the curve towards left side of the y-axis.
e.g. x  4ay is symmetrical about y-axis.
2

(iii) Symmetry in opposite quadrants or symmetry about origin : If putting  x for

x and  y for y, the equation of curve remains same, then it is said to be symmetric in
opposite quadrants.
e.g. x 2  y2  a 2 , xy  k are symmetric in opposite quadrants.
(iv) Symmetry about the line y  x : If the equation of a given curve remains
unaffected by interchanging the variables x and y, then it is said to be symmetric about the
line y  x .
e.g. x 2  y2  a 2 , xy  k are symmetrical about the line y  x .

(B) Points of Intersection with the Axes : If we get real values of x on putting y  0 in the
equation of curve, then we get points of intersection of curve and x-axis. Also if we get real
values of y on putting x  0 in the equation of curve, then we get points of intersection of
curve and y-axis.
e.g. x 2  y 2  a 2 cuts the axes at (a, 0) and (0, a) .

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
(C) Origin : If there is no constant term present in the equation of curve, then it passes
through origin.
e.g. x 2  y2  4ay  4ax  0, y 2  4ax passes through origin.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
 Definition Of Differential Equation - A basic introduction
It is an equation consisting of an independent variable, dependent variable and differential
coefficients of dependent variable with respect to the independent variable.
 Order and Degree of a differential equation
(a) Order of a differential equation : It is the order of the highest order derivative appearing
in the differential equation.
(b) Degree of a differential equation : It is the degree (power) of the highest order
derivative, when the differential coefficients are free from the radicals and the fractions.
By the degree of a differential equation, when it is a polynomial equation in derivatives, we
mean the highest power (positive integral index) of the highest order derivative involved in the
given differential equation.
# Note that the order and degree (if defined) of a D.E. are always positive integers.
 Formation of the differential equations☼
If the equation of the family of curves is given then its differential equation is obtained by
eliminating arbitrary constants occurring in its equation with the help of equation of the
curve and the equations formed by differentiation of equation of the curve.
 Solution Of Differential Equations
General solution : The solution which contains as many as arbitrary constants as the
order of the differential equation. e.g. y   cos x   sin x is the general solution of
d2 y
 y  0.
dx 2
Particular solution : Solution obtained by giving particular values to the arbitrary
constants in the general solution of a differential equation is called a particular solution. e.g.
y  3cos x  2sin x is a particular solution of the differential equation y  y  0 .

Solution of differential equation by Variable Separable Method : A variable

separable form of the differential equation is the one which can be expressed in the form of
f  x  dx  g  y  dy .
The solution is given by  f  x  dx   g  y  dy  k where k is the constant of integration.

Homogeneous Differential Equations and their Solution :

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
First of all we shall learn how to identify a homogeneous differential equation.
 Identifying a Homogeneous differential equation
dy
STEP 1 Write down the given differential equation in the form  f  x, y  .
dx
STEP 2 If f  kx, ky   k n f  x, y  then, given differential equation is homogeneous of degree
n.
 Solving a homogeneous differential equation
dy
Case I : If  f  x, y 
dx
dy dv
Put y  vx   vx .
dx dx
Then after, separate the variables to get the required solution.
dx
Case II : If  f  x, y 
dy
dx dv
Put x  vy   vy
dy dy
Then after, separate the variables to get the required solution.

dy y dx x
Note that the differential equations of the form  f   or,  f   are homogeneous.
dx x dy y

Solution of Linear Differential Equations :

(a) Linear differential equation in y
dy
It is of the form  P(x)y  Q(x) , where P(x) and Q(x) are functions of x only.
dx
 Solving a Linear Differential Equation in y
dy
STEP 1 Write the given differential equation in the form  P(x)y  Q(x) .
dx
STEP 2 Find the Integration Factor, (I.F.)  e 
P(x )dx
.


STEP 3 The solution is given by, y.(I.F.)  Q(x).(I.F.) dx  k where k is any real constant.

(b) Linear differential equation in x☼

dx
It is of the form  P(y)x  Q(y) , where P(y) and Q(y) are functions of y only.
dy
 Solving a Linear Differential Equation in x
dx
STEP 1 Write the given differential equation in the form  P(y)x  Q(y) .
dy

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
STEP 2 Find the Integration Factor, (I.F.)  e 
P( y)dy
.


STEP 3 The solution is given by, x.(I.F.)  Q(y).(I.F.) dy  k where k is any real constant.

VECTOR ALGEBRA
 Vector - Basic Introduction
A quantity having magnitude as well as the direction is called vector. It is denoted as AB or
a.
Its magnitude (or modulus) is AB or a otherwise, simply AB or a .
A B
 Vectors are denoted by symbols such as a or a or a.
(Pictorial representation
of a vector)
 Initial and Terminal points
The initial and terminal points mean that point from which the vector originates and
terminates respectively. Therefore, in the diagram shown above, A and B are respectively
initial and terminal points of AB .
 Position Vector
The position vector of a point say P(x,y,z) is given as OP  r  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ and the

magnitude of vector OP  r is r  r  x 2  y 2  z 2 .

The vector OP  r  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ is said to be in its component form.

Here x, y, z are called the scalar components or rectangular components of r and
xˆi, yˆj, zkˆ are the vector components of r along x-, y-, z-axes respectively.
 Also, AB   Position Vector of B   Position Vector of A  .
For example, let A(x1 ,y1 , z1 ) and B(x 2 ,y 2 , z 2 ) .
Then, AB  (x 2ˆi  y 2ˆj  z 2 k)
ˆ  (x ˆi  y ˆj  z k)
1 1 1
ˆ

That is, AB  (x 2  x1 )iˆ  (y 2  y1 )ˆj  (z 2  z1 )kˆ .

 Here ˆi, ˆj and k̂ are the unit vectors along the axes OX, OY and OZ
respectively.
(The discussion about unit vectors is given later in this chapter.)

 Direction ratios and direction cosines

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
If r  xˆi  yˆj  zk,
ˆ then coefficients of ˆi, ˆj, kˆ in the vector r i.e., x, y, z are called the
direction ratios (abbreviated as d.r.’s) of vector r .
These are denoted by a, b, c (i.e. a  x, b  y, c  z ; in a manner we can say that scalar
components of vector r and its d.r.’s both are the same).
x
Also, the coefficients of ˆi, ˆj, k
ˆ in r̂ (which is the unit vector of r ) i.e., ,
x 2  y2  z2
y z
, are called direction cosines (which is abbreviated as d.c.’s)
x 2  y2  z2 x 2  y2  z2
of vector r .

 These direction cosines are denoted by l, m, n such that l  cos α, m  cosβ,

n  cos γ . Also l 2  m2  n2  1 and, cos2 α  cos2 β  cos2 γ  1 .

Fig.1

x y z
 It can be easily concluded that  l  cos α,  m  cosβ,  n  cos γ .
r r r
Therefore, r  l r ˆi  m r ˆj  n r k
ˆ  r(cosα ˆi  cosβ ˆj  cos γ k)
ˆ . Here r  r .

[See the OAP in Fig.1]

 Angles α, β and, γ are made by the vector r with the positive directions of x,
y, z-axes respectively and these angles are known as the direction angles of vector r .
 For a better understanding, you can visualize the Fig.1.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Types of Vectors
(a) Zero or Null vector : It’s that vector whose initial and terminal points are
coincident. It is denoted by 0 . Of course, its magnitude is 0 (zero).
 Any non-zero vector is called a proper vector.
(b) Co-initial vectors : Those vectors (two or more) having the same initial point are
called the co-initial vectors.
(c) Co-terminous vectors : Those vectors (two or more) having the same terminal
point are called the co-terminous vectors.
(d) Negative of a vector : The vector which has the same magnitude as the r but
opposite direction. It is denoted by  r . Hence if AB  r, then BA   r .

That is AB   BA , PQ   QP etc.
(e) Unit vector : It is a vector with the unit magnitude. The unit vector in the direction

of vector r is given by r̂  r such that r  1 . So, if r  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ then its unit vector is :
r
x ˆi  y ˆj  z
r̂  kˆ .
x y z
2 2 2
x y z
2 2 2
x y z
2 2 2

ab
 Unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b is :   m (say) .
ab

ab
Note that m   is also perpendicular to the given vectors a and b both.
ab

(g) Equal vectors : Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same
magnitude as well as direction, regardless of the positions of their initial points.
 a  b
Therefore, a  b  
a and b have same direction

Also if a  b, then a1ˆi  a 2ˆj  a 3kˆ  b1ˆi  b 2ˆj  b3kˆ

 a1  b1 , a 2  b 2 , a 3  b3 .
(h) Free vectors : The vectors which can undergo parallel displacement without
changing its magnitude and direction are called free vectors.
(i) Collinear or Parallel vectors : Two vectors a and b are collinear or parallel if
there exists a non-zero scalar  such that a  b .
 Note that the respective coefficients of ˆi, ˆj, k
ˆ in a and b are proportional
provided they are parallel or collinear to each other.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Consider a  a1ˆi  a 2ˆj  a 3k,
ˆ b  b ˆi  b ˆj  b kˆ , then by using a  b , we can
1 2 3

a1 a 2 a 3
conclude that :    .
b1 b 2 b3
 The d.r.’s of parallel vectors are same (or are in proportion).
 The vectors a and b will have same or opposite direction as  is positive or
negative.
 The vectors a and b are collinear if a  b  0 .

 Addition of Vectors
(a) Triangular law of vector addition : If two adjacent sides (say sides AB and BC)
of a triangle ABC are represented by a and b taken in same order, then the third side of
the triangle taken in the reverse order gives the sum of vectors a and b i.e.,
AC  AB  BC  AC  a  b .
See Fig.2 given below.
 Also since AC   CA  AB  BC  CA  AA  0 .
 And AB  BC  AC  AB  BC  AC  0
 AB  BC  CA  0 .

Fig.2

(b) Parallelogram law of vector addition : If two vectors a and b are represented in
magnitude and the direction by the two adjacent sides (say AB and AD) of a parallelogram
ABCD, you may see Fig.3. Then their sum is given by that diagonal of parallelogram
which is co-initial with a and b i.e., OC  OA  OB .

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Fig.3

 Properties of Vector Addition

i. Commutative property : a  b  b  a .
Consider a  a1ˆi  a 2ˆj  a 3kˆ and b  b1ˆi  b2ˆj  b3kˆ be any two given vectors.
Then a  b   a1  b1  ˆi   a 2  b 2  ˆj   a 3  b3  kˆ  b  a .

ii. Associative property : (a  b)  c  a  (b  c)

iii. Additive identity property : a  0  0  a  a .
iv. Additive inverse property : a  (a)  0  (a)  a .

Multiplication of a Vector by a scalar

Let a be any vector and k be any scalar. Then the product k a is defined as a vector whose
magnitude is | k | times that of a and the direction is
(i) same as that of a if k is positive, and (ii) opposite to that of a if k is negative.

 Section formula : The position vector of a point say P dividing a line segment joining the
points A and B whose position vectors are a and b respectively, in the ratio m : n
mb  na
(a) internally, is OP 
mn
mb  na
(b) externally, is OP  .
mn
ab
 Also if point P is the mid-point of line segment AB then, OP  .
2

 Product of Vectors
 Dot (Scalar) Product

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
The dot product of two vectors a and b is defined by, a .b  a b cos  where  is the angle

between a and b , 0     . See Fig.4.

Consider a  a1ˆi  a 2ˆj  a 3k,
ˆ b  b ˆi  b ˆj  b kˆ . Then a .b  a b  a b  a b .
1 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 3

 Observations of Dot product

i. ˆi.iˆ  ˆi ˆi cos 0  1  ˆi.iˆ  1  ˆj.jˆ  k.k
ˆˆ.

ii. ˆi.jˆ  ˆi ˆj cos   0. That is, ˆi.jˆ  0  ˆj.kˆ  k.i

ˆ ˆ. Fig.4
2
iii. a .b  R, where R is real number i.e., any scalar.
iv. a .b  b.a (Commutative property of dot product).
v. a.b  0  a  b or, a  0 or, b  0 or, both a  0  b .
vi. a.b  0  a  b s.t. a  0  b .
If θ = 0 then, a .b  a b . Also a .a  a  a 2 ; as θ in this case is 0 o .
2
vii.

Moreover, if θ  π  180 then, a .b   a b .

o

viii. a .(b  c)  a .b  a .c (Distributive property of dot product).

ix. a.(kb)  k(a.b)  (ka).b, where k  R . Also, a.(b)  (a.b)  (a).b .
x. Angle between two vectors a and b can be found by the expression given

a .b  a .b 
below: cos   or,   cos  .
1

a b a b
 
 | a .b | 
 For acute angle between a and b ,   cos 1  .
 a b 
 
 a .b 
xi. Projection of a vector on the other vector say b is given as 
a  i.e., a.bˆ
 b 
 
.
This is also known as Scalar projection or Component of a along b .

a .b  ˆ  
xii. Projection vector of a on the other vector say b is given as  .b
 b 
 
This is also known as the Vector projection.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Cross (Vector) Product
The cross (vector) product of two vectors a and b is defined by, a  b  a b sin  nˆ , where

 is the angle between the vectors a and b , 0     and n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular
to both a and b . For better illustration, see Fig.5.
Consider a  a1ˆi  a 2ˆj  a 3k,
ˆ b  b ˆi  b ˆj  b kˆ .
1 2 3

ˆi ˆj kˆ
Then, a  b  a1 a2 a 3   a 2 b3  a 3b 2  ˆi   a1b3  a 3b1  ˆj   a1b 2  a 2 b1  kˆ .
b1 b2 b3

 Observations of Cross product

i. ˆi  ˆi  ˆi ˆi sin 0. ˆj  0  ˆi  ˆi  0  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ .

ii. ˆi  ˆj  ˆi ˆj sin  .kˆ  kˆ  ˆi  ˆj  k,

ˆ ˆj  kˆ  ˆi, kˆ  ˆi  ˆj .
2
iii. Fig.6 can be considered for memorizing the vector product of ˆi, ˆj and, kˆ .

Fig.5 Fig.6

iv. a  b is a vector c (say) and this vector c is perpendicular to both the vectors
a and b .
v. a  b  a b sin  nˆ  a b sin  nˆ i.e., a  b  ab sin  ( | nˆ |  1 .

vi. a  b  0  a || b or, a  0 or, b  0 or, both a  0  b .

vii. aa  0 .
viii. a  b   b  a (Commutative property does not hold for cross product).
ix. a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c; (b  c)  a  b  a  c  a
(Distributive property of the vector product or cross product).

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 x. Angle between two vectors a and b in terms of Cross-product can be found
ab  ab 
by the expression given here : sin   or,   sin 1  .
a b  a b 
 
xi. If a and b represent the adjacent sides of a triangle, then the area of triangle
1
can be obtained by evaluating ab .
2
If a, b, c represent the position vector of the vertices of a triangle, then the
1
area of triangle can be obtained by evaluating a b  bc  ca .
2
xii. If a and b represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the area of
parallelogram can be obtained by evaluating a  b .

xiii. If p and q represent the two diagonals of a parallelogram, then the area of
1
parallelogram can be obtained by evaluating pq .
2

If a and b represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the diagonals d1 and d 2 of
the parallelogram are given as: d1  a  b , d 2  b  a .

 Relationship between Vector product and Scalar product

(Lagrange’s Identity)
Consider two vectors a and b . We also know that a  b  a b sin  
ˆ.

Now, a  b  a b sin  
ˆ

 a  b  a b sin 
2 2
 a  b  a b sin 2 
2

1  cos  
2 2
 ab  a b
2 2

2 2 2
 a  b  a b  a b cos 2 
2 2

 
2 2 2
 a  b  a b  a b cos 
2

2 2
 a  b  a b  (a .b) 2
2

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 2 2
 a  b  (a .b) 2  a b .
2

2 a .a a .b
 Note that a  b  . Here the RHS represents a determinant of
a .b b .b
order 2.

 Cauchy- Schwartz inequality

For any two vectors a and b , we always have a.b  a b .

Proof: The given inequality holds trivially when either a  0 or b  0 i.e., in such a case we
have,
a.b  0  a b . So, let us check it for a  0  b .

As we know, a .b  a b cos 
2
 (a .b) 2  a b cos 2 
2

Also we know cos 2   1 for all the values of θ .

2 2
 a b cos 2   a b
2 2

2
 (a .b) 2  a b
2

 a .b  a b .

 Triangle inequality
For any two vectors a and b , we always have a  b  a  b .

Proof: The given inequality holds trivially when either a  0 or b  0 i.e., in such a case we
have,
a  b  a  b . So, let us check it for a  0  b .
2
Then consider a  b  (a  b).(a  b)
2 2
 a  b  a  b  2a .b
2

2 2
 a  b  a  b  2 a b cos 
2

For cos   1 , we have: 2 a b cos   2 a b

Fig.7
2 2
 a  b  2 a b cos   a  b  2 a b
2 2

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
  
2 2
 ab  a  b

 ab  a  b .

 Scalar Triple Product of Vectors☼

If a, b and c are any three vectors, then the scalar product of a  b with c is called scalar
triple product of a, b and c .
Thus, (a  b).c is called the scalar triple product of a, b and c .
 Notation for scalar triple product : The scalar triple product of a, b and c is
denoted by [a b c] . That is, (a  b).c  a.(b  c)  [a b c] .

☼
Scalar tripe product of vectors is not in Syllabus. Though there are certain questions
(in the exercise of this concept in NCERT) which can be solved by dot and cross
product
Consider ˆi  a ˆj  a k,
a ofa1vectors. ˆ b  b ˆi  b ˆj  b k,
ˆ c  c ˆi  c ˆj  c kˆ .
2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

a1 a2 a3
Then, [a b c]  b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
If we go by def. [a b c]  (a  b).c , then we will have to find (a  b) .
ˆi ˆj kˆ
That is, (a  b)  a1 a2 a 3  ˆi(a 2 b3  b 2a 3 )  ˆj(a1b3  b1a 3 )  k(a
ˆ b b a ) .
1 2 1 2

b1 b 2 b3


Therefore, (a  b).c  ˆi(a 2 b 3  b 2a 3 )  ˆj(a 1b 3  b1a 3 )  k(a 1 2 1 2 1 2
ˆ b  b a ) . c iˆ  c ˆj  c kˆ
3 
 [a b c]  c1 (a 2 b3  b2a 3 )  c2 (b1a 3  a1b3 )  c3 (a1b 2  b1a 2 ) .
Note that we can proceed as per the def. [a b c]  a.(b  c) also.

 Observations of Scalar Triple Product

i. (a  b).c  a.(b  c) . That is, the position of dot and cross can be interchanged
without change in the value of the scalar triple product (provided their cyclic order remains the
same).
ii. [a b c]  [b c a]  [c a b] . That is, the value of scalar triple product doesn’t
change when cyclic order of the vectors is maintained.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Also [a b c]  [b a c]; [b c a]  [b a c] . That is, the value of scalar triple
product remains the same in magnitude but changes the sign when cyclic order of the
vectors is altered.
iii. For any three vectors a, b , c and scalar λ , we have [a b c]   [a b c] .
iv. The value of scalar triple product is zero if any two of the three vectors are
identical. That is, [a a c]  0  [a b b]  [a b a] etc.
v. Value of scalar triple product is zero if any two of the three vectors are parallel
or collinear.
vi. Scalar triple product of ˆi, ˆj and kˆ is 1 (unity) i.e., [iˆ ˆj k]
ˆ 1 .

vii. If [a b c]  0 then, the non-parallel and non-zero vectors a, b and c are

coplanar.

THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

 Recapitulation, Direction Ratios, Direction Cosines
& Equation of Lines
 Distance formula
The distance between two points A  x1 , y1 , z1  and B  x 2 , y 2 , z 2  is given by the
following expression :

AB   x 2  x1    y2  y1    z 2  z1 
2 2 2
units .
 Section formulae
The coordinates of a point Q which divides the line joining the points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
B(x 2 , y2 , z 2 ) in the ratio m : n
 mx 2  nx1 my 2  ny1 mz 2  nz1 
(a) internally, are  , , .
 mn mn mn 
(b) externally i.e., internally in the ratio (m) : (  n) , are
 mx 2  nx1 my 2  ny1 mz 2  nz1 
 , , .
 mn mn mn 
 x1  x 2 y1  y 2 z1  z 2 
 Mid-point of line AB is given by  , , .
 2 2 2 
 Direction Cosines of a Line

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 If A and B are two points on a given line L then, the direction cosines of vectors AB and
BA are the direction cosines (d.c.’s) of line L. Thus if α, β, γ are the direction-angles
which the line L makes with the positive direction of x, y, z- axes respectively then, its
d.c.’s are cos α, cosβ, cos γ (See Fig.1). If direction of line L is reversed, the direction
angles are replaced by their supplements i.e.,   α,   β,   γ and so are the d.c.’s i.e.,
the direction cosines become  cos α,  cosβ,  cos γ . So, a line in space has two sets of
d.c.’s viz.  cos α,  cosβ,  cos γ .

 The d.c.’s are generally denoted by l , m, n . Also l 2  m 2  n 2  1 and so, we can

deduce that cos 2 α  cos 2 β  cos 2 γ  1. Also sin 2 α  sin 2 β  sin 2 γ  2 .

 The direction cosines of a line joining the points

A  x1 , y1 , z1  and B  x 2 , y2 , z 2  are given by
x 2  x1 y y z z
 ,  2 1 ,  2 1 ; where AB is the
AB AB AB
distance between the points A and B i.e.,

AB   x 2  x1    y2  y1    z 2  z1 
2 2 2
.

 In order to obtain the d.c.’s of a line which does not

pass through the origin, we draw a line through the
origin and parallel to the given line. As parallel lines
have same set of the d.c.’s, so the d.c.’s of given line
can be obtained by taking the d.c.’s of the parallel
line through origin. Fig.1

 In a unit vector, the coefficient of ˆi, ˆj, kˆ are called d.c.’s. For example in
â  l ˆi  m ˆj  n kˆ The d.c.’s are l , m, n .
 Direction Ratios of a Line
Any three numbers a, b, c (say) which are proportional to d.c.’s i.e., l , m, n of a line are
called the direction ratios (d.r.’s) of the line. Thus, a  λ l , b  λ m, c  λ n for any
λ  R  {0} .
l m n 1
Consider,    (say)
a b c λ
a b c
 l , m , n
λ λ λ

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 2 2 2
a  b c
       1  Using l 2  m2  n 2  1
λ λ λ
 λ   a 2  b2  c2
a b c
Therefore, l   , m , n .
a b c
2 2 2
a b c
2 2 2
a  b2  c2
2

 The d.r.’s of a line joining the points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) are given by
x 2  x1 , y 2  y1 , z 2  z1 or x1  x 2 , y1  y2 , z1  z 2 .

 Direction ratios are sometimes called as Direction Numbers as well.

 For a line if a, b, c are its d.r.’s then, ka, kb, kc ; k  0 is also a set of its d.r.’s. So for
a line, there are infinitely many sets of the direction ratios.

 Relation between the direction cosines of a line

Consider a line L with d.c’s l , m, n . Draw a line passing through the origin and
P(x, y, z) and parallel to the given line L. From P, draw a perpendicular PA on the X-
axis.
Suppose OP  r . (See Fig.2).

OA x
Now in OAP we have, cos α    x lr.
OP r

Similarly, we can obtain y  m r and z  n r .

Therefore, x 2  y 2  z 2  r 2 (l 2  m 2  n 2 ) .

But we know that x 2  y 2  z 2  r 2 .

Hence, l  m  n  1 .
2 2 2 Fig.2

 Equation of a line in space passing through a given point and parallel to a

given vector
Consider the line L is passing through the given point A  x1 ,y1 ,z1  with the position vector

a , b is the given vector with d.r.’s a, b, c . Let r is the position vector of any arbitrary
point P(x, y, z) on the line. See Fig.3. Thus OA  a  x1ˆi  y1ˆj  z1k,
ˆ

OP  r  xiˆ  yjˆ  zk,

ˆ b  aiˆ  bjˆ  ckˆ .

a) Vector equation of a line : As the line L is

parallel to given vector b and points A and P are
lying on the line so, AP is parallel to the vector b .
 AP  λb, where   R i.e., set of real nos.
 r  a  b
Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory documentr  aand
b it
. has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulaeThis
etcisthe vector equation
By JDof line.
 Fig.3

b) Parametric equations : If d.r.’s of the line are a, b, c then by using r  a  b we

get,
xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ  x1ˆi  y1ˆj  z1kˆ   (aˆi  bˆj  ck)
ˆ .

Now, as we equate the coefficients of ˆi, ˆj, kˆ we get the Parametric equations of
line given as,
x  x1  a, y  y1  b, z  z1  c .
 Coordinates of any point on the line considered here are
( x1  a, y1  b, z1  c) .
c) Cartesian equation of a line : If we eliminate the parameter  from the Parametric
equations of a line, we get the Cartesian equation of line as
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
  .
a b c
 If l , m, n are the d.c.’s of the line then, Cartesian equation of line becomes
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
  .
l m n
 The Cartesian equation of line is also called the symmetrical equation or one
point form of line. In the symmetrical form the coefficient of x, y, z are unity i.e.,
1.
 Note that b is parallel to the line L. So they both have the same d.r.’s.

 Equation of a Line passing through two given points

Consider the two given points as A  x1 , y1 , z1  and B  x 2 , y 2 , z 2  with position vectors a

and b respectively. Also assume r as the position vector of any arbitrary point
P  x, y, z  on the line L passing through A and B. See Fig.4.

Thus OA  a  x1ˆi  y1ˆj  z1k,

ˆ

OB  b  x 2ˆi  y2ˆj  z 2 kˆ and,

OP  r  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ .

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Fig.4

a) Vector equation of a line : Since the points A, B and P all lie on the same line
which means they are all collinear points.
Further it means, AP  r  a and AB  b  a are collinear vectors, i.e.,
AP  λ AB
 r  a   (b  a)
 r  a   (b  a) where   R .
This is the vector equation of line.
b) Cartesian equation of a line : By using the vector equation of the line
r  a   (b  a) we get,
xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ  x1ˆi  y1ˆj  z1kˆ   [(x 2  x1 )ˆi  (y 2  y1 )ˆj  (z 2  z1 ) kˆ ]
On equating the coefficients of ˆi, ˆj, kˆ we get,
x  x1   (x 2  x1 ), y  y1   ( y2  y1 ), z  z1   (z 2  z1 ) …(i)
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
On eliminating λ we have,   .
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1
This is the Cartesian equation of line.
c) Parametric equations : By using (i), we get
x  x1   ( x 2  x1 ), y  y1   (y 2  y1 ), z  z1   (z 2  z1 ) .
These are called the Parametric equations of line.

 Angle between two Lines☼

a) When d.r.’s or d.c.’s of the two lines are given :
Consider two lines L1 and L 2 with d.r.’s as a1 , b1 , c1 and a 2 , b 2 , c 2 ; d.c.’s as l1 , m1 , n1
and l2 ,

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 m2 , n 2 .
Consider b1  a1ˆi  b1ˆj  c1kˆ and b2  a 2ˆi  b2ˆj  c2 kˆ . These vectors b1 and b 2 are
parallel to the given lines L1 and L 2 .
So in order to find the angle between the Lines L1 and L 2 , we need to get the angle
between the vectors b1 and b 2 . Consider the Fig.5.

Fig.5

So the acute angle θ between the vectors b1 and b 2 (and hence, lines L1 and L 2 )

can be obtained as, b1.b 2  b1 b 2 cos θ

a1a 2  b1b 2  c1c2

That is, cos θ  .
a12  b12  c12 a 2 2  b 2 2  c2 2

 Also, in terms of d.c.’s : cosθ  l1l2  m1m2  n1n 2 .

(a1b 2  a 2 b1 ) 2  (b1c 2  b 2c1 ) 2  (c1a 2  c 2a1 ) 2

Sine of angle is given as : sin θ 
a12  b12  c12 a 2 2  b 2 2  c 2 2
.

b) When vector equations of two lines are given :

Consider vector equations of lines L1 and L2 as r1  a1   b1 and r2  a 2  b2
respectively. Then, the acute angle θ between the two lines is given by the relation
b1 .b 2
cos θ  .
b1 b 2

c) When Cartesian equations of two lines are given :

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Consider the lines L1 and L 2 in Cartesian form as,
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x 2 y  y2 z  z2
L1 :   , L2 :   .
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
Then the acute angle θ between the lines L1 and L 2 can be obtained by,

a1a 2  b1b 2  c1c2

cos θ  .
a1  b12  c12 a 2 2  b 2 2  c2 2
2

 For two perpendicular lines : a1a2  b1b2  c1c2  0 .

Also, l1l2  m1m2  n1n2  0 .

a1 b1 c1
 For two parallel lines :   .
a2 b2 c2
l1 m1 n1
Also,   .
l2 m2 n2

 Shortest Distance between Two Lines

If two lines are in the same plane i.e. they are coplanar, they will intersect each other if
they are non-parallel. Hence shortest distance between them is zero. If the lines are
parallel then the shortest distance between them will be the perpendicular distance
between the lines i.e. the length of the perpendicular drawn from a point on one line onto
the other line. Adding to this discussion, in space, there are lines which are neither
intersecting nor parallel. In fact, such pair of lines are non-coplanar and are called the
skew lines.
 Skew lines: Two straight lines in space which are neither parallel nor intersecting are
known as the skew lines. They lie in different planes and are non-coplanar.
 Shortest Distance: There exists unique line perpendicular to each of the skew lines
L1 and L 2 , this line is known as line of shortest distance (S.D.).

a) Shortest distance between two Skew lines :

 When lines are in vector form :
Consider the two skew lines r1  a1   b1 and r2  a 2  b2 .
Assume that A and B are two points on the lines L1 and L 2 with position vectors
a 1 and a 2 respectively. Let us assume that the Shortest Distance between the two
lines is PQ  d .
See Fig.6.

Now PQ is perpendicular to both the lines L1 and L 2 .

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 That means PQ is perpendicular to both b1 and b 2 . But we know that b1  b 2 is
perpendicular to both b1 and b 2 . So, we can deduce that PQ is in the direction of

b1  b2 .

Let the unit vector in the direction of b1  b2 is n̂ .

b1  b 2
So, n̂  
b1  b 2

 PQ  PQ. nˆ
 b b 
 PQ   PQ  1 2 
 b1  b 2 
 

Fig.6
The shortest distance PQ is basically the projection of AB on PQ .
i.e., PQ  AB. nˆ
Then the S.D. between them is given as follow,
(b1  b 2 ).(a2  a1 )
PQ  d  units.
| b1  b 2 |
 When the lines are in Cartesian form :
Consider the two skew lines as,
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x 2 y  y2 z  z2
L1 :   and, L 2 :   .
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
Then the S.D. between them is given as follow

x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
d units.
(a1b 2  a 2b1 )2  (b1c 2  b 2c1 )2  (c1a 2  c 2a1 )2

b) Shortest distance between two parallel lines :

If the lines are parallel then they are coplanar i.e. they lie in the same plane.
Consider the two parallel lines as L1 : r  a1   b and L2 : r  a 2  b . Assume that A
and B are two points on the lines L1 and L 2 with position vectors a 1 and a 2

Draw BP  L1 .
Now BP represents the perpendicular
Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
distance between L1 and L 2 .
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD

In  APB , we have BP  ABsin θ ...(i)

 respectively. Also assume that the lines are parallel to b . Let AB makes angle ‘ θ ’
with the line L1 . So the angle between the AB and b will be ‘ π  θ ’. See Fig.7.

Fig.7

 AB  b  BP b [By (i)

AB  b
 BP  .
|b|
Assume that the Shortest Distance between the two parallel lines is BP  d .
Then the S.D. between them is given as follow,
| b  (a2  a1 ) |
d units.
|b|

| A P  AB |
Distance of a given point P from a Line passing through points A and B is .
| AB |
# To find the points A and B, replace λ by any real no. in the standard equation of line.

 Note that the S.D. between two parallel lines in the Cartesian form can be just
obtained by replacing a2  a1  ( x2  x1 )iˆ  ( y2  y1 ) ˆj  ( z2  z1 )kˆ and
b  aiˆ  bjˆ  ckˆ in the expression obtained above for the Vector form.
 Two lines r  a1  b1 and r  a2  b2 will intersect (and will be coplanar) if
and only if they satisfy the condition (a2  a1 ).(b1  b2 )  0 .

 Plane & its Equation in Various Forms

 Plane and its equation

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 A plane is a surface such that if any two points are taken on it, the line segment joining
them lies completely on the surface. Plane is symbolized by the Greek letter π .
a) Equation of plane in Normal unit vector form :
Consider a plane at distance d from the origin such that ON is the normal from the
origin to plane and n̂ is a unit vector along ON . Then ON  dnˆ if ON  d .
Consider r be the position vector of any arbitrary point P(x, y, z) on the plane.
See Fig.8 below.

Fig.8 Fig.9

 Vector form of the equation of plane : Since P lies on the plane so NP is

perpendicular to the vector ON . That implies, NP.ON  0 .
  r  dnˆ  .dnˆ  0
  r  dnˆ  .nˆ  0 [ d0
 r.nˆ  dn.n
ˆ ˆ 0
 r.nˆ  d ˆ ˆ 1
[ n.n
This is the vector equation of the plane.
 Cartesian form of the equation of plane : If l , m, n are d.c.’s of the normal
vector n̂ to the given plane. Then by using r.nˆ  d we get,
  
xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ . lˆi  mˆj  nkˆ  d
 lxm yn z  d.
This is the Cartesian equation of the plane.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
  Also if a, b, c are the d.r.’s of the normal n̂ to the plane then, the Cartesian
equation of plane becomes a x  b y  c z  d .

b) Equation of plane Perpendicular to a given vector and passing through a

given point : Assume that the plane passes through a point A  x1 , y1 , z1  with the
position vector a and is perpendicular to the vector m with d.r.’s as A, B, C
( m  Aiˆ  B ˆj  Ck)
ˆ .
Also consider P  x, y, z  as any arbitrary point on the plane with position vector as
r.
See Fig.9 above.
 Vector form of the equation of plane : As AP lies in the plane and m is
perpendicular to the plane. So AP is perpendicular to m .
 AP.m  0
  r  a  .m  0 .
This is the Vector equation of the plane.
 The above obtained equation of plane can also be expressed as : r.m  a.m
.
 Cartesian form of the equation of plane : As
AP   x  x1  ˆi   y  y1  ˆj   z  z1  kˆ , so by using  r  a  .m  0 we get,

 
 x  x1  ˆi   y  y1  ˆj   z  z1  kˆ  . Aiˆ  B ˆj  Ckˆ  0
 
 A  x  x1   B  y  y1   C  z  z1   0 .
This is the Cartesian equation of the plane.
c) Equation of plane passing through three non- collinear points :
Assume that the plane contains three non-collinear points R(x1 , y1 , z1 ) ,
S(x 2 , y2 , z 2 ) and T(x 3 , y3 , z3 ) with the position vectors as a , b and c
respectively. Let P(x, y, z) be any arbitrary point in the plane whose position
vector is r .
 Vector form of the equation of plane : As RS and RT are in the required
plane, so RS  RT  m ( say ) will be perpendicular to the plane containing the
points R, S and T.
Also, since r is position vector of P which lies in the plane, therefore RP  m .
See Fig.10.
 RP.m  0

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
   r  a  .  RS  RT   0 [ m  RS  RT

  r  a  . (b  a)  (c  a)  0 .
This is the Vector equation of the plane.

 Cartesian form of the equation of plane :

Fig.10
The position vector of RP , RS and RT is given as, Fig.11

   
RP  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ  x1ˆi  y1ˆj  z1kˆ   x  x1  ˆi   y  y1  ˆj   z  z1  k,
ˆ

RS   x ˆi  y ˆj  z kˆ    x ˆi  y ˆj  z kˆ    x
2 2 2 1 1 1 2  x1  ˆi   y 2  y1  ˆj   z 2  z1  k,
ˆ

   
RT  x 3ˆi  y3ˆj  z 3 kˆ  x1ˆi  y1ˆj  z1kˆ   x 3  x1  ˆi   y3  y1  ˆj   z 3  z1  kˆ .
Substituting these in the above obtained vector equation of plane, we get

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1  0 .
x 3  x1 y 3  y1 z 3  z1
This is the Cartesian equation of the plane.
d) Intercept form of the equation of plane :
Consider the equation of plane Ax  By  Cz  D  0, D  0 and the plane makes
intercepts a, b, c on x, y, z - axes respectively. This implies that the plane meets
x, y, z -axes at (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0), (0, 0, c) respectively. See Fig.11.
D
Therefore, A.a + B.0 + C.0 + D  0 A ,
a
D
A.0 + B.b + C.0 + D  0  B   and,
b
D
A.0 + B.0 + C.c + D  0 C .
c

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 x y z
Substituting these values in Ax  By  Cz  D  0, , we get :    1.
a b c
This is the equation of plane in intercept form.

Equation of XY-plane : z  0,
Equation of YZ-plane : x  0,
Equation of ZX-plane : y  0.

 Other Related Aspects of Planes

 Equation of plane passing through the intersection of two given planes
The intersection of two planes say π1 and π 2 is always a straight line.
For instance, we can visualize the intersection of xy-plane and ZX-plane to form x-axis.
a) Vector equation of the plane :
Consider two planes 1 : r.m1  d1 and
2 : r.m 2  d 2 . So if h is the position
vector of any arbitrary point on the line
of intersection of π1 and π 2 then, it must
satisfy both the equations of planes i.e.,
h.m1  d1 and h.m2  d 2
 h.m1  d1  0 and h.m2  d 2  0 . Fig.12
Therefore for all  R (set of all real nos.), we get
 h.m  d     h.m
1 1 2 
 d2  0

 h.  m1  m 2   d1  d 2

As the obtained equation is of the form r.m  d

(Note that in r.m  d , d is not the perpendicular distance of plane from the origin.
Rather d is perpendicular distance from the origin in r.nˆ  d .)

So, it represents a plane π 3 (say).

Hence, the required plane is : r.(m1  m 2 )  d1  d 2 .
This is the Vector equation of plane.
b) Cartesian equation of the plane :
Assume m1  A1ˆi  B1ˆj  C1k,
ˆ m  A ˆi  B ˆj  C kˆ and r  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ .
2 2 2 2

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Then by using r .  m1   m2   d1   d 2 , we get

x  A1   A2   y  B1   B2   z  C1   C2   d1  d 2
  A1x  B1y  C1z  d1     A2x  B2y  C2z  d2   0 .
This is the Cartesian equation of plane.
(You can visualize the situation discussed here in the Fig.12).

 Co-planarity of two Lines

Assume the given lines are L1 : r  a1  b1 and L 2 : r  a 2  b 2 such that L1 passes

through A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) with position vector a 1 and is parallel to b1 with d.r.’s a1 , b1 , c1 .

Also L 2 passes through B(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) with position vector a 2 and is parallel to b 2 with
the d.r.’s a 2 , b 2 , c 2 .

a) Vector form of co-planarity of lines :

We know AB  a 2  a1 . Now the lines L1 and L 2 are coplanar iff AB is
perpendicular to b1  b2 .
That implies, AB.(b1  b2 )  0

 (a2  a1 ).(b1  b2 )  0 .
b) Cartesian form of co-planarity of lines :
We know that AB   x 2  x1  ˆi   y 2  y1  ˆj   z 2  z1  kˆ , b1  a1ˆi  b1ˆj  c1kˆ and

b2  a 2ˆi  b2ˆj  c2 kˆ .
So by using (a 2  a1 ).(b1  b2 )  0 , we get
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1
a1 b1 c1  0.
a2 b2 c2

 Note that only coplanar lines can intersect each other in the plane they exist.

 Angle between two planes☼

The angle between two planes is the angle between their normals m1 and m 2 (say).
Therefore if θ is the angle between the planes π1 and π 2 then 180  θ is also the angle
o

between the two planes.

Though we shall be taking acute angle θ only as the angle between two planes.
Observe the Fig.13.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 a) Vector form for the angle between two planes :
Consider the planes 1 : r.m1  d1 and 2 : r.m 2  d 2 . If θ is the angle between the
normals to the plane drawn from some common point. Then,
| m1.m 2 |
cos θ  (Using dot product of
m1 m2
vectors
 | m .m | 
 θ  cos 1  1 2  .
 m1 m 2 
b) Cartesian form for the angle between two planes :
Assume the planes, A1x  B1 y  C1z  D1  0 and A 2 x  B2 y  C2 z  D 2  0 where
A1 , B1 , C1 and A 2 , B2 , C2 are the d.r.’s of normals (to the planes) m1 and m 2
respectively.
A1A 2 + B1B2 + C1C 2
Then, cos θ 
A1 + B12 + C12 A 2 2 + B2 2 + C 2 2
2

A1 A 2 + B1B 2 + C1C2
 θ  cos 1 .
A1 + B12 + C12 A 2 2 + B 2 2 + C2 2
2

A1 B1 C1
 For the parallel planes, we have:   .
A2 B2 C 2
 For the perpendicular planes, we have: A1 A2  B1 B2  C1C2  0 .

 Distance of a point from a plane

a) Vector form for the distance of a point from a plane :
Let  : r.m  d be the plane and P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) be the
point with position vector a . Let PA be the length of
perpendicular on the plane. See Fig.14. Since line
PA passes through P (a) and is parallel to the m
which is normal to the plane.

So the vector equation of the line PA is Fig.14

r  a  m ...(i)

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Since A is point of intersection of line (i) and the given plane. So we have,
 a  m  .m  d
d  a.m
  2
m
Putting the value of λ in (i), we get the position vector of A given as follow,
 d  a.m 
r  a  m
 m2 
 
Since PA  OA  OP

 PA  r  a
 d  a.m 
 PA  a   ma
 m2 
 
 d  a.m 
 PA   m
 m2 
 
 d  a.m 
 PA  PA   m
 m2 
 
d  a.m
 PA  2
m
m
d  a.m
 PA 
m
Hence, length of the perpendicular PA  p ( say ) from a point having position
vector a to the plane r.m  d is given by

d  a.m
p units.
m

b) Cartesian form for the distance of a point from a plane : Let A, B, C be the
d  a.m
d.r.’s of the normal m to the given plane. So by using the relation p  we
m
can obtain,
Ax1  By 1  Cz 1  d
p units.
A 2  B 2  C2

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
  If ‘d’ is the distance from the origin and l, m, n are the d.c.’s of the normal vector
to the plane through origin, then the coordinates of the foot of perpendicular
is ( l d, m d, n d) .

c) Distance between two parallel planes : Assume the two planes as,
r . m  d1 i.e., Ax  By  Cz  D1  0 and r . m  d 2 i.e., Ax  By  Cz  D2  0 .
Then the distance p (say) between them is given as

d1  d 2
(i) Vector form : p  units.
m

D1  D2
(ii) Cartesian form : p  units.
A 2  B 2  C2
 Angle between a line and a plane☼
The angle between a line and a plane is complementary to the angle between the line
and normal to the plane. Let θ is the angle between b (which is parallel to the line) and
normal m of the plane. This implies that 90  θ is the angle between the line r  a  b
and plane r.m  d .
Consider the Fig.15.

b.m
Now the angle between b and m , cos θ  (By using dot product of
b m
vectors
So the angle  (say) between the line and plane is given as   90  θ i.e.,
sin   sin(90  θ)
 sin   cos θ

b.m
 sin  
b m

 b.m 
   sin  1 .
 b m 
 
This is the angle between line and a plane.
Fig.15

PROBABILITY

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Recapitulation
 Basics of Probability
Let S and E be the sample space and an event in an experiment respectively.
Number of favourable events n  E
Then, Probability  = .
Total number of elementary events n S
 Also as  ES
 n    n  E   n S
That is, 0  n  E   n  S

0 n  E  n  S
  
n  S n  S n  S
 0  P  E   1.
Hence, if P  E  denotes the probability of occurrence of an event E then, 0  P  E   1 and

P  E  = 1  P  E  such that P  E  denotes the probability of non-occurrence of the event E.

  
Note that P E can also be represented as P  E  .

 Mutually Exclusive or Disjoint Events

Two events A and B are said to be mutually exclusive if occurrence of one prevents the
occurrence of the other i.e., they can’t occur simultaneously.
In this case, events A and B are disjoint i.e., A  B   .
 If A and B are mutually exclusive events then we always have,
P  A  B  0
As n  A  B  n()  0
 P  A  B  P  A   P  B .
 If A, B and C are mutually exclusive events then we always have,
P  A  B  C   P  A   P  B  P  C  .

 Independent Events
Two events are independent if the occurrence of one does not affect the occurrence of the
other.
 For independent events A and B, we have P  A  B   P  A  .P  B  .
 For independent events A, B and C, we have
P  A  B  C   P  A  .P  B  .P  C  .

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
     
Also we have for independent events A and B, P  A  B   1  P A .P B .

 For the independent events A and B we know, P  A  B   P  A  .P  B  , so

the conditional probability (discussed later in this chapter) of event A when
P A  B
B has already occurred is given as, P  A| B  
P B
P  A . P B
 P  A | B 
P B
 P  A | B  P  A .

 Exhaustive Events
Two or more events say A, B and C of an experiment are said to be exhaustive events if,
(a) their union is the total sample space i.e. A  B  C  S .
(b) the events A, B and C are disjoint in pairs i.e. A  B   , B  C   and C  A  
.
(c) P(A)  P (B)  P (C)  1 .

 Conditional Probability
By the conditional probability we mean the probability of occurrence of event A when B has
already occurred.
You should note that in case of occurrence of event A when B has already occurred, the
event B acts as the sample space and A  B acts as the favourable event.
The ‘conditional probability of occurrence of event A when B has already occurred’ is
sometimes also called as probability of occurrence of event A w.r.t. B.
P(A  B)
 P(A | B)  , B   i.e., P (B)  0
P (B)
P(A  B)
 P(B | A)  , A   i.e., P (A)  0
P (A)
P(A  B)
 P(A | B)  , P (B)  0
P(B)
P(A  B)
 P(A | B)  , P (B)  0
P(B)
P(A  B)
 P(A | B)  , P(B)  0
P(B)
 P(A | B)  P(A | B)  1, B   .

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 Useful formulae
(a) P  A  B  P  A   P  B  P  A  B
i.e. P  A or B  P  A   P  B  P  A and B
(b)
P(A  B  C)  P (A)  P (B)  P(C)  P(A  B)  P(B  C)  P(C  A)  P(A  B  C)
 
(c) P A  B  P  only B  P  B  A   P  B but not A   P  B  P  A  B

(d) P  A  B  P  only A   P  A  B  P  A but not B  P  A   P  A  B

(e) P  A  B  P  neither A nor B  1  P  A  B

n!
 n
Cr  , n Cr  n Cn r such that n  r
r!(n  r)!
 n!  n.(n  1).(n  2)...5.4.3.2.1 . Also, 0!  1.

 Events and Symbolic representations

Verbal description of the event Equivalent set notation
Event A A
Not A A or A
A or B (occurrence of atleast one of A and B ) A B or A B
A and B (simultaneous occurrence of both A and B ) A B or AB
A but not B ( A occurs but B does not) A  B or A  B
Neither A nor B AB
At least one of A, B or C A  BC
All the three of A, B and C A  BC
 Description of the Playing Cards
Total no. of playing cards : 52
Total no. of Red cards : 26
Total no. of Black cards : 26 (so, 26 + 26 = 52)
Four Suits are : Club, Spade (Both black); Heart, Diamond (Both red)
No. of cards in each suit : 13 (so, 13  4 = 52)
No. of Ace cards : 4 (2 Black & 2 Red)
Three Face cards are : Jack, Queen, King
No. of Face cards : 4 Jacks, 4 Queens, 4 Kings (so, total face cards : 4  3 = 12)
No. of Red coloured Face cards : 6 (Two from each of the faces)

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
 No. of Black coloured Face cards) : 6 (Two from each of the faces)
 Numbering on the cards is done from 2 to 10. Sometimes Ace is numbered as 1
but if so, then it will be mentioned in the question. (So, we have four cards with each of
the numbers from 2 to 10 from each of the four suits.)

 Total Probability Theorem

Let {E1, E2, ..., En} be a partition of the sample space S, and suppose that each of the events
E1, E2, ..., En has non-zero probability of occurrence. Let A be any event associated with S,
then
n
P(A)  P  E1  .P  A | E1   P  E 2  .P  A | E 2   ...  P  E n  .P  A | E n    P(E j ).P(A | E j ) .
j1

For example, P  A   P  E1  .P  A | E1   P  E 2  .P  A | E 2   P  E 3  .P  A | E 3  .

 Bayes’ Theorem
If E1 , E 2 , E3 ,..., E n are n non- empty events constituting a partition of sample spaces S i.e.,
E1 , E 2 , E3 , ..., E n are pair wise disjoint and E1  E 2  E3  ...  E n  S and A is any event of
non-zero probability then,
P  Ei  . P  A | E i 
P  Ei | A   , i  1, 2,3,..., n .
 P  E . P A | E 
n

j j
j 1

P  E1  . P  A | E1 
For example, P  E1|A   .
P  E1  . P  A | E1   P  E 2  . P  A | E 2   P  E3  . P  A | E3 

 Bayes’ Theorem is also known as the Formula for the Probability of Causes.

 If E1 , E 2 , E3 ,..., E n form a partition of S and A be any event then,

P (A)  P(E1 ).P(A | E1 )  P(E 2 ).P(A | E 2 )  ...  P(E n ).P(A | E n )
 P(Ei  A)  P(Ei ).P(A|Ei )

 The probabilities P(E1 ), P(E 2 ),..., P(E n ) which are known before the
experiment takes place are called priori probabilities and P(A | E n ) are called
posteriori probabilities.
 Probability Distribution
 Random Variable
A random variable is a real valued function defined over the sample space of an experiment.
In other words, a random variable is a real-valued function whose domain is the sample space

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
of a random experiment. A random variable is usually denoted by upper case letters X, Y, Z
etc.
 Discrete random variable: It is a random variable which can take only finite or
countably infinite number of values.
 Continuous random variable: It is a random variable which can take any value
between two given limits is called a continuous random variable.

 Probability Distribution of a Random Variable

If the values of a random variable together with the corresponding probabilities are given,
then this description is called a probability distribution of the random variable.
n ☼
Mean or Expectation of a random variable X  E(X)    x
i 1
i Pi
n
Variance  (  ) 
2
P x
i 1
i i
2
 2

Standard Deviation    Variance .

LINEAR PROGRAMMING JD
✅ Constraints
Constraints are the inequalities or equations in the variables of a linear programming problem
which describe the conditions under which the optimization is to be achieved.

✅ Objective function
A linear programming problem is one that is concerned with finding optimal value (maximum
or minimum) of a linear function of several variables (called objective function) subject to the
conditions that the variables are non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities (called
linear constraints). Variables are sometimes called decision variables and are non-negative.

✅ Feasible region
The common region determined by all the constraints including the non-negative constraints
x  0, y  0 of a linear programming problem is called the feasible region (or, solution
region) for the problem.

✅ Optimal solution
Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal value (maximum or minimum) of the
objective function is called an optimal solution.

✅ Theorem 1 : Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) for a linear programming
problem and let Z  ax  by be the objective function. When Z has an optimal value
(maximum or minimum), where the variables x and y are subject to constraints described by

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
linear inequalities, this optimal value must occur at a corner point (vertex) of the feasible
region.

✅ Theorem 2 : Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem, and let
Z  ax  by be the objective function. If R is bounded, then the objective function Z has both
a maximum and a minimum value on R and each of these occurs at a corner point (vertex)
of R.
 If R is unbounded, then a maximum or a minimum value of the objective function
may
not exist. However, if it exists, it must occur at a corner point of R.
 If two corner points of the feasible region are both optimal solutions of the same type
i.e., both
produce the same maximum or minimum, then any point on the line segment joining
these two points is also an optimal solution of the same type.

Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD
Q’S FORMULA CLUSTER – is like a Nano-Theory document and it has been provided
for a quick recap of important points, formulae etc  By JD