materials

Article
Effects of Different Pre-Heating Welding Methods on the
Temperature Field, Residual Stress and Deformation of a Q345C
Steel Butt-Welded Joint
Jie Yuan 1 , Hongchao Ji 1,2, * , Yingzhuo Zhong 3 , Guofa Cui 4 , Linglong Xu 3 and Xiuli Wang 2

1 College of Mechanical Engineering, North China University of Science and Technology,

Tangshan 063210, China; [email protected]
2 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310030, China;
[email protected]
3 China MCC 22 Group Corporation Limited, Tangshan 063035, China; [email protected] (Y.Z.);
[email protected] (L.X.)
4 Tangshan Longquan Machinery Co., Ltd., Tangshan 063300, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected]; Tel.: +86-0315-8805-440

Abstract: Heavy plate welding has been widely used in the construction of large projects and
structures, in which the residual stress and deformation caused by the welding process are the key
problems to address to reduce the stability and safety of the whole structure. Strengthening before
welding is an important method to reduce the temperature gradient, control the residual stress
and reduce the deformation of welds. Based on the ABAQUS software, the thermal elastoplastic
finite element method (FEM) was used to simulate the welding thermal cycle, residual stress and
deformation of low-alloy, high-strength steel joints. Based on the finite element simulation, the
influences of flame heating and ceramic heating on the temperature field, residual stress distribution
and deformation of a Q345C steel butt-welded joint were studied. The results showed that the
thermal cycle of the ceramic sheet before welding had little influence on the whole weldment, but
had great influence on the residual stress of the weldment. The results show that the maximum
temperature and residual stress of the welded parts are obviously weakened under the heating of
ceramic pieces, and the residual stress of the selected feature points is reduced by 5.88%, and the
Citation: Yuan, J.; Ji, H.; Zhong, Y.;
maximum temperature of the thermal cycle curve is reduced by 22.67%. At the same time, it was
Cui, G.; Xu, L.; Wang, X. Effects of
concluded that the weld shapes of the two were basically the same, but the weld seams heated by
Different Pre-Heating Welding
Methods on the Temperature Field,
ceramic pieces had a better weld quality and microstructures through comparing the macro- and
Residual Stress and Deformation of a micro-structures between the welded parts heated by ceramic pieces and the simulated weld. Heating
Q345C Steel Butt-Welded Joint. before welding, therefore, is an effective method to obtain a high weld quality with less residual
Materials 2023, 16, 4782. https:// stress and deformation.
doi.org/10.3390/ma16134782
Keywords: ceramic heating; flame heating; butt welding; residual stress; finite element simulation
Academic Editor: Cosmin Codrean

Received: 14 June 2023

Revised: 27 June 2023
Accepted: 30 June 2023 1. Introduction
Published: 2 July 2023
Q345-series steel accounts for the largest proportion in the output of thick plate facto-
ries and covers the largest range of varieties and specifications. Under the new equipment
conditions, it is a technical problem that most thick plate enterprises are concerned with
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
maximizing the potential performance [1].In the construction and manufacturing of com-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. plex large-scale projects and structures, welding is the main assembly and connection
This article is an open access article process [2].The strength of a welded joint determines the service quality and service life of
distributed under the terms and the whole structure. The magnitude and distribution of residual stress in the component
conditions of the Creative Commons or structure affects the subsequent machining and the life prediction and evaluation of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// structural reliability [3,4]. Excessive welding deformation will reduce the dimensional
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ accuracy of welding and increase additional stress [5]. It is an urgent task, therefore, to find
4.0/). a reasonable and effective way to reduce the residual stress and deformation.

Materials 2023, 16, 4782. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134782 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2023, 16, 4782 2 of 18

Due to the complexity of the welding process, more and more scholars have made use
of the possibility provided by modern software to conduct numerical simulations of the
welding and heat treatment processes. A numerical simulation is an effective tool to study
the welding process and to evaluate the mechanical properties of welded parts [6]. The
finite element analysis welding method is a powerful and reliable technique to observe
the temperature field and stress field in the welding process and to predict the residual
stress and deformation in a welding structure, which can directly show the performance
of a welded joint [7,8]. Yegaie et al. [9] used the finite element method to build a three-
dimensional heat engine model in order to predict the temperature and residual stress
distribution in the process of gas-shielded tungsten welding (GTAW) with a radiator. Ac-
cording to the experimental data, it was verified that the high temperature area was only
near the heat source, and low levels of longitudinal and transverse residual stress were
generated near the welding area. In order to find an effective optimization method for
welding deformation, Islam et al. [10] developed a numerical optimization framework
based on a coupled genetic algorithm (GA) and finite element analysis (FEA), and they per-
formed a classical weakly-coupled thermo-mechanical analysis using thermos-elastoplastic
assumptions to predict the deformation of numerical models. The results showed that the
proposed framework can significantly improve the quality of final welding products. Ai
et al. [11] built a 3D numerical simulation model to study the weld characteristics generated
in fiber laser keyhole welding. Based on the numerical simulation results, the evolution
of the weld contour features was demonstrated, and the results were used to estimate
the shape and size of the generated weld. Kik et al. [12] presented the calibration of the
numerical model for the multi-layer welding of X22CrMoV12-1 steel. The calibration of
the heat source model based on the actual geometric size and single pass shape allowed
the accurate determination of process parameters, and they obtained results that were
highly consistent with the actual welding tests. However, many research studies have only
focused on the simulation analysis of the single pass welding of a thin plate, while research
on the temperature field, stress field and post-welding deformation of a thick plate in the
multi-layer and multi-pass welding processes are relatively few.
Among the many factors affecting welding behavior, the structure of the pre-welding
member [13], parameters of welding [14], selection of a heat source [15], welding methods
and optimization [16] and the treatment method after welding [17,18], affect the quality
of welding, the service life of a component and the safe operation of it. These factors are
the guarantee of a high-performance weld and good mechanical properties [11,19,20]. In
addition to focusing on the change of the heat input conditions, the study also obtained
the microstructure through a pre-welding heat treatment, thereby obtaining a moderate
hardness and good weld to enhance the service life and reduce cracks [21]. Peng et al. [22]
studied the effect of a pre-welding heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical
properties of an electron beam-welding IN738LC superalloy. The results revealed that
the pre-welding heat treatment reduced the non-equilibrium segregation of boron during
the cooling process, and it inhibited the formation of a liquid film at the grain boundary
and liquefied cracking, thus improving the microhardness of the weld zone (WZ), and
affecting the microhardness of the base metal (BM) and the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
Panov et al. [23] studied the influence of a preheating and post-welding heat treatment
on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the laser-welded joints of a Ti alloy.
An increase in the preheating temperature led to an increase in the width of the WZ and
HAZ, and an increase in the porosity and gaseous element content (i.e., O and N), while
the microhardness of the joint was lower than that of the base material. Luo et al. [24]
studied the application of a preheating treatment in an aluminum alloy 5052 welding plan.
The experimental results showed that the contact resistance at the W/W (workpiece-to-
workpiece) faying interface after the preheating was very consistent and could be reduced
by two orders of magnitude. The uncertain variation in the contact resistance of the W/W
mapping surface was almost reduced or eliminated, and the quality of the spot welding in
terms of the peak load and nugget diameter was checked and showed great improvement.
Materials 2023, 16, 4782 3 of 18

In practical engineering, different types of thick plate members are usually welded
together to produce complex structures and efficient industrial requirements; therefore,
it is very important to predict and control the distribution of the thermal cycle curve and
residual stress in the welding process to improve the design rationality and safety of actual
engineering structures. In order to meet this requirement, this paper presents a new heating
method before welding—i.e., ceramic sheet heating. The ceramic electric heater uses the
heating element as the heat source when a workpiece is heated. The preheating method
is mainly composed of a temperature control box, a caterpillar heater and a temperature
measuring instrument. It can be widely used in the local heat treatment of various alloy
steel-welded structures. The ceramic heating device changes the defects of the traditional
process such as an unstable quality, high energy consumption and poor working conditions.
The secondary development of the MIG welding process was carried out by the ABAQUS
software. Three-dimensional modeling and pre-welding strengthening measures were
carried out on welds under low temperature conditions, and important parameters such as
an appropriate welding voltage, the welding current and welding speed were selected as
the fixed values within a certain range. The changes in the thermal cycle, residual stress
and deformation under two pre-welding heating methods were compared and analyzed,
so as to understand the detailed welding process, and obtain the best welding simulation
quality of the pre-welding heating method. The results of the simulation and welding test
were compared and analyzed to provide a reliable theoretical basis for further research.

2. Experiment
Q345 structural steel is a Chinese, standard, low-alloy, medium-tensile strength steel
produced by a hot rolling process. Due to its comprehensive mechanical properties and
welding properties, it has been widely used in railways, bridges, industrial plants, boil-
ers, pressure vessels, steel fuel tanks, power stations and other manufacturing structural
components. The main microstructures of the Q345C steel used in the test were ferrite and
pearlite, which has strong mechanical and fatigue properties such as strength, toughness
and weldability [25]. Its chemical composition is shown in Table 1. After a high-temperature
repeated cooling test [26], it was found that the Q345C steel had good mechanical proper-
ties when it was heated to 200–500 ◦ C and cooled to the ambient temperature; however,
with an increase in the circulating heating and cooling times and heating temperature, its
microstructure changed significantly and its mechanical properties decreased significantly.
The thick plate Q345C steel was welded under a traditional flame and ceramic plate heating,
respectively, to study the influence of different preheating methods on welding stress and
deformation. The ceramic heating device is shown in Figure 1. According to the heat
treatment workpiece, the required crawler ceramic electric heater was connected with
stainless steel wire (where the distance should not exceed the wall thickness), and then
covered on the heating workpiece, then the ceramic electric heater was tied with stainless
steel wire or a stainless steel belt. When welding the outside, the heater was arranged
inside the furnace body. When welding the inside, the heater was arranged outside.

Table 1. The chemical composition of Q345C steel.

C Mn Si S P Cr Mo V Cu Ni
Composition (%)
0.15 1.44 0.23 0.005 0.013 0.025 0.0077 0.031 0.016 0.0095

The ceramic heater has the following characteristics: (1) it has a high power density, can
be rapidly heated, and its heating speed is much greater than for induction heating. (2) It
has a small size, a simple and reasonable structure, and is light weight for light handling and
dismantling labor. (3) The number of ceramic electric heaters can be determined according to
the needs of a heat treatment work, and it is not bound by any conditions. (4) The ceramic
heater is directly covered on a heat treatment workpiece, and the outer layer is covered with
a layer of thermal insulation blanket (i.e., a needled blanket), which does not require any
 The thick plates under both preheating methods had the same geometric dimensions,
i.e., 300 mm × 300notmm require
× 25any
mm.material withsame
Under the a large capacity,
welding so that the
parameters, theheater’s heat loss is small, and
MIG welding
the effectonon
process was performed energy
the savingInisorder
two plates. significant.
to prevent lamellar tearing of the thick
The thick plates under
plate welding, gas-shielded welding was used for both preheating methods had the same geometric dimensions
the welding.
i.e., 300 mm × 300 mm × 25 mm. Under the same welding parameters, the MIG weldin
Materials 2023, 16, 4782 process was performed 4 ofof
18 the thic
Table 1. The chemical composition of Q345Con the two plates. In order to prevent lamellar tearing
steel.
plate welding, gas-shielded welding was used for the welding.
C Mn Si S P Cr Mo V Cu Ni
Composition (%)
material
Table 1.with
0.15 a large
1.44 capacity,
The chemical so thatof
0.23 0.005
composition the heater’s
0.013
Q345C0.025 heat
steel. loss is 0.031
0.0077 small, and the 0.0095
0.016 effect on energy
saving is significant.
C Mn Si S P Cr Mo V Cu Ni
Composition (%)
0.15 1.44 0.23 0.005 0.013 0.025 0.0077 0.031 0.016 0.0095

Figure 1. Ceramic heating-related

Figure device. (a) Temperature
1. Ceramic heating-related control box,
device. (a) Temperature (b) box,
control ceramic heating
(b) ceramic plate,plate, and
heating
and (c) ceramic heating construction.
(c) ceramic heating construction.

In order to Figure
make Thethe
1.thick plates
Ceramic
finite under simulation
element both preheating
heating-related device. methods
(a) had
Temperature
correspond to theactual
the same geometric
control dimensions,
box, (b) ceramic
welding con- heating plate
i.e.,
and 300
(c) mm ×
ceramic 300 mm
heating × 25 mm. Under
construction. the same welding
ditions of the butt-joint parts, the welded parts were prepared into tensile specimens to parameters, the MIG welding
process was performed on the two plates. In order to prevent lamellar tearing of the thick
study the mechanical properties and microstructures of the welded joints. For the prepa-
plate welding,
In ordergas-shielded
to two thewelding
maketensile finite was used
element for the welding.
simulation correspond to joints
the actual welding con
ration of the tensile In
specimens,
order to make the
specimens
finite element
obtained
simulation
from the welded
correspond to the actual
ofwelding
ditions
thick plates under of theheat
different butt-joint parts,
treatment the welded parts
conditions were prepared into tensile specimens t
conditions of the butt-joint parts, the weldedwere partscut
werewith a wireinto
prepared cutting
tensilema-
specimens
chine. According study the mechanical properties and microstructures of the welded joints. For the prepa
to to the the
study relevant standards,
mechanical the cross-sectional
properties and microstructures area ofof the
the sample
welded was 10 For the
joints.
ration of the
mm × 2 mm. In preparation
addition, the tensile
ofsample
specimens,
wasspecimens,
the tensile clamped twoto tensile
thetensile
two SANS specimens
Electronic
specimens
obtained
universal
obtained
from the
testing
from
welded joints o
the welded
thick
machine with ajoints
tensile plates
rate of
of thick under different
1 mm/min,
plates heat
as shown
under different treatment
heat in conditions
Figure conditions
treatment 2. were cut with a wire
were cut with a wire cuttingcutting ma
chine. According
machine. Accordingto tothe
the relevant standards,thethe
relevant standards, cross-sectional
cross-sectional areaarea
of theofsample
the sample
was was 1
mm
10 mm × 2×mm.2 mm. In In
addition,
addition, the sample
the samplewas wasclamped
clamped to to the
the SANS Electronicuniversal
SANS Electronic universal testin
testing
machine machine
with awith a tensile
tensile raterate
of 1ofmm/min,
1 mm/min, as shown
as shown ininFigure
Figure2.2.

Figure 2. Tensile test through clamping specimens.

At the same time, in order to analyze the changes in the mechanical properties and
Figure
microstructuresFigure 2.2.Tensile
of T-weldedTensile test
test through
through
joints clamping
clamping
under specimens.
specimens.
different welding currents or thermal inputs,
and to study the influence of welding defects on the mechanical properties in detail, some
At
Atthethesame
same time, in order
time, to analyze
in order to the changes
analyze theFor in the in
changes mechanical
the properties
mechanical and
properties and
measurements microstructures
and sample preparations were carried out. example, a sample for
of T-welded joints under different welding currents or thermal inputs,
microstructures
metallographicand
observation was of
cutT-welded
with joints under
a wire-cut machinedifferent awelding currents or thermal inputs
to study the influence of welding defects on the from jointproperties
mechanical perpendicular
in detail, some
and to study the influence of welding defects on the mechanical
measurements and sample preparations were carried out. For example, a sample for
properties in detail, som
measurementsobservation
metallographic and sample was preparations were
cut with a wire-cut carriedfrom
machine out.a joint
For perpendicular
example, a sample
to fo
metallographic
the welding direction observation was
and cold-set cutwiping
after with athe
wire-cut
sample.machine from and
After grinding a joint perpendicula
polishing,
the sample was etched in a nitric acid reagent for 5–10 s. Then, in order to clearly see
the distribution of the welding defects and the chemical composition of the materials, the
 to the welding direction and cold-set after wiping the sample. After grinding and polish-
ing, the sample was etched in a nitric acid reagent for 5–10 s. Then, in order to clearly see
the distribution of the welding defects and the chemical composition of the materials, the
Materials morphology
2023, 16, 4782 and microstructure of the obtained metallographic samples were analyzed5 of 18
by optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

morphology and microstructure of the obtained metallographic samples were analyzed by

3. Numerical Simulation Framework
optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
3.1. Characteristics of Materials
3. Numerical Simulation Framework
In the numerical simulation of the welding process, the temperature-dependent per-
3.1. Characteristics of Materials
formance parameters of different welding zones are required, which are related to the
In the numerical simulation of the welding process, the temperature-dependent per-
chemical composition. According
formance parametersto the reference
of different in [1]zones
welding and are
therequired,
materialwhich
property simu-
are related to the
lation software, JmatPro,
chemicalthe temperature-related
composition. According to theperformance parameters
reference in [1] wereproperty
and the material given, simula-
as
shown in Figure 3. tion
For software,
a welding JmatPro, the temperature-related
temperature field analysis,performance
the specificparameters were given, as
heat is important.
shown in Figure 3. For a welding temperature field analysis, the specific heat is important.
In addition, it is necessary to determine the thermodynamic properties of the stress field
In addition, it is necessary to determine the thermodynamic properties of the stress field
simulation, such assimulation,
via Poisson’s
such asratio and Young’s
via Poisson’s modulus.
ratio and Young’s modulus.

Figure 3. Temperature-dependent performance parameters

Figure 3. Temperature-dependent performanceof Q345C steels.
parameters of Q345C steels.

In order to meet the requirements of the working conditions of the welded sheet at
In order to meet
low the requirements
temperature, of the
the heating working
technology of aconditions
ceramic sheetofbefore
the welded
welding wassheet at
proposed.
low temperature, the
Theheating technology
experimental sample wasof aheated
ceramicto 100sheet before
◦ C before welding
welding andwas
was proposed.
then kept warm,
◦ C. In the analysis
The experimental sample
then, the was heated
welding to 100 °Cwith
was compared before welding
a traditional andheated
flame was to then
100 kept warm,
of the thermal cycle and stress field in the welding process,
then, the welding was compared with a traditional flame heated to 100 °C. In the analysis the model was simplified
accordingly, and the assumption was that: (1) the fluid flow in the molten pool was
of the thermal cycle and stress field in the welding process, the model was simplified ac-
Newtonian, incompressible, and a laminar flow; (2) all the molten pools and droplets
cordingly, and the were
assumption
symmetricwas withthat: (1) the
the weld fluid
center axis;flow in the
and (3) thearcmolten
axis inpool was Newto-
the welding process was
nian, incompressible, and while
straight; a laminar flow;in(2)
(4) changes theall the molten
physical pools
properties and
of the welddroplets werebysym-
metal caused mixing in
the center
metric with the weld weld pool were
axis; andnot(3)
considered.
the arc axis in the welding process was straight;
while (4) changes 3.2.
in the physical
Finite properties of the weld metal caused by mixing in the
Element Model
weld pool were not considered.
The butt joint was an X-type groove created with CO2 gas-shielded clean root welding,
and then, the front and back with MIG filling welding. As the plate was of a medium
3.2. Finite Element Model
thickness, it adopted three layers with three passes of welding. The welding process
parameters of each weld are shown in Table 2. Firstly, the root was cleared. The upper
The butt joint groove
was anopening
X-typeangle
groove created with CO2 gas-shielded clean root weld-
was 60◦ for the double-layer double-pass welding, and the lower
ing, and then, the front and
groove back angle
opening with was
MIG45filling welding.
◦ for the As single-pass
single-layer the plate was of a medium
welding. A 3D welding
thickness, it adopted three layers with three passes of welding. The welding process pa-
rameters of each weld are shown in Table 2. Firstly, the root was cleared. The upper groove
opening angle was 60° for the double-layer double-pass welding, and the lower groove
Materials 2023,16,
Materials2023, 16,4782
x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of 18
19

model
opening based
angleon a finite
was 45° forelement analysis single-pass
the single-layer was established.
welding.Figure
A 3D4welding
shows the meshing
model based
and
on aboundary conditions
finite element analysisof was
the welded finiteFigure
established. element model,the
4 shows using C3D8R
meshing and hexahedral
boundary
elements
conditionsand of creating
the welded a fine mesh
finite near the
element WZ using
model, for more accurate
C3D8R results.elements
hexahedral During and
the
welding process, the welding parts and the heat source exchange heat
creating a fine mesh near the WZ for more accurate results. During the welding process,with the surrounding
medium
the welding through
partsheat-transfer
and the heat andsource
heat-radiation.
exchange The heatheat radiation
with around themedium
the surrounding molten
pool is dominant, and the convective heat-transfer away from the molten
through heat-transfer and heat-radiation. The heat radiation around the molten pool is pool is dominant.
The formulaand
dominant, forthe
calculating
convective theheat-transfer
heat flux lossaway
is [11]:
from the molten pool is dominant. The
formula for calculating the heat flux loss is [11]: h i
qs = hc ( Ts − T0 ) + εσ Ts4 − T04 (1)
𝑞 ℎ 𝑇 𝑇 𝜀𝜎 𝑇 𝑇 (1)
where:
where:qs —heat flux loss during welding;
h𝑞c —coefficient
—heat flux loss during
of heat welding;
transfer;
ℎ —coefficient of heat transfer;
Ts —the temperature of the welded part;
T𝑇0 —the temperature
—ambient of the welded part;
temperature;
𝑇 —ambient temperature;
ε—surface emissivity, and for the high-strength steel Q345C, it was assumed to be 0.09;
𝜀—surface emissivity,constant.
σ—Stefan–Boltzmann and for the high-strength steel Q345C, it was assumed to be
0.09;
Table 𝜎—Stefan–Boltzmann
2. Welding process parameters.
constant.
Based on a thermal simulation, the stress field can be calculated according to the ther-
Welding
moelastoplastic
Parameterstheory. The calculated
Unit temperature field is used as the thermal load to
calculate the stress field. Appropriate constraints must 1 2
be applied during a thermal3 simu-
lation. Theofboundary
Voltage welding conditionsVof the welding fixture 21 were completely
22 constrained,
23 and
theCurrent of welding
lower surface of the weldment A was constrained 110along the thickness
115 direction.120 Because
the Power
projectofwas
welding
carried out in aWtemperature retaining 1733 shed, the1898
default initial2070
ambient
Speed of welding mm/s 0.1
temperature was 5 °C.

Figure 4. Finite
Figure 4. Finite element
element model
model meshing
meshing and
and simulated
simulated measurement
measurementposition.
position.

Based on a thermal simulation, the stress field can be calculated according to the
Table 2. Welding process parameters.
thermoelastoplastic theory. The calculated temperature field is used as the thermal load
to calculate the stress field. Appropriate constraints mustWelding
be applied during a thermal
Parameters Unit
simulation. The boundary conditions of the 1welding fixture were 2 completely constrained,
3
and the lower surface
Voltage of welding of theVweldment was
21 constrained along
22 the thickness direction.
23
Because the project
Current of welding was carried
A out in a temperature
110 retaining
115 shed, the default
120 initial
ambient temperature was 5 ◦ C.
Power of welding W 1733 1898 2070
Speed of welding
3.3. Heat Source Model mm/s 0.1
By modeling the heat source, it was easy to determine the location of the heat field.
3.3. Heat Source Model
A double ellipsoidal heat source distribution function was used as the heat source load, and
By source
the heat modeling the heat source,
distribution model isitshown
was easy to determine
in Figure the location
5. The double of theheat
ellipsoidal heatsource
field.
A double ellipsoidal heat source distribution function was used as the heat source load,
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19

Materials 2023, 16, 4782 7 of 18

and the heat source distribution model is shown in Figure 5. The double ellipsoidal heat
source distribution model (i.e., Goldak heat source) is a heat source model improved by
Goldak on the basis of Gauss. The heat flow not only acts on the surface, but also has heat
distribution model (i.e., Goldak heat source) is a heat source model improved by Goldak
flow at a certain depth, namely, the volume heat source. Moreover, the heat flux is the
on the basis of Gauss. The heat flow not only acts on the surface, but also has heat flow at
Gaussian distribution in the width, length and depth directions. The influence of the arc
a certain depth, namely, the volume heat source. Moreover, the heat flux is the Gaussian
stiffness was taken into account in this model, in which the welding method with a large
distribution in the width, length and depth directions. The influence of the arc stiffness
arc impact is more accurate. In addition, if the depth of the molten pool is large, the change
was taken into account in this model, in which the welding method with a large arc impact
of the welding heat source in the depth direction needs to be considered, and the Goldak
is more accurate. In addition, if the depth of the molten pool is large, the change of the
model is usually used in this case. It is assumed that the heat flux distribution on the body
welding heat source in the depth direction needs to be considered, and the Goldak model is
conforms to the double ellipsoid distribution, which can be expressed by the following
usually used in this case. It is assumed that the heat flux distribution on the body conforms
formula [27]:
to the double ellipsoid distribution, which can be expressed by the following formula [27]:
6√3 𝑓 𝑄 x2 y2 z2
√
𝑞 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 6 3( f 1 Q) [−𝑒
3( + + )] ,𝑥 0 (2)
q1 ( x, y, z) = 𝑎 𝑏𝑐𝜋√ √e𝜋 a1 2 b2 c2 , x ≥ 0 (2)
a1 bcπ π
√
6√3 Q 𝑓 𝑄 3( x2 + y2 + z2 )]
𝑞q2 (𝑥, 𝑦,z𝑧) = 3( f√
x, y,
6 2 ) [−𝑒
e a1 2 b2 c2
, x < ,0𝑥 0 (3)
(3)
a2𝑎bcπ
𝑏𝑐𝜋π√𝜋

f 1𝑓+ f 2 𝑓
= 2.0 2.0 (4)
(4)
where:
where:
a𝑎1 ,, a𝑎2 ,,b,
b,c—the
c—theheat
heatsource
sourceshape
shapeparameter
parametermodel;
model;
Q—the effective power of the heat
Q—the effective power of the heat source; source;
f 1 ,, f𝑓2 —the
𝑓 —theratio
ratioof
ofthe
theheat
heatsource
sourcebetween
betweenthe
thefront
frontand
andthe
theback.
back.

Figure 5. Double ellipsoid

Figure 5. ellipsoid heat
heat source
source distribution
distribution model.
model.

4.
4. Results
Results and
and Analysis
Analysis
4.1. Thermal Cycle Curve Distribution
4.1. Thermal Cycle Curve Distribution
Figure 6 shows a thick plate Q345C steel welded under a conventional flame and
Figure 6 shows a thick plate Q345C steel welded under a conventional flame and
ceramic sheet heating. With the MIG welding process, both kinds of plates had a good weld
ceramic sheet
with a full heating. and
penetration Witha similar
the MIG welding
welding process,
width due both
to thekinds
same of plates parameters.
welding had a good
weld with a full penetration and a similar welding width due to the same
The macro-geometric and micro-structural characteristics of different welding zones welding param-
are
related to the welding thermal cycle. According to the microstructure, there are zones
eters. The macro-geometric and micro-structural characteristics of different welding three
are related
different to the
zones inwelding
the weldthermal cycle.
including theAccording
WZ, the HAZto theand
microstructure,
the BM [28,29]. there are three
There was
different zones in the weld including the WZ, the HAZ and the BM
no WZ before the welding began because the WZ is formed by the continuous melting[28,29]. There was no
WZ
of before wire.
welding the welding
With thebegan becauseofthe
movement theWZ is formed
welding by the continuous
heat source, the weldingmelting
began toof
welding wire. With the movement of the welding heat source, the
produce a WZ and the whole WZ was formed until the end of welding. The welding welding began to pro-
duce a WZ
process notand
onlythe whole WZ
changed the was formedcharacteristics
geometric until the end ofofwelding.
the weldedThe welding process
joints, but also
not only the
changed changed the geometric
metallurgical characteristics
and mechanical of the of
properties welded joints,
materials butdifferent
in the also changed the
welding
metallurgical
zones. Figureand mechanical
7 shows properties
the cross sectionofoutline
materials in the
of the different
weld. welding
The cross zones.
section of Fig-
the
ure 7 shows
welded jointthe
wascross section
divided intooutline of thezones,
two typical weld. The crossthe
namely, section
WZ andof the
thewelded joint was
HAZ. Through
divided into two typical zones, namely, the WZ and the HAZ. Through
measurements, the width of the top of the WZ obtained by the simulation in Figure 7a measurements,
and the experimental results in Figure 7b were 1.830 mm and 1.655 mm, respectively. The
comparison of the results in Figure 6 shows that the experimental weld morphology was
basically consistent with the simulated weld morphology.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19

the width of the top of the WZ obtained by the simulation in Figure 7a and the experi-
Materials 2023, 16, 4782 mental results in Figure 7b were 1.830 mm and 1.655 mm, respectively. The comparison
8 of 18
of the results in Figure 6 shows that the experimental weld morphology was basically
consistent with the simulated weld morphology.

Figure6.6. Welding
Figure Weldingresults
resultsof
ofQ345C
Q345Csteel
steelunder
undertwo
twoheating
heatingmethods.
methods.

Figure7.7. Temperature
Figure Temperaturefield
fieldof
ofthe
thewelding
weldingseam
seamof
ofceramic
ceramicsheet
sheetunder
underheating:
heating:(a)
(a)calculated
calculatedweld
weld
geometry; (b) test weld geometry.
geometry; (b) test weld geometry.

Inorder
In ordertotostudy
studythe theinfluence
influenceofof pre-welding
pre-welding heating
heating of aofceramic
a ceramic sheet
sheet andandflameflame
on
on the welding process, the two simulated welding parameters
the welding process, the two simulated welding parameters were in the same operation, were in the same opera-
tion, the
with with the welding
welding parameters
parameters shown shown in Table
in Table 2. Welding
2. Welding is a is a rapid
rapid heating
heating andand cool-
cooling
ing process.
process. In the
In the heating
heating stage,
stage, thethe metal
metal material
material quicklymelted,
quickly melted,and andafter
afterwelding
welding itit
quicklycooled.
quickly cooled. During
During thisthis process,
process, thethe material
materialwaswas first
first heated
heated andand expanded
expanded to to create
create
compressivestresses
compressive stressesin inthe
theweld
weldarea.
area. While
While during
during thethecooling
coolingphase,
phase,the
theweld
weldbegan
beganto to
contract to create tensile stresses. The welding thermal cycle directly
contract to create tensile stresses. The welding thermal cycle directly leads to the different leads to the different
mechanical properties
mechanical properties of of welds
welds in in different
different areas;
areas; therefore,
therefore, the themaximum
maximum temperature
temperature
distributionhelps
distribution helpstotodetermine
determinethe thegeometric
geometricboundary
boundaryofof each
each welding
welding area
area [30].
[30]. Figure
Figure 8
shows
8 shows thethe
3D 3Dfinite element
finite elementnumerical
numericalsimulation results
simulation of theof
results welding temperature
the welding under
temperature
two
underworking conditions
two working under under
conditions the same the scale
same when the welding
scale when time time
the welding was 468
wass468 (i.e., the
s (i.e.,
second weld).
the second According
weld). Accordingto thetopeak temperature
the peak in thein
temperature welding process
the welding in different
process areas,
in different
the cross
areas, thesection of the welded
cross section joint was
of the welded divided
joint into theinto
was divided three
thetypical areas described
three typical areas de-
above.
scribedFigure
above. 8Figure
shows8 shows
the symmetrical geometric
the symmetrical features
geometric of theofWZ
features theand
WZ HAZ
and HAZ on theon
upper surface
the upper of theofworkpiece
surface the workpiece alongalong
the welding direction.
the welding FigureFigure
direction. 8a shows the simulated
8a shows the sim-
temperature field under
ulated temperature field traditional flame heating,
under traditional and Figure
flame heating, 8b shows
and Figure the simulated
8b shows the simu-
welding temperature
lated welding field under
temperature ceramic
field under plate heating.
ceramic WhereWhere
plate heating. the liquid temperature
the liquid tempera- of
the WZ exceeded 1109 ◦ C, the temperature of the HAZ was between the phase transition
ture of the WZ exceeded 1109 °C, the temperature of the HAZ was between the phase
isotherm ◦ C) and the solution temperature (660 ◦ C). It could be seen that the size of
transition(1109
isotherm (1109 °C) and the solution temperature (660 °C). It could be seen that
the molten pool and the WZ obtained with the ceramic sheet heating welding was smaller
and the area of the HAZ was reduced compared with the traditional flame heating welding
method, which effectively improved the temperature gradient of the WZ.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19

the size of the molten pool and the WZ obtained with the ceramic sheet heating welding
Materials 2023, 16, 4782 was smaller and the area of the HAZ was reduced compared with the traditional 9 of 18 flame
the size of the molten pool and the WZ obtained with the ceramic sheet heating welding
heating
was welding
smaller and themethod, which
area of the effectively
HAZ improved
was reduced comparedthewith
temperature gradient
the traditional flame of the WZ
heating welding method, which effectively improved the temperature gradient of the WZ.

Figure 8. Numerical simulation results of the welding finite element temperature. (a) Conventional
Figure
Figure
flame 8.8.Numerical
Numerical
heating, simulation
and (b)simulation
ceramic results
results
sheet ofwelding
of the
heating. the welding
finite finite
elementelement temperature.
temperature. (a) Conventiona
(a) Conventional
flameheating,
flame heating,and
and(b)(b) ceramic
ceramic sheet
sheet heating.
heating.
In order to clarify the complex thermal cycle curve and stress-strain evolution mech-
In order to clarify the complex thermal cycle curve and stress-strain evolution mecha-
anism In order
in the to clarify
welding the the
process, complex thermal
historical cycle curve
temperature and stress-strain
data points of five pointsevolution
on and mech-
nism in the welding process, the historical temperature data points of five points on and
anism
near the in the
weld welding
were process,
extracted betweenthe historical
P0–P4 on L1, temperature
as shown in dataFigure
near the weld were extracted between P0–P4 on L1, as shown in Figure 4. The coordinates points
4. Theof five points on and
coordinates
ofofthe
thefive
near fivepoints
the weld were
wereP0
pointswere P0(150,
(150,25,
extracted 150),
150),P1
between
25, P1(160,
(160,25,
P0–P4 150),
25,on P2
L1,
150), as(170,
P2 shown
(170,25,
25,150),
in
150), P3P3(180,
Figure 4.25,
(180, 25,150),
The coordinates
150),
and
of P4
the (200,
five 25, 150).
points The
were point
P0 of
(150, P0
25, was located
150), P1 on
(160, the
25, weld,
150), and
P2
and P4 (200, 25, 150). The point of P0 was located on the weld, and points P1–P4 were points
(170, 25, P1–P4
150), were
P3 at 25, 150)
(180,
some
and
at somepoints
P4 (200, adjacent
points25, to the
150). The
adjacent weld
to the at
point a certain
weldofatP0 distance.
was located
a certain Figure 9
on Figure
distance. shows
the weld, the maximum
and the
9 shows points tem-
P1–P4 were at
maximum
perature
temperature reached by the
reached bynodes
thethe perpendicular
nodes perpendicularto the to weld during
the weld the welding
during process. It
some points adjacent to weld at a certain distance. Figure 9 the
showswelding
the process.
maximum tem-
was
It found
was foundthat the
that maximum
the maximum temperature
temperature significantly decreased
significantly decreasedin theinwelding
the process
welding pro-
perature reached by the nodes perpendicular to the weld during the welding process. It
and
cess the
and curve dropped
thethat
curve more gently,
dropped with awith
moretemperature
gently, smaller temperature
asignificantly
smaller gradient.
temperature It can be
gradient. It noted
can be process
wasthe
that found
ceramic the
sheet maximum
heating method will affect the maximum decreased
temperature inofthe
the welding
molten
noted that the ceramic sheet heating method will affect the maximum temperature of the
andand
pool thethe curve droppedfield more gently, with asource
smaller temperature gradient. Ittradi-
can be noted
molten pool temperature
and the temperature behind
fieldthe heatthe
behind heatwhen
sourcecomparing
when comparingit with the
it with the
that the
tional flame
traditional
ceramic
heating
flame
sheet heating
method.
heating method.
method will affect the maximum temperature of the molten
pool and the temperature field behind the heat source when comparing it with the tradi-
tional flame heating method.

Figure
Figure9.9.The
Thehighest temperature
highest reached
temperature during
reached welding.
during (a) Conventional
welding. flame
(a) Conventional heating,
flame and (b)
heating, and
ceramic sheet heating.
(b) ceramic sheet heating.

The temperature thermal cycle of three coordinate points from P0 to P4 is shown

Figure
in 9. The
Figure 10. highest
For the temperature reached
five measuring during
points welding. (a)
perpendicular to Conventional flame heating,
the welding direction, the and (b
ceramic sheet heating.
maximum temperature decreased with an increasing distance from the WZ. As the welding
heat source approached, the temperature at P0 increased rapidly. Although the molten
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

The temperature thermal cycle of three coordinate points from P0 to P4 is shown in

Materials 2023, 16, 4782 Figure 10. For the five measuring points perpendicular to the welding direction, the10max- of 18
imum temperature decreased with an increasing distance from the WZ. As the welding
heat source approached, the temperature at P0 increased rapidly. Although the molten
pool expanded
expandeddue dueto tothe
theincrease
increaseinintemperature,
temperature, compressive
compressive plastic strain
plastic appeared
strain appeared in
the welding
in the welding areaarea
duedueto thetorestriction of theofsurrounding
the restriction the surroundingbase metal. After the
base metal. heatthe
After source
heat
had passed
source had through P0, the temperature
passed through at the point
P0, the temperature dropped
at the rapidly, and
point dropped the welding
rapidly, and the
area solidified
welding and shrunk.
area solidified andDue to theDue
shrunk. metalto limitation
the metal around
limitation thearound
moltenthepool, the tensile
molten pool,
longitudinal plastic strainplastic
the tensile longitudinal was generated
strain was after cooling,after
generated which cancelled
cooling, out cancelled
which the compres- out
sive plastic strain plastic
the compressive during strain
the heating
during process [31]; therefore,
the heating process after
[31]; the laser heat
therefore, source
after had
the laser
passed through
heat source had P0, the longitudinal
passed through P0, the plastic strain decreased
longitudinal rapidly
plastic strain and reached
decreased rapidlya con-
and
reached
stant a constant
value. For P0,value.
whenFor theP0, when
heat the heat
source source
passed by passed
the point by through
the pointthethrough the two
two heating
heating methods
methods of a traditional
of a traditional flame and flame andsheet,
ceramic ceramic sheet,
there wasthere was andifference
an obvious obvious difference
between
between
the maximum the maximum
temperature temperature
of P0 in theof P0 in theof
process process of the three-welds
the three-welds welding.welding.
When the When
first
the first
weld wasweld was welded,
welded, the maximumthe maximum temperature
temperature under under traditional
traditional flame flame
heatingheating was
was 1500
1500 ◦ C, and the maximum temperature of the ceramic sheet heating was 1180 ◦ C, which
°C, and the maximum temperature of the ceramic sheet heating was 1180 °C, which de-
decreased
creased by by 21.33%.
21.33%. In the
In the process
process of the
of the second
second welding,
welding, the maximum
the maximum temperature
temperature of
of the
the heat source passing through the point under the two heating methods ◦
heat source passing through the point under the two heating methods waswas 750and
750 °C C and
580
◦ C, respectively, which decreased by 22.67%. The temperature variation trend of the
580respectively,
°C, which decreased by 22.67%. The temperature variation trend of the four
four points
points of P1of toP1P4toinP4
theinprocess
the process
of theofthree-pass
the three-pass welding
welding was similar
was similar to P0.to P0.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Heat
Heat cycle
cycle curve
curve of
of characteristic
characteristic points.
points. (a)
(a) Conventional
Conventional flame
flame heating,
heating, and
and (b)
(b) ceramic
ceramic
sheet heating.
sheet heating.

Residual Stress
4.2. Residual Stress Distribution
Distribution
Figure 11 shows the contours of the global, longitudinal and transverse
Figure transverse residual
stresses under
stresses underthethepre-welding
pre-weldingheating
heating
of of a conventional
a conventional flame
flame andand ceramic
ceramic sheet,sheet, re-
respec-
spectively.
tively. By comparison,
By comparison, it can it
becan be found
found that thethat the selection
selection of the pre-welding
of the pre-welding heating
heating method
method
has greathas great influence
influence on the distribution
on the distribution of the
of the overall overallstress,
residual residual stress, transverse
transverse and longi-
tudinal residual stress. Although the distribution of residual stress was similarwas
and longitudinal residual stress. Although the distribution of residual stress similar
in the two
in the two cases, the magnitude of the residual stress was very different. It can be seen
from Figure 11a that the equivalent residual stress near the weld of the weldment and the
whole sheet under the traditional flame heating was larger, and the maximum equivalent
residual stress was 464.8 MPa. The ceramic heating method changed this phenomenon and
Materials 2023, 16, 4782 11 of 18

reduced the area of the equivalent residual stress region. The maximum residual stress of
the welded specimens decreased significantly to 404.7 MPa, down by 12.93%. If the end
effect of the weld was ignored, the equivalent residual stress in the middle of the weld
was evenly distributed. Figure 11b shows the longitudinal residual stress distribution of
the welded parts heated by s traditional flame and ceramic sheet, which indicated that the
longitudinal stress of the weld and its vicinity was tensile stress. Because the filler wire
and the base metal underwent rapid heating and cooling during the welding process, the
tensile residual stress reached the yield strength of the base metal [32]. As the distance from
the weld increased, the tensile stress gradually became compressive stress [33]. Figure 11c
compares the transverse residual stress distribution of the two samples. The contour lines
in the figure show that the transverse residual stress had a similar distribution in both
cases. The transverse residual stress was high-tensile stress near the weld and WZ. With
the increase in the distance from the weld, the tensile stress decreased gradually, and the
transverse tensile stress weakened gradually. At the same time, the transverse residual
stress near the weld under the heating of the ceramic sheet became the compression stress
with a low value. It can be clearly compared from the above three figures that the residual
stress was obviously improved by heating the ceramic sheet. Compared with the transverse
residual stress, the longitudinal residual stress was more significantly affected by the two
pre-welding heating methods.
Figure 12 shows the longitudinal and transverse residual stresses of the butt weld cal-
culated by the finite element model along the direction perpendicular to the weld under the
two pre-welding heating conditions. It is obvious that the residual stress perpendicular to
the welding direction was symmetrically distributed along the weld center. For Figure 12a,
the longitudinal residual stress near the WZ and HAZ was tensile stress. The peak stress
under the conventional flame heating was about 270 MPa, while the peak stress under the
ceramic plate heating was about 400 MPa. Although the heating stress of the ceramic sheet
near the weld and HAZ was higher than that of the traditional flame, the longitudinal
residual stress was significantly reduced and evenly distributed in the area outside until
it gradually approached zero at the free surface of the end edge [34]. Figure 12b shows
the transverse residual stress perpendicular to the weld, which was almost uniformly
distributed along the X-axis, and the overall transverse residual stress was basically zero. It
can be clearly seen that the transverse residual stress after welding was obviously reduced
and distributed evenly with minimal fluctuation. In addition, the longitudinal residual
stress was much greater than the transverse residual stress, namely, about ten times greater
than the transverse residual stress, which may be the main cause of the plate buckling. The
longitudinal stress was basically tensile stress, which was due to strict constraints. Due to
strict constraints, the longitudinal stress had a high-tensile value near the weld and became
compressed away from the weld, and the transverse residual stress distribution was almost
constant relative to the longitudinal stress distribution. This made the longitudinal stress
basically a tensile stress [35]. It can be concluded that most of the stress in the sample was
mainly caused by the longitudinal stress and was mainly concentrated in the WZ.
The residual stress along the welding direction is shown in Figure 13. The longitudinal
stress of the two pre-welding methods was negative at the beginning and end of the weld,
indicating the existence of compressive residual stress, which gradually increased along
the length of the weld and became tensile. Within the range of 50~250 mm in the direction
of the weld, there was a stable high-tensile stress zone, in which the maximum longitudinal
residual stress reached 450 MPa, as shown in Figure 13a. As a result, the welded joint was
subjected to significant tensile stress and deformation along the length of the weld. As
shown in Figure 13b, the transverse residual stress along the weld was basically zero and
the stress value increased gradually away from the weld, indicating that a large tensile
stress had been generated due to the constraint effect of the edge. Compared with the
residual stress perpendicular to the weld direction, the residual stress along the weld
direction was less affected by the pre-welding heating method, but it still had a slightly
improved effect. It can be seen from the above analysis that, compared with the traditional
 Materials 2023, 16, 4782 12 of 18

flame, the heating method of the ceramic sheet had a significant weakening effect on the
residual stress of the weldment. Its tensile residual stress was significantly reduced, and
especially, the effect on the residual stress perpendicular to the weld direction was more
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW significant. The lower tensile residual stress reduced the risk of failure
12 under
of 19 a cyclic or
dynamic load [36].

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

the weld and became compressed away from the weld, and the transverse residual stress
distribution was almost constant relative to the longitudinal stress distribution. This made
the longitudinal stress basically a tensile stress [35]. It can be concluded that most of the
stress in
11.the samplestress
Residual was distribution
mainly caused afterby the longitudinal
welding. stress andstress,
was mainly concen-
Figure Figure
11. Residual stress distribution after welding. (a) Overall (a) Overall
residual residual
stress, (b) longitudinal
(b) longitudinal
trated
residual
residual
in
stress, and
the
stress,WZ.
and (c) transverse
(c) transverse residual stress.
residual stress.

Figure 12 shows the longitudinal and transverse residual stresses of the butt weld
calculated by the finite element model along the direction perpendicular to the weld under
the two pre-welding heating conditions. It is obvious that the residual stress perpendicu-
lar to the welding direction was symmetrically distributed along the weld center. For Fig-
ure 12a, the longitudinal residual stress near the WZ and HAZ was tensile stress. The peak
stress under the conventional flame heating was about 270 MPa, while the peak stress
under the ceramic plate heating was about 400 MPa. Although the heating stress of the
ceramic sheet near the weld and HAZ was higher than that of the traditional flame, the
longitudinal residual stress was significantly reduced and evenly distributed in the area
outside until it gradually approached zero at the free surface of the end edge [34]. Figure
12b shows the transverse residual stress perpendicular to the weld, which was almost uni-
formly distributed along the X-axis, and the overall transverse residual stress was basi-
cally zero. It can be clearly seen that the transverse residual stress after welding was obvi-
ously reduced and
Figure 12.
12. distributed
Residual stressevenly with minimal
distribution alongthe fluctuation.
thedirection
direction In addition, the
perpendicular longitu-
Figure Residual stress distribution along perpendicular to to
thethe weld.
weld. (a)(a) Longitudi-
Longitudinal
dinal residual stress was much greater than the transverse
nal residual stress, and (b) transverse residual stress. residual stress, namely, about
residual
ten times stress,
greater thanand
the(b) transverse
transverse residual
residual stress.which may be the main cause of the
stress,
plate buckling.
TheThe longitudinal
residual stress was
stress along the basically
welding tensile stress,
direction which was
is shown due to 13.
in Figure strict
The longitudi-
constraints. Due to strict constraints, the longitudinal stress had a
nal stress of the two pre-welding methods was negative at the beginninghigh-tensile value near
and end of the
weld, indicating the existence of compressive residual stress, which gradually increased
along the length of the weld and became tensile. Within the range of 50~250 mm in the
 along the weld direction was less affected by the pre-welding heating method, but it still
had a slightly improved effect. It can be seen from the above analysis that, compared with
the traditional flame, the heating method of the ceramic sheet had a significant weakening
effect on the residual stress of the weldment. Its tensile residual stress was significantly
reduced, and especially, the effect on the residual stress perpendicular to the weld direc-
Materials 2023, 16, 4782 13 of 18
tion was more significant. The lower tensile residual stress reduced the risk of failure un-
der a cyclic or dynamic load [36].

Figure
Figure 13.
13. Residual
Residualstress
stressdistribution
distributionalong
alongthe
thedirection
directionparallel
parallelto to
thethe
weld. (a) (a)
weld. Longitudinal re-
Longitudinal
sidual stress, and (b) transverse residual stress.
residual stress, and (b) transverse residual stress.

4.3. Deformation
Similarly, in order to analyze the influence of traditional flame and ceramic sheet
heating on welding deformation, the feature points as shown in Figure 4 were extracted
in directions perpendicular to the weld and parallel to the weld, respectively. Figure 14
describes the out-of-plane deformation curves of L1 and L2 lines under different cold
source distances (Case A is the traditional flame heating mode, and Case B is the ceramic
sheet heating mode). As can be seen from Figure 14, under these two conditions, the
maximum total post-welding deformation of the ceramic sheet heating was 1.782 mm,
which increased by 9.06% compared with the maximum welding deformation of 1.634 mm
under the traditional flame heating. Although the deformation on the weld increased in a
concentrated way, the total deformation at both ends of the weld surface had an obvious
decreasing trend and the regional distribution of the overall deformation also decreased
obviously, while the deformation after welding was improved. Generally speaking, the
smaller the binding force during welding, the smaller the welding displacement. Although
the binding force is the main cause of welding deformation, the bending deformation
caused by a temperature gradient in the thickness and width direction of a sample is a
necessary factor to cause buckling and to influence welding deformation [37]. In order
to clarify the cause of this phenomenon in detail, the displacement data perpendicular to
and along the welding direction (L1) in Figure 4 were extracted. As shown in Figure 15a,
the total deformation, and the Y-axis and Z-axis deformation curves perpendicular to the
weld direction were symmetrically distributed with the weld as the axis of symmetry. The
deformation near the weld was the largest, and the amount of deformation away from the
weld decreased gradually, which may be attributed to the temperature gradient. Relative
to the total deformation and the Z-axis deformation, the Y-axis deformation was almost
unchanged. Similarly, the welding deformation along the weld (L2) direction is shown
in Figure 15b, where the welding deformation varied in a certain proportion. The total
deformation parallel to the weld (L2) was significantly reduced when the ceramic sheet
was heated compared with the traditional flame welding, indicating that the pre-welding
heating method of the ceramic sheet can effectively reduce or mitigate welding buckling in
the welded joint.

4.4. Welding Results and Microstructure

According to the tensile results of the base metal and butt-welded joint in the experi-
mental description above, the yield strength and tensile strength are shown in Table 3. It
can be clearly seen from the ratio of the strength of the welded joint to the strength of BM
that the yield strength and tensile strength were significantly lower than that of the base
material. In order to better study the cause of this result and to analyze the difference of the
microstructure of the weld under two heat treatment methods, the metallography and mi-
 weld direction were symmetrically distributed with the weld as the axis of symmetry. The
deformation near the weld was the largest, and the amount of deformation away from the
weld decreased gradually, which may be attributed to the temperature gradient. Relative
to the total deformation and the Z-axis deformation, the Y-axis deformation was almost
unchanged. Similarly, the welding deformation along the weld (L2) direction is shown in
Materials 2023, 16, 4782 Figure 15b, where the welding deformation varied in a certain proportion. The total 14 of
de-18
formation parallel to the weld (L2) was significantly reduced when the ceramic sheet was
heated compared with the traditional flame welding, indicating that the pre-welding heat-
ing method of
crohardness ofthe
theceramic sheetjoint
butt-welded can effectively reduce
were measured, or the
and mitigate welding
changes in thebuckling in the
microstructure
welded joint.
and microhardness of the joint were analyzed.

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19

Figure 14. Distribution
Distributionof
ofdeformation
deformationafter
after welding.
welding. (a)(a) Conventional
Conventional flame
flame heating,
heating, and and (b) ce-
(b) ceramic
ramic sheet heating.
sheet heating.

Figure
Figure 15.
15. Welding
Welding deformation
deformation curves
curves under
under different
different heating
heating methods.
methods. (a)
(a) Perpendicular
Perpendicular to
to the
the
weld direction (L1), and (b) parallel to the weld direction (L2).
weld direction (L1), and (b) parallel to the weld direction (L2).

Table
4.4. 3. Mechanical
Welding Resultsproperties of the welded joint.
and Microstructure
According
Heat to the
Treatment tensile resultsYield
Method of the base metal
Strength (MPa)and butt-welded joint in the
Tensile Strength exper-
(MPa)
imental description above, the yield strength and tensile strength are shown in Table 3. It
Flame heating 503 523
can be clearly seen from the ratio of the strength of the welded joint to the strength of BM
Ceramic heating 542 569
that the yield BM strength and tensile strength 587were significantly lower than612 that of the base
material. In order to better study the cause of this result and to analyze the difference of
the microstructure of the weld under two heat treatment methods, the metallography and
The weld microstructure
microhardness and joint
of the butt-welded grainwere
boundary morphology
measured, of the WZ
and the changes inand HAZ under
the microstruc-
the different heat treatments are shown in Figure 16. A metallographic observation was
ture and microhardness of the joint were analyzed.
carried out using OM to obtain the microstructure characteristics of the BM to the WZ, as
shown
Table 3. in Figure 17.properties
Mechanical Combined with
of the the two
welded figures, it is clear that there were some welding
joint.
defects in the butt joint under the flame heat treatment mode, such as an incomplete fusion
Heat
defect and Treatment
a porosityMethod Yield
defect of the WZ Strength
and (MPa) defects
HAZ. Welding Tensile
have Strength (MPa) on
a great influence
the tensileFlame heating
strength, 503 which are important factors
especially porosity defects, 523 affecting the
tensile properties.
Ceramic heating 542 569
BM 587 612

The weld microstructure and grain boundary morphology of the WZ and HAZ under
the different heat treatments are shown in Figure 16. A metallographic observation was
carried out using OM to obtain the microstructure characteristics of the BM to the WZ, as
shown in Figure 17. Combined with the two figures, it is clear that there were some weld-
ing defects in the butt joint under the flame heat treatment mode, such as an incomplete
fusion defect and a porosity defect of the WZ and HAZ. Welding defects have a great
influence on the tensile strength, especially porosity defects, which are important factors
Materials 2023,
Materials 16, x4782
2023, 16, x FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 1615of
16 of 19
of 19
18

Figure
Figure 16.
16. Weld
Weldofofthe
theWZ
WZand HAZ
and under
HAZ SEM;
under (a,b)(a,b)
SEM; flame heating
flame mode;
heating (c,d) (c,d)
mode; ceramic sheet sheet
ceramic heat-
ing method.
heating method.

Figure
Figure 17.
17. Microstructure
Microstructure features of the
features of the WZ
WZ and
and HAZ;
HAZ; (a,b)
(a,b) flame
flame heating
heating mode;
mode; (c,d)
(c,d) ceramic
ceramic sheet
sheet
heating method.
heating method.

In
In Figure
Figure 17,17, due
due to the obvious
to the obvious porosity
porosity defect
defect in the WZ
in the WZ under
under flame
flame heating,
heating, oneone
of the reasons for this is that the yield strength and tensile strength
of the reasons for this is that the yield strength and tensile strength of the butt jointof the butt joint were
were
somewhat
somewhat lowerlower than
than that
that of
of the
the base
base material;
material; however,
however, the the weld
weld strength
strength after
after the
the heat
heat
treatment
treatment of ofthe
theceramic
ceramicsheet sheetwaswashigher
higher than
thanthat obtained
that obtained bybythethe
flame heating,
flame heating,andandno
obvious
no obviousporosity andand
porosity cracks werewere
cracks observed in the
observed in FZ
theorFZtheor weld edge.edge.
the weld Figure 17a,c17a,c
Figure rep-
resents the the
represents evolution of the
evolution of microstructure
the microstructure of theofwelded
the weldedjoint joint
from from
the HAZ to theto
the HAZ weld
the
center. It was composed of the BM, HAZ (i.e., a mixed zone of
weld center. It was composed of the BM, HAZ (i.e., a mixed zone of equiaxed dendrites equiaxed dendrites and
and equiaxed
equiaxed grainsgrains
withwith a coarse
a coarse rolling-aged
rolling-aged microstructure)
microstructure) and WZ.
and WZ. There There
werewere
somesomedif-
differences
ferences in the
in the microstructure
microstructure characteristics
characteristics of theof WZ
the and
WZ HAZ.
and HAZ.Due to Duethetolarge
the large
tem-
temperature
perature gradient
gradient near near the weld,
the weld, a clear
a clear columnar
columnar grain grain structure
structure could could be observed
be observed at the
boundary of the WZ,
at the boundary of thewhich made the
WZ, which grain
made thegrow
grainalong
growthe solidification
along front [38],
the solidification result-
front [38],
ing in different
resulting grain sizes.
in different grain In the HAZ
sizes. In thenear
HAZ thenear
center
theofcenter
the weld,
of thealthough the temper-
weld, although the
temperature
ature gradientgradient in the
in the weld weld decreased,
decreased, the temperature
the higher higher temperature
provided provided conditions
conditions for the
for the growth
growth of grain,of which
grain, which
made themade the ferritic
ferritic and pearlite
and pearlite of theofbase
the base
metalmetal
grow, grow,
whilewhile
the
the distance
distance narrowed.
narrowed.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this paper, the influence of two kinds of pre-welding heating methods of, namely, a
traditional flame and a ceramic sheet, on the thermal cycle, residual stress and deformation
Materials 2023, 16, 4782 16 of 18

after welding of a Q345C-steel, thick plate was studied by the finite element theory, which
can be used to improve the mechanical properties of the butt joint weld and improve
the structural strength and service life of a whole component. The effects of the different
heating methods on the welding evolution were studied by simulation and an experimental
verification was carried out. The main conclusions of this study are as follows:
(1) A new heating method before welding was proposed. The method used a ceramic
electric heater composed of heating elements as the heating source before welding.
Compared with the traditional flame heating method, this welding method is control-
lable, relatively safe and of low cost. The weld shape was basically the same as the
simulated weld shape and the quality was good.
(2) A three-layer and three-pass welding model of the thick plate weldment was es-
tablished. The results show that the experimental weld morphology was basically
consistent with the simulated weld morphology. It showed that although the pre-
welding heating method had little influence on the welding temperature field, the
maximum temperature of the node affected by the welding process was significantly
reduced, and the maximum temperature difference between the two at the same
characteristic point was 170 ◦ C. The heating mode of the ceramic sheet affected the
maximum temperature of the molten pool and the temperature field behind the heat
source, and it effectively improved the thermal cycle curve.
(3) The influence of the two heating methods on the reduction or even elimination of the
residual stress and deformation caused by welding was analyzed. The results show
that the ceramic heating had a significant weakening effect on the residual stress of
the welded parts, and especially, the effect on the residual stress perpendicular to the
weld direction was more significant, which decreased by 5.88%.
(4) The welding deformation under the heating mode of the ceramic plate was signifi-
cantly less than that under the traditional flame heating, and especially, the weakening
effect of the deformation parallel to the weld direction was more obvious. The maxi-
mum total post-welding deformation of the ceramic sheet after heating was 1.782 mm,
which was 9.06% higher than the maximum welding deformation of 1.634 mm under
the traditional flame heating.
(5) The microcosmic experiment showed that the ceramic heating method produced a
better strength and joint quality. In the flame heat treatment, the butt joint had some
welding defects, such as incomplete fusion defects, and WZ and HAZ porosity defects.
The weld strength of the ceramic sheet after the heat treatment was higher than that
after the flame heating, while there were no obvious pores and cracks in the weld
zone and weld edge, and it had a better tensile strength.

Author Contributions: J.Y.: Writing—original draft, review and editing, project administration and
conceptualization; H.J.: Writing—original draft, project administration and conceptualization; Y.Z.:
Review and editing and investigation; G.C.: Experimental conduct and review and editing; L.X.:
Experimental conduct, and review and editing; X.W.: Conceptualization and project administration.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51905501),
while this work is also supported by the Tangshan talent foundation innovation 514 team (A202202008)
and is funded by the S&P Program of Hebei (Grant No. 22281802Z).
Institutional Review Board Statement: The authors claim that there are no ethical issues involved
in this research.
Informed Consent Statement: All the authors consented to participate in this research and con-
tributed to the research.
Data Availability Statement: No data or materials are available for this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Materials 2023, 16, 4782 17 of 18

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Influence of welding parameter on mechanical properties and microstructural

features of resistance spot welded dual phase steel sheets joint

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Influence of welding parameter on mechanical properties and

microstructural features of resistance spot welded dual phase steel
sheets joint
P. Sivaraj a, M. Seeman a,⇑, D. Kanagarajan a, R. Seetharaman b
a
Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering, Anna University, Dindigul 624 622, Tamil Nadu, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Similar joints of DP600 (Dual Phase) steel in lap joint design were fabricated using resistance spot weld-
Received 20 July 2019 ing (RSW) method. The most influencing welding parameters of resistance spot welding are welding cur-
Received in revised form 14 August 2019 rent, welding time and electrode force. The mechanical properties evaluated through shear fracture test
Accepted 20 August 2019
in a universal tensile testing machine. Hardness measurement carried out different regions of the weld-
Available online xxxx
ment. The fusion zone microstructure was analyzed through the optical microscopy. In this study mainly
focused on varying the current level and remains constant other processes parameters while fabricating
Keywords:
lap joints of the RSW. From the results observed that while increasing current range the shear strength
DP600 steel
Resistance spot welding (RSW)
values have increased up to certain limit then it gets degrades. It also found that most of the failures in
Tensile shear fracture the nearer region of the fusion zone (FZ). This mainly due to straining distortion of Crystal lattice it
Microstructures weaken the nearer region of the fusion zone.
Fusion zone (FZ) Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Crystal lattice Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Materials Engineering and Characterization 2019.

1. Introduction the material for automotive application it’s always essential. Thus,
Dual phase steel having more attractive in the automotive industry
The recent times automotive industries to replace existing because of material performance superior compared to other
material with advanced new material to improving the safety of material the features like strength, toughness for crashworthiness,
the automotive component with nominal cost. Also, these new improving performance of the automotive body due to weight
materials improve the fuel efficiency of manufactured automobiles reduction [5].
through the low fuel consumption by improving the high strength In automotive assembly, the electrical resistance spot weld has
to weight ratio of material this improve the performance [1–3]. The major influencing in white body assembly portion. To improve the
implementation of new materials mainly to solve the existing reliability of the metal joining as well as necessary to improve the
issues of the material before prefer for fabrication. The dual phase joint integrity of the welding in chassis assembly application. Per-
steel is the category under the advance high strength steel formance of the automotive body is not only depended on materi-
(ADHSS), these strengthen behavior mostly due to material pro- als property. It’s also depends on metal joining processes and
cessing such as cold rolling in actual low carbon steels, which quality of the joint, which represents metallurgical deformation
induces the formation of martensite rich phase in the advanced on generated welding heat it assists the formation various complex
high strength steel. DP steel one of the categories in the ADHSS microstructure at a critical cooling rate than other welding pro-
steel metallurgically it adheres combination of ferrite and marten- cesses [6]. Ramazani et al. investigate metallurgical characteristics
site phase [3,4]. These DP steel having superior physical and and mechanical behavior of Gas metal arc welded dual phase steel
mechanical properties which is replace the High Strength Steel (DP600). They analyze variation heat affected zone microstructure
(HSS). This steel also followed good elongation and ductility of from bainite structure disturbed coarse grain ferrite and tempered
martensite structure. Also, they result in tensile test characteristics
⇑ Corresponding author. of dual phase dual achieved experimental and predicted flow curve
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Seeman).
was achieved [7]. Shen et al. states evaluation of tensile shear test

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.08.201
2214-7853/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Materials Engineering and Characterization 2019.

Please cite this article as: P. Sivaraj, M. Seeman, D. Kanagarajan et al., Influence of welding parameter on mechanical properties and microstructural fea-
tures of resistance spot welded dual phase steel sheets joint, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.08.201
2 P. Sivaraj et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

behavior of resistance spot welded dual phase steels. To find the

maximum load-carrying capacity of the weld spot strength cold
rolled DP steels. They also represent deformation mode on the
weld joint while occurring the crash event and describes the types
loading [8]. Infusion techniques of both laser and Arc processes
produced the acicular ferrite in the weld region in many advanced
high strength sheets of steel (ADHSS) such as DP 600, DP 780, DP
980, but weld failure mostly influences the softening of the heat
affected region even having the high-volume fracture of martensite
structure [9–11].
From literature found that researchers were attempted in vari-
ous advanced high strength steel category, but investigation
among the influencing process parameter was very limited. In this
study mainly focuses on the influence of welding current instead of
other process parameters. It would give attention to understand
the characteristics of the welding process parameter for electrical
resistance spot welding. The new materials evaluated for their Fig. 1. Optical micrograph of the dual phase steel.
lightweight or higher strength, with the ultimate goal reducing
the weight of the vehicle that will result in lower fuel
consumption. machine. The fabricated defect-free resistance spot welded joint
represented in Table 4, which shows the good nugget formation
among the various levels of the DP steel joints.
2. Experimental techniques
The hardness of the weldment and other zones are measured
through the Shimadzu Vickers hardness testing machine. The
2.1. Material characterization
parameters for measuring the hardness load about 0.5 kg and
dwell for 20 s are used. The recorded various zone values are
The material used for the entire investigation 1.6 mm thick
pointed on the hardness map through the average of the three
cold-rolled, zinc galvanized Dual phase steel sheet supplied by Kai-
indentation measurements.
zen cold-formed Steel. The major elements present in this
The microstructural features extracted from the cross section of
advanced high strength steel was manganese (Mn), Silicon (Si)
the spot welded joint. The sample was polished through the silicon
and fewer amounts of chromium (Cr) and titanium (Ti), Table 1
carbide abrasive paper through the belt grinder and disk polishing
represents the elemental composition of the DP 600 steel. These
machine with various grades. The superior polishing has been
advanced high strength steel has generally offered twin phase
completed through the diamond paste and fine micron level alu-
microstructures in the alloy matrix. Fig. 1 reveals the DP 600
mina powder. The polished specimen was etched with a suitable
matrix having an average of 85% ferrite and 15% martensite phases.
etchant for revealing the grain boundaries of the microstructure.
The average ferrite grain size was 7 mm. The manganese and other
For this investigation, Nital used as etchant 20 ml ethanol and
elements influence the strength properties. The mechanical prop-
1 ml Hcl with probable amount of distilled water. The macro-
erties of DP 600 steel are given in Table 2.
scope was used to reveals the weld appearance of the spot welding
of the DP 600 joint. Generally, the macro-scope has low magnifica-
2.2. Welding experiment tion about 10 to 50. The metallurgical features of the microstruc-
ture obtained through the MEIJI optical microscopy instrument. It
The welding experiments were carried out as per conditions are shows the microstructure of the various region presences in the
given in Table 3 in the dual phase steel (DP 600) with the aid of spot weld cross section.
manual pedestal type Electrical resistance spot welding machine.
The current level has been varied five levels (40 kA to 60 kA) with
5 kA interval other process parameter remain keep as constant.
This manual electrical resistance spot welding machine capacity 3. Results and discussion
about 150 kVA, though the maximum thickness to be welded in
this machine about 6 mm. The spot-weld quality depends on the 3.1. Macrostructure and microstructure
many factors such as the electrode design and configuration also
impact on the weld metal properties. The conical type design, chro- The macrostructure is an effective tool to reveal the defective
mium assisted zirconium coated copper electrode has been used analysis of the weldment. Table 4 shows the effect of current on
for this investigation. macrograph various current ranges from maximum to minimum.
The dimensions of the material to be welded in this DP 600 steel From Table observed that the nugget formation of the weldment
mentioned in Fig. 2, it following the as per the ASTM standard (D varies from the lower level to upper level (45 to 55 kA). While cur-
1002-01) guidelines. The shear strength of resistance spot welded rent increasing the nugget, formation has been wider range in the
DP steel joints examined through the transverse tensile shear frac- lap joints. Although further increasing the welding current it
ture test using the universal tensile testing machine. The trans- affects the joint integrity and tends to pull out failure. The only
verse tensile testing machine having a maximum capacity of welding current level 50 kA gives the better nugget formation with
about 500 KN semi-automatic servo mechanical controlled the macro-level defect-free joint.

Table 1
Chemical composition (wt%) dual phase steel.

C Si Mn Cr P S Ni Mo Ti
0.146 0.88 1.500 0.025 0.007 0.0036 0.027 0.0018 0.0016

Please cite this article as: P. Sivaraj, M. Seeman, D. Kanagarajan et al., Influence of welding parameter on mechanical properties and microstructural fea-
tures of resistance spot welded dual phase steel sheets joint, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.08.201
 P. Sivaraj et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx 3

Table 2
Mechanical properties of dual phase steel.

Material 0.2% offset Yield Strength (MPa) Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) Elongation in 50 mm gauge length (%) Microhardness (HV)
Dual-phase Steel 604 832 26 295

Table 3
Welding parameters used to fabricate the joints.

Welding Current kA 40 45 50 55 60
Electrode Force MPa 4 4 4 4 4
Welding Time sec 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Fig. 2. Specimen dimension (in mm).

Table 4
Effect of current on macrograph.

Photograph of Nugget surface Macrograph of nugget cross-section Observation

40 Not welded

45 Welded but defect are present

50 Proper penetration

55 Due to current undercut has been taken place

60 Due to high current metal deformation has been

taken place

Please cite this article as: P. Sivaraj, M. Seeman, D. Kanagarajan et al., Influence of welding parameter on mechanical properties and microstructural fea-
tures of resistance spot welded dual phase steel sheets joint, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.08.201
4 P. Sivaraj et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. Microstructural features of joint made using 50 kA.

The microstructure of Nugget Zone, IF and HAZ are depicted in 3.2. Mechanical properties of DP 600 lap joint
Fig. 3. The microstructure reveals the features in the dynamic
recrystallization region (DRX), interfacial zone (IF) and heat The outcome of after tensile-shear and cross-tensile tests are
affected zone (HAZ) in the cross section of the resistance spot weld exemplified in Fig. 4. Since it appears from Fig. 5.The failure mode
joint. The nugget zone having rich martensite phase, Retained is pull-out, and the fracture has begun from an outside edge point
austenite (RA) and a minor amount of bainite. Thus, the low heat around the weld nugget. Load vs. displacement graph relating to
input and small fusion area have led to a critical cooling rate in tensile-shear and cross-tensile tests are revealed in Fig. 6.
the Fusion zone, it induces the nucleation grains as much rapid The recorded maximum tensile shear fracture load value about
as the conventional fusion welding techniques. Metallurgically 18 kN at 50 kA welding current compare than other welding cur-
nugget zone consists of columnar grains with finer equiaxed grains rent. So, load displacement was plotted in optimized condition
at the ripping section. The heat affected region deflects with forma- (50 kA) in Fig. 6. If the applied welding current varies with different
tion grain structure such as coarser grain and finer grain heat levels, the nugget area has been increasing due to increasing the
affected zone (CGHAZ, FGHAZ). The weld failure occurs at the welding current up to certain yield limit afterward tends to
interfacial region of the Heat affected regions. The many reports degrade. Most of the tensile failure happens in the interfacial
state solidification rate of the resistance spot welding at nugget region of the heat affected region which is already elaborated with
about 400–420 °Cs 1 [10]. the aid of microstructure. The fracture modes categories into the

Fig. 4. Specimens after the test.

Fig. 5. The fracture surface of the RSW DP600 steel after the cross-tensile test (a); Fracture surface of SEM fractograph (b).

Please cite this article as: P. Sivaraj, M. Seeman, D. Kanagarajan et al., Influence of welding parameter on mechanical properties and microstructural fea-
tures of resistance spot welded dual phase steel sheets joint, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.08.201
 P. Sivaraj et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx 5

cooling rate, the formation tempered martensite in the HAZ, it

has characteristics of more failure brittle nature [13–15].

4. Conclusions

 The most influencing parameter of DP600 steel RSW process is

welding current, as welding current increases, it increases the
depth of the nugget zone its increase weld strength.
 The microstructure of the fusion zone consists of hard/lath/nee-
dle like martensite structure with the maximum hardness val-
ues recorded 480 Hv.
 The weld failure purely occurs due to the presence of tempered
martensite presence of the interfacial zone (IF), nearer the heat
affected region.
 The fracture mode had depicted interfacial failure and pull-out
off failure.

Fig. 6. Load-displacement curves relating to tensile-shear.

References

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https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.675-677.795.
[9] J. Liang, H. Zhang, X. Qiu, Y. Shi, Characteristics of the resistance spot welding
joints in dissimilar thickness dual-phase steels, ISIJ Int. 55 (9) (2015) 2002–
interfacial failure and pull out/pull off. This fracture has initiated 2007, https://doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational.isijint-2015-151.
and propagates then breakdown occurs [11,12]. The nugget diam- [10] M. Pouranvari, S.P. Marashi, S.M. Mousavizadeh, Dissimilar resistance spot
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Fig. 7. The welding current 50 kA have higher harness value 480 [13] C. Rajarajan, P. Sivaraj, Balasubramanian, Microstructural characteristics and
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Please cite this article as: P. Sivaraj, M. Seeman, D. Kanagarajan et al., Influence of welding parameter on mechanical properties and microstructural fea-
tures of resistance spot welded dual phase steel sheets joint, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.08.201
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 ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 01 July 2021
doi: 10.3389/fmats.2021.694586

Effect of Welding Heat Input on the

Microstructure and Impact Toughness
of HAZ in 420MPa-Grade Offshore
Engineering Steel
Dekun Liu 1, Jian Yang 1*, Yinhui Zhang 1, Yunlong Qiu 2, Guoguang Cheng 3, Meiyi Yao 4 and
Jianxin Dong 5
1
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Special Steel, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai,
China, 2Zhongxing Energy Equipment Co., LTD, Haimen, China, 3State Key Laboratory of Advanced Metallurgy, University of
Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China, 4Institute of Materials, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China, 5School of
Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China

In the present work, the effect of the welding heat input on the microstructure,
martensite–austenite (M–A) constituents, and impact toughness of the coarse-grained
heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) in offshore engineering steel with Ca deoxidation is studied.
With the heat input increased from 50 to 100 kJ/cm, the HAZ toughness decreased
Edited by: rapidly, while the measured microhardness decreases steadily. The grain sizes are
Wangzhong Mu,
Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
increased from 52 to 132 μm, and the width of bainite lath increased from 0.4 to 2 μm.
Reviewed by:
The area fraction of lath bainite (LB) decreased, while the area fraction of granular bainite
Chao Wang, (GB) increased. The average width of M–A constituents grows from 0.3 to 0.6 μm, and the
Northeastern University, China
average length grows from from 0.5 to 0.9 μm. Its area fraction is increased from 5.3 to
Chengjia Shang,
University of Science and Technology 8.6% and then decreased to 6.1%, and its number density decreased from 0.7 to
Beijing, China 0.2 μm−2. The morphologies of M–A constituents change from dot-like to slender and
Yongkun Yang,
Northeastern University, China
blocky, which are deleterious to impact toughness. The fracture mechanism changes from
*Correspondence:
ductile to quasicleavage and cleavage as the heat input is increased. As the M–A
Jian Yang constituents are always found as the cleavage initiation, they should be responsible for
[email protected]
the decrease in HAZ toughness when the heat input is above 100 kJ/cm.
Specialty section: Keywords: offshore engineering steel, coarse-grained heat-affected zone, bainite, M–A constituents, impact
This article was submitted to toughness, Ca deoxidation
Structural Materials,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Materials INTRODUCTION
Received: 13 April 2021
Accepted: 11 June 2021 Offshore engineering steel is widely used in the manufacture of marine engineering equipment, such
Published: 01 July 2021 as marine platforms, marine energy equipment, submarine oil, and gas pipelines. It demands high
Citation: strength, excellent toughness, fatigue, and corrosion resistance for use in cold environments (Suzuki
Liu D, Yang J, Zhang Y, Qiu Y, et al., 2005). In the manufacturing process, it is desired to increase the welding heat input to improve
Cheng G, Yao M and Dong J (2021) the welding efficiency and shorten the processing time. However, the larger heat input also results in
Effect of Welding Heat Input on the
a coarse microstructure near the fusion line, which forms the CGHAZ and deteriorates the impact
Microstructure and Impact Toughness
of HAZ in 420 MPa-Grade Offshore
toughness at a low temperature (Davis and King, 1994).
Engineering Steel. Oxide metallurgy technology is an efficient way to improve CGHAZ toughness, which is often
Front. Mater. 8:694586. used in manufacturing steel plates with a thickness larger than 50 mm (Kojima et al., 2004; Suzuki
doi: 10.3389/fmats.2021.694586 et al., 2005). The addition of strong deoxidizers, Ti, Zr, Mg, etc., can produce the nonmetallic

Frontiers in Materials | www.frontiersin.org 1 July 2021 | Volume 8 | Article 694586

Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

inclusions during steelmaking and promote the formation of

intragranular acicular ferrite (IAF) and prevent the prior
austenite grain growth (Gladman et al., 1999; Park et al.,
2000). Zhu and Yang (2011) found that Mg deoxidation can
generate many pinning particles to inhibit the austenite grain
growth. Yamashita et al. (Yamashita et al., 2015) developed a
high-heat-input welding steel plate by using REM deoxidation.
Zou et al. (2018) reported that EH36-grade steel can form Zr-
containing inclusions to promote the nucleation of acicular ferrite
with Zr addition.
However, offshore engineering has strength usually larger than
420 MPa, which is higher than that of the shipbuilding steel plate.
To improve the strength of offshore engineering steel, it is
necessary to increase the carbon equivalent value [Ceq  C +
Mn/6 + (Cu + Ni)/15 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5] by adding microalloying FIGURE 1 | Heating and cooling curves of welding simulation of the
elements such as Cr, Mo, and V (Nagai et al., 2004), leading to the CGHAZ at the heat inputs of 50, 100, 150, and 200 kJ/cm.

change in the HAZ microstructure. The CGHAZ toughness of the

shipbuilding steel plate prepared by oxide metallurgy is not only
mainly improved by the IAF but also degraded by the ferrite side deoxidation is quite limited, and the study on the HAZ
plate (FSP) and the grain boundary ferrite (GBF) (Xu et al., 2016). microstructure and toughness for 420 MPa offshore
In contrast, the CGHAZ toughness of offshore engineering steel is engineering steel with Ca deoxidation is rarely reported.
generally enhanced by the fine LB and deteriorated by the M–A The present work aims to investigate the effect of the welding
constituent (Lee et al., 2017) which is much different from those heat input on the microstructure, M–A constituents, and
in the shipbuilding steel plate. hardness and impact toughness in the HAZ of offshore
It is widely accepted that the M–A constituent is deleterious to engineering steel with Ca deoxidation. The changes in the
the impact toughness. Okada et al. (1994) found that the C grain size, the content of LB and GB, and the size, number
content in the M–A constituent is increased with a decrease in density, and area fraction of M–A constituents in the CGHAZ
the cooling rate from 1073 to 773 K, resulting in an increase in the with the heat input are clarified. The influence of the
hardness of M–A constituents. Mohseni et al. (2013) indicated morphologies and quantities of the M–A constituents on the
that the hardness of M–A constituents is between 600 and toughness of the CGHAZ is made clear. The electron probe
1,000 HV and identified that the crack-initiation sites of microanalyzer (EPMA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD)
cleavage fracture are usually from M–A constituents. Huda characterization are used to identify the carbides and M–A
et al. (2016) investigated that the fast-cooling rate can constituents in the CGHAZ. The low-temperature fracture
promote the formation of the M–A constituent and change its mechanism is studied for the HAZ at different heat inputs.
morphology in X80 line pipe steels. Li et al.(2015) (Li and Baker,
2013) proposed that the dihedral angle 2θ can determine the
fracture susceptibility of the M–A constituents with the different EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
morphologies. Therefore, it is worthwhile to investigate the
morphologies and quantities of the M–A constituents in the The experimental steel was melted in a vacuum induction
HAZ of the offshore engineering steels to evaluate the low- furnace with a capacity of 50 kg and then cast into ingots with
temperature toughness in CGHAZ. the dimension of 120 mm × 180 mm × 240 mm. The
It is well known that the Ca treatment can change the deoxidants of Si, Ti, Al, and Ca were added to reduce oxygen
elongated MnS inclusions to the spherical CaS inclusions to content, and the target compositions were obtained. The
improve the transverse toughness of the steel plate and change ingots were hot rolled into thick steel plates with the
the Al2O3 inclusions into the CaO–Al2O3 complex inclusions thermomechanical control process (TMCP). The roughing
with low melting point to inhibit the clogging of the submerging rolling was conducted at 930°C with a reduction ratio greater
entry nozzle during continuous casting. In recent years, the oxide than 30%, and the finishing rolling was conducted at 800°C with a
metallurgy with Ca deoxidation was utilized to improve the reduction ratio of over 30%. The steel plates with the final
CGHAZ toughness in the steel plate (Terazawa et al., 2018). thickness of 40 mm were cooled from 750 to 400°C at the rate
Kato et al. (2011) found that Ca addition can increase the number of 10°Cs−1. The chemical compositions of the experimental steel
density of fine TiN particles, inhibit the coarsening of TiN are 0.067% C, 0.14% Si, 1.04% Mn, 0.008% P, 0.003% S, Cr,
particles, and finally, achieve a fine-grained HAZ to improve 0.008% Mo, 0.005% V, 0.002% Nb, 0.004% Ti, 0.0023% Ca,
its toughness. Zhang et al. (2019) investigated the inclusion 0.012% Al, 0.0025% N, and 0.0031% O. The tested yield
evolution with different Ca contents and found that the strength and tensile strength are 428 and 535 MPa, and the
CGHAZ toughness of the shipbuilding steel plate is obviously Charpy impact test at −40°C is 336 J. The newly designed
improved due to the formation of IAFs in a large number. offshore engineering steels have the strength level similar to
However, the research on the oxide metallurgy with Ca that of the EH420 steel plate.

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Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

FIGURE 2 | (A) Charpy impact energy at −40°C and (B) microhardness of the CGHAZ at different heat inputs.

The specimens with the dimension of 11 mm × 11 mm × RESULTS

71 mm were cut from the steel plate with the thickness of 40 mm
and were simulated by using the welding thermal simulator Impact Toughness and Microhardness
(Gleeble-3800, Dynamic Systems Inc.). Figure 1 shows the Figure 2A shows the Charpy impact energy at −40°C of the
heating and cooling curves of the welding simulation at the CGHAZ after simulated welding in the case of different heat
heat inputs of 50, 100, 150, and 200 kJ/cm. The specimens inputs. The maximum impact energy is 137 J at the heat input of
were held at the peak welding temperature of 1,350°C for 1 s, 50 kJ/cm. With the increasing heat input, the average impact
and the corresponding cooling time t8/5 from 800 to 500°C was 6, energy is measured to be 15, 16, and 20 J, respectively. Figure 2B
24, 54, and 96 s, respectively. shows the microhardness on the surface of the CGHAZ
The Charpy impact tests were carried out at −40°C in specimens, which was measured by the Vickers microhardness
accordance with the ASTM E23 standard and were method with a 0.5 kgf load for 5 s. The measured microhardness
conducted twice on each condition. The CGHAZ specimens decreases steadily as the heat inputs are increased from 50 to
were ground and polished and then etched by 4% nital (4 ml 200 kJ/cm. Especially, the measured hardness is about 328 HV0.5
HNO3 + 96 ml C2H5OH) for optical microscopy (OM, DM at the heat input of 50 kJ/cm, which is much larger than that of
2700M, Leica Microsystems) and a scanning electron the ferrite matrix of about 200 HV0.5.
microscope (SEM, EVO 18, Carl Zeiss) observation. The
microcarbon content distribution was measured by the Microstructural Characterization
wavelength dispersive spectroscopy (WDS) of the EPMA Figure 3 shows the typical optical microstructures in the CGHAZ
(JXA-8530F, JEOL). The XRD (D8 Advance, Bruker AXS) of the offshore engineering steel at the heat inputs of 50, 100, 150,
was further used to identify the phases in the CGHAZ and 200 kJ/cm. Figure 3A shows that the microstructure is
(Huda et al., 2016). The samples were polished and etched composed of lath martensite (LM) and LB at the heat input of
and then tested by the XRD. The anode target was Cu, with the 50 kJ/cm and the extremely fine martensite lath or bainite ferrites
scanning angle ranged from 30 to 110° and the scanning speed in the grains growing in the same direction. When the heat input
of 1 min−1. The microhardness was measured by using a 0.5 kgf is increased to 100 kJ/cm, the microstructure consists of LB and a
(kilogram-force) load for 5 s in a Vickers hardness tester (HX- small amount of GB with a small size and an irregular sphere
1000, Shanghai Optical instrument), and each specimen was shape at the grain boundaries, as shown in Figure 3B. As the heat
measured for 10 points. input is increased to 150 kJ/cm, the LB coarsens with the
The prior austenite grain boundary and microstructure were increased content of GB and a few AF in the grains, as
observed by optical microscopy. To quantitatively measure the illustrated in Figure 3C. When the heat input is 200 kJ/cm,
area fraction of LB and GB, a counting point method was the cooling rate is slow enough to obtain the predominant
adopted with a 10 × 10 grid and more than 4 mm2 analysis phase of GB with the further coarsened LB and AF, as shown
area with a magnification of 200 times. The acicular ferrite (AF) in Figure 3D.
was classified into GB to decrease the complexity of Figure 4 shows a typical morphology of AF and inclusion and
identification. The quantitative characterization was carried the corresponding EDS mapping result in the CGHAZ at the heat
out by the image process software ImageJ (Bonnevie et al., input of 150 kJ/cm. The AFs with the width of 1.6–2.4 μm and the
2004; Huang et al., 2016). More than ten SEM images with a length of 4.8–22 μm nucleate from the inclusion. The EDS
magnification of 2,000 times were selected for statistical mapping result shows that the inclusion is a
analysis. CaO–CaS–Al2O3–TiN complex compound.

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Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

FIGURE 3 | Optical micrographs of the microstructures in the CGHAZ at the heat inputs of (A) 50, (B) 100, (C) 150, and (D) 200 kJ/cm.

FIGURE 4 | (A) Typical morphology of AF and inclusion and (B) the corresponding EDS mapping result in the CGHAZ at the heat input of 150 kJ/cm.

Figure 5 shows the typical SEM micrographs in the CGHAZ at particles with small sizes in the bainite laths are identified to be
the heat inputs of 50, 100, 150, and 200 kJ/cm. When the heat fine M–A constituents or carbides (M–A/carbides). Figures 5C,D
input is 50 kJ/cm, the fast-cooling rate leads to very fine show the microstructures consisting of LB at the heat input of
microstructures which may consist of fine LM/LB. The white 100 kJ/cm, and the M–A constituents or carbides are uniformly

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Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

FIGURE 5 | SEM micrographs of microstructures in the CGHAZ at the heat inputs of (A, B) 50, (C, D) 100, (E, F) 150, and (G, H) 200 kJ/cm.

Frontiers in Materials | www.frontiersin.org 5 July 2021 | Volume 8 | Article 694586

Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

FIGURE 6 | (A) Prior austenite grain size and width of the bainite lath and (B) the area fractions of LB and GB in the CGHAZ at different heat inputs.

distributed at the LB and GB boundaries. As the heat input is the intensity of carbides is increased as the heat input is increased
increased to 150 kJ/cm, the width of LB and size of M–A/carbides from 50 to 100 kJ/cm, indicating that the contents of carbides
obviously are enlarged. Especially, the M–A/carbides become increased as well.
enlarged with a slender and blocky shape located at the LB
boundaries. When the heat input is 200 kJ/cm, the
microstructure consists of LB and GB. The M–A/carbides are Quantitative Characterization of the
similar to those at the heat input of 150 kJ/cm, but the size Martensite–Austenite Constituent
increases. The M–A constituents with blocky shapes are widely To estimate the effect of the secondary phases which consist of the
found at the GB boundaries. Besides, the decomposed pearlite M–A constituent and carbides on the toughness, the quantities of
(DP) consists of ferrite and carbide which are found in LB and GB the secondary phases were obtained by image process software. It
boundaries, as shown in Figures 5G,H. should be noted that the carbide is difficult to be distinguished
Figure 6 shows the effect of heat input on (A) the prior from the M–A constituent at the heat inputs of 50 and 100 kJ/cm,
austenite grains and the width of bainite lath and (B) the area especially for those carbides at the LB boundaries. The phases
fractions of LB and GB. As the heat input is increased from 50 to with larger sizes and polygonal rectangular shapes are considered
200 kJ/cm, the prior austenite grains increase from 48 to 132 μm to be M–A constituents according to their carbon content, as
and the width of the bainite lath increases from 0.4 to 2 μm. The shown in Figures 7D,F, while the elongated phases at the bainite
area fraction of LB in the CGHAZ is decreased from 97 to 47%, ferrite lath are hard to be identified at the heat inputs of 150 and
while the area fraction of GB is increased. 200 kJ/cm, as shown in Figures 5E,G. Therefore, it is necessary to
regard the carbides as the M–A constituent to decrease the
complexity. The method can be seen in the work of Bonnevie
Characterization of the Carbides and et al., 2004, and Huang et al., 2016, and the main steps are
Martensite–Austenite Constituents illustrated as follows: 1) The SEM images were converted into 8-
Figure 7 shows SEM morphologies and carbon profiles of M–A bit gray images. 2) The M–A constituents were distinguished
constituents or carbides at the heat inputs of (A, B) 100, (C, D) from the matrix image by adjusting the gray-level threshold. 3)
150, and (E, F) 200 kJ/cm. The carbon content is obviously larger The non-M–A constituent area was excluded, and the area
than that in the matrix, while the Mo and Mn content nearly containing the M–A constituent not recognized by the
keeps constant. In addition, the carbon content is much higher in software was added manually. 4) The data of the length,
Figure 7B than that in Figures 7D,F, indicating that the dot-like width, and area were exported and processed. In order to
particles in Figure 7B are carbides while the blocky phases avoid the accidental results caused by a smaller field, more
located at the GB boundaries in Figures 7C,E are blocky M–A than five SEM images (× 2000 magnification) in random fields
constituents. were selected for statistical analysis with a total area of 0.01 mm2.
Figure 8 shows the XRD patterns and the magnified images Figure 9A shows the typical morphology of the M–A
for a part of Figure 8A in the CGHAZ with different heat inputs. constituent in the CGHAZ at the heat input of 100 kJ/cm, and
The phases on the fracture surface are identified to be ferrite, Figure 9B shows that the binary picture consists of the black
Fe3C, (Fe,Cr)7C3, (Fe,Cr)23C6, and austenite. The peak at 42.7o is phase of the bainite and the white phases of the M–A constituent
corresponding to the austenite phase, and the peak at about 42.6o and the M–A constituent is changed into the black contrast after
is from the (Fe,Cr)7C3 phase, as labeled in Figure 8B. In addition, the ImageJ process. Figure 9C shows the effect of the heat input

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Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

FIGURE 7 | SEM morphologies and carbon profiles of M–A constituents or carbides at the heat input of 100 kJ/cm (A, B), 150 kJ/cm (C, D), and 200 kJ/cm (E, F).

on width and length, and Figure 9D shows the area fraction and shape with the length larger than 1 μm and the aspect ratio larger
number density of M–A constituents in the CGHAZ. With an than 4, and a blocky shape with the length greater than 1 μm and
increase in the heat input, the width grows from 0.3 to 0.6 μm and the aspect ratio less than 4 (Yan et al., 2014; Huang et al., 2016).
the length grows from 0.5 to 0.9 μm. The area fractions are The M–A constituents are mainly the dot-like shape at the heat
measured to be 5.3, 8.9, 6.9, and 6.1%, and the number input of 50 kJ/cm, dot-like and slender shape at the heat input of
density is 0.7, 0.5, 0.3, and 0.2 μm−2, respectively. The area of 100 kJ/cm, and dot-like shape and slender and block shape at the
the M–A constituent increases, reaching its maximum value at heat inputs of 150 and 200 kJ/cm, respectively. With an increase
the heat input of 100 kJ/cm, and decreases slightly with further in heat input, the aspect ratio of the M–A constituents increased,
increase in the heat input, which corresponds to the increase in and the proportion of the slender and blocky M–A constituents
HAZ toughness for the heat input increasing from 100 to also increased from 2.5 to 28%.
200 kJ/cm.
Figure 10 shows the measured length and aspect ratio of M–A Fracture Surface Analysis
constituents in the CGHAZ with the heat inputs of 50, 100, 150, Figure 11 shows SEM fracture morphologies of the fracture
and 200 kJ/cm. The morphologies of the M–A constituents are surfaces with the heat inputs of (A) 50, (B) 100, (C) 150, and
defined as a dot-like shape with a length less than 1 μm, a slender (D) 200 kJ/cm, the inclusions in the tear ridges (E, F), and the

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Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

FIGURE 8 | (A) XRD spectrums and (B) magnified images for a part of Figure 7A in the CGHAZ at different heat inputs.

FIGURE 9 | (A) Typical morphologies of M–A constituents, (B) M–A constituents changed into white color using ImageJ, and measured (C) length and width and
(D) area fraction and number density of M–A constituents in the CGHAZ at different heat inputs.

fracture initiation site (G, H) at the heat input of 100 kJ/cm. the heat inputs of 150 and 200 kJ/cm, respectively. The tear ridges
Figure 11A shows that the ductile fracture zone consists of deep with small dimples are found at the border of cleavage facets,
dimples with a larger size and shallow dimples with a small size at which can absorb partial energy being beneficial to the toughness.
the heat input of 50 kJ/cm. Figure 11B shows the brittle zone at Plenty of spherical inclusions with the size of 1–5 μm are found at
the heat input of 100 kJ/cm, which consists of quasicleavage facets the bottom of the dimples, and the EDS results show that these
and fatigue crack at the border of different facets. Figures 11C,D inclusions are CaO–Al2O3 compounds, as shown in Figures 11E,F,
show the cleavage facets and river lines of the cleavage fracture at whereas the cleavage facets become large with a long river line at

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Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

FIGURE 10 | Effect of heat input on the length and aspect ratio of M–A constituents in the CGHAZ with the heat inputs of (A) 50, (B) 100, (C) 150, and (D)
200 kJ/cm.

the heat input of 200 kJ/cm, indicating the worse impact toughness. carbides. The experimental steel has a low carbon content
It should be noted that the white particles are found at the cleavage indicating the carbides are rare by comparison with the ferrite
initiation, as marked in Figures 11B,D, and the EDS line result matrix, and XRD patterns show that the carbides have little
shows the carbon content is larger than the matrix indicating these difference at the heat inputs of 50, 100, 150, and 200 kJ/cm, as
particles are M–A constituents in Figures 11G,H. shown in Figure 8. Therefore, the matrix microstructure in
Figure 12 shows SEM images of the secondary crack through CGHAZ is divided into LB and GB based on its morphology
the M–A cluster at the heat inputs of 100, 150, and 200 kJ/cm and according to the SEM observation, rather than upper bainite and
the corresponding EDS mapping. The EDS mapping results in lower bainite as reported in the work of Bramfitt and Speer, 1990.
Figure 12B show these slender phases have higher C contents To calculate the Ac3 (Huda et al., 2016), Ac1 (Huda et al., 2016), Bs
than the matrix, while Mo and Cr are uniformly distributed, (Lee et al., 2017), and Ms (Lee et al., 2017) temperatures of the
indicating these phases are slender M–A constituents. The experimental steel, the following empirical formulas are
slender M–A constituents in the LB zone at the heat inputs of described:
100 and 150 kJ/cm are shown in Figures 12A,C, and these slender
M–A constituents are cracked directly when the secondary crack Ac3  910 − 230[C]0.5 − 15.2[Ni] + 44.7[Si] + 104[V]
passes through. As can be seen from Figure 12D, the blocky M–A + 31.5[Mo], (1)
constituents locate at the GB boundaries at the heat input of Ac1  723 − 107[Mn] − 29[Si] − 16.7[Cr], (2)
200 kJ/cm. The secondary crack crosses the matrix rather than the
Bs  830 − 270[C] − 90[Mn] − 37[Ni] − 70[Cr] − 88[Mo], (3)
blocky M–A constituents, and the microcracks are formed at the
M–A/matrix interface through interface decohesion. It is M s  545 − 330[C] + 2[Al] − 14[Cr] − 13[Cu] − 23[Mn]
demonstrated that the fracture initiation by slender and blocky − 5[Mo] − 4[Nb] − 13[Ni] + 3[Ti] + 4[V]. (4)
M–A constituents is different.
The Ac3, Ac1, Bs, and Ms temperatures are calculated to be 834.4,
709.7, 564.0, and 476.7°C, respectively. Since the cooling rate in
DISCUSSION the welding process is relatively slow due to larger heat input in
the present work, the microstructures tend to transform from
Effect of Heat Input on the Microstructure austenite to bainite ferrite rather than martensite.
The CGHAZ microstructure consists of the matrix phases of LB, Figure 13 shows the continuous cooling transition (CCT)
GB, and AF and the secondary phases of M–A constituents and curves at different cooling rates calculated by the thermal-

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Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

FIGURE 11 | SEM fracture morphologies of the fracture surfaces at the heat inputs of (A) 50, (B) 100, (C) 150, and (D) 200 kJ/cm; the inclusions in the tear ridges
(E, F); and the fracture initiation site (G, H) at the heat input of 100 kJ/cm.

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Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

FIGURE 12 | SEM images of the secondary crack through the M–A cluster at the heat inputs of (A) 100, (C) 150, and (D) 200 kJ/cm and the corresponding EDS
mapping (B) for (A).

rate. Especially, when the heat input is 50 kJ/cm, the bainite

starting temperature is quite near the Ms temperature. The
measured Vickers hardness is much higher than the matrix
and the other specimens at the heat input above 100 kJ/cm, as
shown in Figure 2B. Then, it can be deduced that the
microstructure consists of LM/LB at the heat input of 50 kJ/cm.
The sizes of the prior austenite grains increase with an increase
in heat input, leading to the decrease in the prior grain
boundaries. These prior austenite grain boundaries are always
large-angle boundaries (LABs), which can beneficially hinder the
crack propagation (Li et al., 2015) and can also reduce the
nucleation energy of ferrite (Koseki and Thewlis, 2013). The
distribution of LB in the grains reveals that the LB nucleates and
grows preferentially at the grain boundaries. It is widely accepted
that the IAFs can improve the HAZ toughness by their interlock
form, which can be promoted byfine particles such as calcium
oxides. From the observation, it is hard to find a large number of
IAFs in the HAZ in the present work due to the relatively higher
FIGURE 13 | Continuous cooling transition curves at different cooling
rates calculated by the thermal-dynamic software Jmatpro. tensile strength of the offshore engineering steel plate.
From the observation of the microstructures, it can be
considered that the small austenite grain size, the fine LB/LM,
dynamic software Jmatpro. It illustrates the transition paths of the and less M–A constituent and carbides are the main factors for
ferrite starts curve (1 wt%), the pearlite starts curve (1 wt%), and the excellent toughness at the heat input of 50 kJ/cm. However,
the bainite start and end curves (1–99 wt%) at different cooling the impact toughness keeps constant, as shown in Figure 2A, as
rates. The bainite transition starting temperatures increase with the heat input is increased. Figures 2, 3, and 5 show the obvious
an increase in the heat input due to the decrease in the cooling changes in microstructure and grain size and the evident

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Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

TABLE 1 | The transition in the microstructure and M–A constituents in the CGHAZ at the heat input of 50, 100, 150, and 200 kJ/cm.

Heat input 50 kJ/cm 100 kJ/cm 150 kJ/cm 200 kJ/cm

LB zone

Dot-like M–A at the LB Dot-like M–A at the LB Dot-like and slender M–A at the LB Slender M–A and DP at the LB
boundaries boundaries boundaries boundaries

GB zone

Dot-like M–A at the GB Blocky M–A at the GB boundaries Blocky M–A and DP at the GB
boundaries boundaries

difference in M–A constituents by comparison among the heat surrounded by bainitic ferrites with different habit planes or
input of 50 kJ/cm and above. elongation directions become blocky. It seems that the formation
of the M–A constituent is both influenced by the cooling rate and
the adjacent microstructures. The fast-cooling rate can produce
Effect of Heat Input on the the small dot-like and slender M–A constituent at the LB
Martensite–Austenite Constituents boundaries, while the slow-cooling rate can lead to the
Table 1 shows the schematic diagram of the transition in the elongated and blocky M–A constituent at the GB boundaries.
microstructure and M–A constituents at the different heat inputs
based on Figure 5. As the heat input is increased, the width of the
bainite lath and the length and the width of the M–A constituents Effect of Martensite–Austenite Constituents
increase. The dot-like and slender M–A constituents occur at the on the Impact Toughness
LB boundaries, while the blocky M–A constituent occurs at the The M–A constituents have an important effect on the impact
GB boundaries. When the heat input is 200 kJ/cm, the DP phase toughness, and it is necessary to figure out the effect of M–A
occurs at the locations of the M–A constituents. constituents on the fracture mechanism at −40 °C. Figure 11
The carbon content of the M–A constituents is much higher shows that the fracture changes from ductile to quasicleavage and
than that in the matrix, as shown in Figure 7, and it is reported to cleavage as the heat input is increased from 50 to 200 kJ/cm. It is
be ranging from 0.6 to 1.1 wt% (Mohseni et al., 2013). Especially, evident that the M–A constituents are found to be the fracture
the peak carbon contents are located at the edges of the blocky initiation resulting in the cleavage fracture. In the current work,
M–A constituent, as shown in Figure 7F. It indicates that the the M–A constituents at the grain boundaries are much lesser
formation of the M–A constituent is related to the C diffusion than those in grains. Figure 12 shows that the secondary crack
during the phase transformation from austenite to ferrite. Biss crosses through the M–A cluster which consists of plenty of M–A
and Cryderman (1971) also pointed out that the formation of the constituents, and the crack type is different among the specimens
M–A constituents is mainly influenced by the cooling rate and at the heat inputs of 100, 150, and 200 kJ/cm. It demonstrates that
diffusion of the carbon. During the γ to α transformation, the C in slender M–A constituents crack more easily than the blocky M–A
the ferrite is continuously expelled to the subgrain boundary, constituents, and the stress concentration caused by the M–A
causing the increase in the C content at the γ/α interface, which constituents is the main reason for the cleavage fracture. This is in
also enhances the stability of the prior austenite. As the accordance with the results reported by Davis and King (1994).
temperature further decreases, because the residual austenite The effect of different shapes of M–A constituent on the
with high C content partially transforms to martensite, the toughness can be estimated by the Griffith fracture theory
M–A constituent islands are generated. Takayama et al. (2018) which can give a convincing explanation (Chen et al., 1984).
found that the M–As are elongated along the growth direction or The critical Griffith microcrack size c can be evaluated by the
habit plane of the surrounding bainitic ferrite. In contrast, M–A following equation:

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Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

FIGURE 14 | Effect of heat inputs on (A) widths and (B) critical crack stresses of the M–A constituents in different shapes.






2Ecp from 52 to 132 μm and the width of the bainite lath increased
σc  . (5) from 0.4 to 2 μm. The area fraction of LB is decreased, while
πc
the area fraction of GB is increased.
Here, σ c is the critical crack stress. E is Young’s modulus with a (3) With an increase in the heat input from 50 to 100, 150, and
value of 210 GPa (Lan et al., 2011). cp is the effective surface 200 kJ/cm, the quantitative characterization shows that the
energy with a value of 14 J·m−2 (Chen et al., 1984). c is the average width of M–A constituents grows from 0.3 to 0.6 μm
microcrack size. In Eq. 5, the two most important parameters that and the average length grows from 0.5 to 0.9 μm. The area
affected critical fracture stress are cp and c. When the M–A fractions are measured to be 5.3, 8.6, 6.9, and 6.1%, and the
constituents are regarded to be the fracturing source, the value of number density is 0.7, 0.5, 0.3, and 0.2 μm−2, respectively.
c is two times their width. The morphologies of M–A constituents change from dot-like
Figure 14 illustrates the effect of heat input on the width to slender and blocky, which are deleterious to the impact
and critical crack stress of the M–A constituents with toughness of HAZ.
different morphologies which are calculated with Eq. 5. The (4) The fracture mechanism changes from ductile to
critical fracture stress decreases due to the increase in the quasicleavage and cleavage as the heat input is increased.
width so that the slender and blocky M–A constituents have As the M–A constituents are always found as the cleavage
smaller critical fracture stress. Minami et al. (1992) calculated initiation, they should be responsible for the decrease in HAZ
the stress distributions around the slender and blocky M–A toughness when the heat input is above 100 kJ/cm.
constituents by finite element analysis and found that the
slender M–A constituents are cracked at a lower load level
than the blocky M–A constituents. Thus, both the slender DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
M–A constituents and blocky M–A constituents are more
deleterious to impact toughness than the dot-like M–A The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be
constituents. made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

CONCLUSION AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

The present work aims to investigate the effect of welding heat DL: concept, writing, and experiment; JY: supervision and
inputs on the microstructure, M–A constituents, and the impact modification; YZ: modification; and YQ, GC, MY, and JD:
toughness of the CGHAZ in offshore engineering steel with Ca funding acquisition.
deoxidation. The main conclusions are as follows:

(1) With the heat input increased from 50 to 100 kJ/cm, the HAZ FUNDING
toughness decreased rapidly, while the measured
microhardness decreases steadily. This work was financially supported by the National Natural
(2) The microstructure in the CGHAZ consists of LB/LM, GB, Science Foundation of China (Grant No. U1960202) and the
AF, M–A constituent, and carbides. With an increase in the Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality
heat input from 50 to 200 kJ/cm, the grain sizes increased (No. 19DZ2270200).

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Liu et al. HAZ Toughness With Ca Deoxidation

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on Fracture of weld Heat Affected Zone in Vanadium and Niobium The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of
Microalloyed Steels. Mater. Sci. Technol. 26 (9), 1029–1040. doi:10.1179/ any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential
026708309x12512744154360 conflict of interest.
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Stress and Strain Fields in the Vicinity of Local Hard Zones in Fracture Copyright © 2021 Liu, Yang, Zhang, Qiu, Cheng, Yao and Dong. This is an open-
Toughness of Weld HAZ. J. Snaj, Nihon Zousen Gakkai Ronbunshu 1992 access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
(171), 427–435. doi:10.2534/jjasnaoe1968.1992.427 License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted,
Mohseni, P., Solberg, J. K., Karlsen, M., Akselsen, O. M., and Østby, E. (2013). provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the
Cleavage Fracture Initiation at M-A Constituents in Intercritically Coarse- original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic
Grained Heat-Affected Zone of a HSLA Steel. Metall. Mat Trans. A. 45 (1), practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply
384–394. doi:10.1007/s11661-013-2110-3 with these terms.

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Effect of heat input on microstructure and mechanical

properties in underwater wet flux-cored arc welding of
structural steels

Article in MRS Advances · December 2022

DOI: 10.1557/s43580-022-00410-3

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EFFECT OF HEAT INPUT ON
MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES IN UNDERWATER WET FLUX-
CORED ARC WELDING OF STRUCTURAL
STEELS
Isis Fernanda de Luna¹, Patricia Costa¹, Gerardo Altamirano-Guerrero¹, Antonio Guía-
Hernández¹, Rocío Ochoa-Palacios¹, Luis E. Ramírez², Alexandro Buendía¹

1 Tecnológico Nacional de México/IT Saltillo, Blvd. V. Carranza 2400 Col. Tecnológico,

Saltillo 25280, Coahuila, México.
2 Consultores Asociados en Soldadura, Saltillo, Coahuila, México

ABSTRACT

In recent years the researches have been leaning towards the use of the wet welding process
using the self-shielded flux-cored arc welding (FCAW-S) due to its higher productivity.
Processing parameters such as welding current (I), arc voltage (E) and welding speed (v)
notably determine the final microstructure and resulting mechanical properties of underwater
wet welds. In this research work, the effect of the heat input generated by experimental
underwater wet welding using the FCAW-S process on the microstructure and microhardness
of weld beads made on ASTM A36 steel plates is investigated. For this purpose, experimental
underwater welding tests were carried out in a special tank containing 30 centimeters of water
column using three levels of heat input (578, 694 and 1074 J/mm) and a commercial filler metal
(AWS E71T-GS). The microstructure and mechanical properties of the weld beads obtained
were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Vickers hardness tests,
respectively. In general, the experimental results show that the microstructure in both heat-
affected zone (HAZ) and fusion zone (FZ) is basically constituted by martensite (M) for the
three energy levels studied, which is related to the high cooling rates involved in the underwater
welding processes. In addition, the mechanical properties reveal that the hardness values
decrease with the increase in heat input due that increasing the ratio decreases the cooling rate
and the martensite resulting is less hard. Finally, it is concluded that it is necessary to change
the filler metal or looking for better parameters configuration to obtain higher heat input and
change de microstructure in the fusion zone (FZ) to improve the mechanical properties in the
welded component.

INTRODUCTION

The “underwater welding” is the process in which two similar or dissimilar metals are
joined in an underwater (sub-aquatic) environment [1-3]. The American Welding Society
(AWS) has cataloged about 50 different welding processes[4], however, just a few of them
can be used for underwater welding since the equipment’s adaptability to aqueous
environments and the applications required are very complex [5] . The most widely used
underwater welding procedure is by shielded metal arc stick welding (SMAW), however,
current developments are related to the application of FCAW-S mainly due to its higher
productivity [6-8].
The underwater wet FCAW-S process is carried out directly in an aquatic environment
at a depth of up to 100 meters [9]. The FCAW-S process is widely used to join components
in the naval industry, nuclear industry, maritime platforms, components and structures
made of carbon steel and low alloy steel. This productive process is capable of achieving
higher deposition rates and can be applied for general welding or specific situations in
repairs, for welding out of position or high deposition [5]. In recent years, due to its higher
productivity, this practical process has been the object of attention in the scientific research
field [10-12].
The majority of studies in this regard are focused on improving the electric arc stability
during the underwater wet FCAW-S process. For example, Yang et al. [13] showed in their
studies that the arc voltage directly influences the size of the bubbles that are formed during
the reactions in the weld pool and a low voltage promotes greater turbulence in metal
transfer due to the small diameter of the bubbles which decreases the arc stability. In this
context, Fu et al. [14] stated that the globular transfer mode must be reduced to stabilize
the arc, decrease the amount of spatter and improve the welding quality. Similarly, Guo et
al. [2] reported that voltage directly influences in arc stability using wet FCAW-S process.
Their results showed that the appropriate voltage range is 30-34 V to wire diameter of 1.6
mm and a wire feed speed of 5 m/min. Xu et al. [15] showed that in underwater wet welds
the arc ignition time is less than dry welds (onshore) since gases are generated within the
metal droplets molten, deteriorating the stability of the electric arc and consequently the
quality of underwater wet welds is lower than those made in dry.
Another challenge of underwater wet welding is the high cooling rates that promote
the development of structures of high hardness which degrade the mechanical properties
of the metal joint. In an aquatic environment, the cooling rate of the welds is much higher
than in those obtained in dry welds [16-18]. This can lead to a loss of ductility of the weld
metal and the heat affected zone (HAZ). In this sense, Chen et al. [19] studied the effect
of the cooling rate generated by the flow of water on the mechanical properties and
microstructures of two structural steels with different carbon equivalent values. Their
results showed that joints in steels with higher carbon equivalents demonstrated more
susceptibility to cold cracking. On the other hand, Tomków et al. [20] used the tempering
bead technique and showed that in this way it is possible to reduce the HAZ and ZF
hardness of an HSLA steel.
It is well known that internal and surface porosity is a very common serious problem
in underwater welding. In this regard, Xu et al. [21] demonstrated in their experiments that
supersonic vibration decreases porosity in stainless steel welds using the FCAW-S process
[21]. Likewise, Chen et al. [22] performed underwater wet welds with the ultrasonic-
assisted FCAW-S process which improved the arc stability, refined the microstructure of
the fusion zone (FZ) and consequently, the toughness increases around 20% compared to
the wet FCAW-S conventional process.
As stated above, it is clear that the control of microstructural development is of vital
importance to obtain the desired mechanical properties. In general, it is known that the
shape and size of the solidification structures in a weld bead are those that directly affect
the mechanical properties thus, fine grains will result in good mechanical properties and,
therefore, good joint quality [16]. To improve the toughness in the joint is desirable
presence of acicular ferrite and lower oxygen content in the fusion zone (FZ) [23].
Currently there is little information in the scientific literature strictly focused on
development microstructural and its relationship with the mechanical properties in
underwater wet welding using FCAW-S process. Therefore, in this research work, the
FCAW-S process was applied in underwater conditions in ASTM A36 steel plates (1G
position). The influence of heat input caused by process parameters such as welding
current (I), arc voltage (E), and welding speed (v) on the final microstructure and the
microhardness of welding beads is described in detail.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chemical composition of the experimental material (ASTM A 36 steel and filler
metal) is given in Table 1. Three tests were made with different parameters for the
elaboration of the weld beads. The ASTM A36 steel plate was welded with the underwater
FCAW-S process inside the water tank using a wire that meets with AWS E71T-GS
specification and its chemical composition is showed in Table 1. The Esab EMP 235i
welding machine was used to obtain beads of 30 cm. The water column employed was 30
cm depth.

Table 1. Chemical composition of steel ASTM A36 and filler metal (% wt.)

The metallographic samples were characterized in the cross-section of the beads.

Conventional metallographic preparation techniques were used to be able to observe the
microstructure present in the welding zones and finally carry out Vickers Microhardness
measurements with 500g test load during 15 s and two measurements were made for each
weld zone (BM, HAZ and FZ). To determine the microstructure by scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) the samples were etched with Nital 2%.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 1 shows the welding beads obtained identified by low, medium and high heat
input, which numbered from 1 to 3, respectively. It is possible to observe that the beads
along 30 cm contain surface porosity and this is due to the underwater wet environment
but it is necessary to find a way to reduce that porosity. As can see, the porosity decreases
with increasing heat input.

Figure 1. Weld beads obtained.

The microstructure presents in the HAZ and FZ is similar for the three samples studied.
For this reason, it is decided to present only the microstructure of sample 3 (Figure 2). As
can be seen, in the macrograph (Figure 2A) the presence of internal pores is observed,
which, as mentioned above, is related to the accelerated cooling involved in the underwater
wet welding process and also by the instability of the electric arc that is characteristic of
the underwater FCAW-S process. Other authors [25–30] have also reported surface and
internal porosity in weld beads obtained by the FCAW process. In this context, Xu et.al
[30] studied the behavior of the underwater melt pool and their results showed that the
porosity in underwater wet welding is much higher that the presented in the onshore
welding, however, it is possible to reduce considerably the porosity in the underwater wet
welding using supersonic vibration. The supersonic vibration reduces the size of bubbles
in the melt pool and this decreases the porosity in the weld bead. Another form to decreases
the porosity in the weld beads is using higher heat input that depends of the welding
parameters configuration.
In relation the microstructural analysis, the base metal (BM) is constituted by ferrite
and pearlite (Figure 2B). These phases will be transformed when the steel plate is welded
since different temperatures are obtained in each welding zone. The HAZ is divided into
three other regions: the intercritical (HAZ-IC – Figure 2C), the fine-grained (HAZ-FG –
Figure 2D) and the grain-growing (HAZ-GC – Figure 2E) region. The microstructure
presents in each sub-regions of the HAZ is different because the peak temperatures of ones
are different.
In the intercritical zone (HAZ-IC) there are a partial refining of the microstructure
because the temperature of this region is between 727°C (A 1, lower equilibrium
temperature between ferrite and austenite) and the austenitization temperature. So, the
perlite from BM is transformed to austenite during the heating and this austenite transforms
to fine perlite in the cooling. Then, the microstructure in this zone is composed by ferrite
and fine perlite as showed in Figure 2C. The microhardness measurement in this was 197
HV and is coherent with the microstructure.
On the other hand, the fine-grain zone (HAZ-FG) is composed by ferrite, perlite and
bainite as showed in Figure 2D. In this zone, the peak temperature is higher the
austenitization temperature (A3, upper equilibrium temperature between ferrite and
austenite) and this allows the nucleation of austenite grains that transforms to other
products depending of cooling rate. In this case, the transformation product in this region
was a mixture of perlite, bainite and ferrite and the microhardness value of 251 HV is
according to the microstructure.
The microstructure in the coarsening grain zone (HAZ-GC) is showed in Figure 2E
and is composed by martensite, since the microstructure and microhardness value of 373
indicate the presence of this microconstituent. The peak temperature in this region is well
above A3 and thus, the austenite grains grow increasing the hardenability and favoring the
formation of martensite.
Finally, in the fusion zone (FZ), a totally martensitic microstructure is obtained
presenting microhardness values of 412 HV, which is due to the rapid cooling that takes
place within the underwater wet welding (Figure 2F). The typical columnar growth of this
region of the weld is also observed.
Figure 3 presents the hardness profiles for the three levels of heat input studied. It can
be seen that the microhardness results of the ZAC and ZF are higher than those of the base
metal. In addition, for the FZ, it is noted that the increase in heat input decreases the
microhardness in the one.
What is sought in welding is that it be strong enough to be able to withstand the forces
and/or loads that are applied to it. Previously it was seen that in the FZ there is martensite.
The characteristic of martensite is that the harder, the more brittle the material becomes;
therefore, this microstructure is not desirable in the FZ. So that, it is important to seek to
decrease the hardness in this region, either by increasing the heat input or by changing in
the chemical composition of the filler metal.
Figure 2. Metallographic characterization of the different welding regions (sample 3). BM: Base Metal;
HAZ-IC: Intercritical heat affected zone; HAZ-FG: Fine-grained heat-affected zone; HAZ-CG: Coarse-
grained heat-affected zone; ZF: Fusion zone; F: Ferrite; P: Pearlite; M: Martensite; B: Bainite.

Figure 3. Profile of microhardness measurements Vickers in the samples studied.

CONCLUSIONS

The experimental results show that the microstructure in the HAZ-CG and in the FZ is
basically constituted by martensite for the three energy levels studied, which is related to
the high cooling rates involved in the process. The experimental conditions that presented
the best results were carried out with a heat input greater than 1000 J/mm. The increase in
heat input decreases both the hardness and the surface porosity, obtaining better quality
welds, however, even with heat input greater than 1000 J/mm the martensitic phase
continues appearing in the FZ and the resulting hardness remains with very high values.
These behavior shows that it is still necessary improve the combination of processing
parameters in order to obtain better quality in the weld beads. Finally, as future work, it is
proposed to change the filler metal or seek a better configuration of parameters to generate
a higher heat input with the purpose of changing the microstructure in the FZ and therefore
improve the mechanical properties in the welded component
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We appreciate the financial support for this research from the Tecnológico Nacional
de México and Consultores Asociados en Soldadura funds and the knowledge acquired.
The author P Costa thanks CONACYT for their support in the form of postdoctoral
fellowship

CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

The authors declare no competing interests.

DATA AVAILABILITY

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available
from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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421
Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology 9(2) (2024) 421-440

Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology

Journal homepage: http://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/ijost/

Effects of Heat Input and Preheating Temperature on the

Microstructure and Hardness of Repairing the Heat-
Affected Zone of Thermite Welded Rail Head Surface
Prapas Muangjunburee 1, Hein Zaw Oo1, Shayfull Zamree Abd Rahim2, Buntoeng Srikarun3,*

1
Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, Thailand
2
Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), Arau, Perlis, Malaysia
3
Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
*Correspondence E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT ARTICLE INFO

Article History:
The heat-affected zone (HAZ) of a thermite weld contains Submitted/Received 21 Feb 2024
First Revised 01 Apr 2024
softer parts that are weak and need to be modified for best
Accepted 16 Jun 2024
rail performance. This study examines how welding heat First Available online 18 Jun 2024
inputs of FCAW, and preheating temperatures affect the Publication Date 01 Sep 2024
microstructure and hardness of its weld metal and HAZ after ____________________
repairing the weak area of thermite welded rail. To improve Keyword:
Interlamellar spacing,
the weak area’s microstructure and hardness without Pearlite,
degrading the original thermite-welded rail, a groove was Rail,
carved from the center of the HAZ on the rail head and filled Repair weld,
Thermite welding.
using flux-cored arc welding. The investigation used two
welding currents and preheating temperatures referred to as
FCAW 1 and FCAW 2. The optical and electron microscopic
characterization of the pearlite microstructure and
interlamellar spacing were carried out. Additionally, micro-
Vickers hardness testing is done. The typical hardness of the
HAZ in FCAW 1 was 410 HV, whereas, in FCAW 2, it was 340
HV. The interlamellar spacings of HAZ in FCAW 1 and FCAW
2 are 80 and 105 nm, respectively. The faster cooling made
pearlite interlamellar spacing finer. The decrease in lamellar
spacing leads to an increase in hardness. For thermite
welded rail head surface HAZ repair, greater heat input and
preheating temperature with slow cooling rate work.

© 2024 Tim Pengembang Jurnal UPI

 Muangjunburee et al., Effects of Heat Input and Preheating Temperature on the Microstructure … | 422

1. INTRODUCTION

Railway steels are manufactured with exact specifications and joined together to provide
a continuous structure for railway systems. In the context of the railway infrastructure, it is
essential to investigate the characteristics of rail-welded sections (Bonniot et al., 2018; Jiang
et al., 2017). In recent times, there has been a significant change in the method used for
joining railway tracks, since the traditional method of employing plates for bolting has been
replaced. However, it is generally observed that bolted joints exhibit higher maintenance
expenses and are susceptible to failure at the joints. Continuous welded rail is utilized for
several significant reasons, with the primary objective being the reduction of maintenance
costs (Skyttebol et al., 2005). The installation of continuously welded rails results in a smooth
surface in comparison to rail junctions that are fastened with bolts. It allows the train to pass
more efficiently and reduces any unwanted vibrations and noises (Hauser, 1978). The safety
and stability of a continuous rail system depend mainly on the quality of the welded joint
between rails (Lesage et al., 2023). Welded rail sections have different microstructures and
mechanical properties than rail steel. Thus, damage to the welded rail and damage to the
original rail are different (Kendall et al., 2022).
Thermite welding is one of the most employed processes to install new rails and repair
broken rails around the world (Yuan et al., 2010; Saita et al., 2013). Thermite welding is a
recognized technique in field operations due to several factors (Kewalramani et al., 2023).
These include the reasonable cost of equipment and consumables, a simple setup process, no
disruption to routine railway operations, the portability of equipment, and the ability to weld
many rails (Ilić et al., 1999; Schroeder & Poirier, 1984). The rail weld joint quality is affected
by a significant component, namely the reduced hardness observed in the softening zones.
These zones are present at the end of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) close to the base rail
(Weingrill et al., 2019).
The primary damage originates mainly from the alterations in the metallurgical and
mechanical characteristics of the HAZs (Su et al., 2020). The most common microstructure
observed in rail steel utilized in global railway industries is mostly pearlite microstructure. This
is attributed to its high strength, good wear resistance, and cost-effective manufacturing
(Tressia et al., 2020). One of the primary challenges associated with thermite welding relates
to the undesired spheroidization of pearlite and the subsequent decrease in hardness
observed inside the HAZ region (Liu et al., 2021). Numerous investigations have provided
evidence supporting the presence of reduced hardness and the formation of a spheroidized
microstructure inside the HAZ of thermite-welded rails (Kozyrev et al., 2020; Li et al., 2011;
Merıç et al., 2002). The hardness value of the HAZs is shown to be lower than that of the rail
steel, which can result in significant localized plastic deformation and battering (Su et al.,
2020). In the past, rail grinding was used to remove the batter. Weld batter cannot be
controlled specifically by rail grinding (Mutton & Alvarez, 2004). As a result, it is important to
explore another option for enhancing the soft region at the HAZ of thermite welds.
To minimize plastic deformation, commonly referred to as batter, occurring on the running
surface of the rail in the HAZ of a thermite weld, Hernández et al. (2016) employed laser
cladding. Nevertheless, a significant challenge in laser cladding is the presence of martensite
phases. This study demonstrates the effective improvement of the HAZ in thermite welds
using laser cladding technique accompanied by controlled heat treatments. Due to its high
price and limited applicability in the field, laser cladding is difficult to select. Hence, it is
necessary to determine and evaluate an affordable welding technique.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.17509/ijost.v9i2.71238
p- ISSN 2528-1410 e- ISSN 2527-8045
423 | Indonesian Journal of Science & Technology, Volume 9 Issue 2, September 2024 Hal 421-440

Flux-core arc welding (FCAW) is a commonly used welding technique for the maintenance
of damaged rails (Dahl et al., 1995). FCAW mainly utilizes flux-cored wire electrodes rather
than solid wire electrodes. Several researchers have conducted studies on the repair of
running surface rails using gas metal arc welding and flux-cored arc welding methods
(Grossoni et al., 2021; Allie et al., 2011a; Aglan et al., 2013; Allie et al., 2011b). Previous
investigations focused exclusively on the repair of damaged rails.
A potential issue of thermite rail welding is the occurrence of surface defects on the welded
rails before the joint's expected endurance. In the industry of railway infrastructure, this
problem has existed for a very long time. Over a long period of application, thermite-welded
rails may undergo the formation of surface defects. One limitation of thermite rail welding,
which adversely affects the endurance and strength of the weld, is the formation of cementite
spheroidization and the subsequent reduction in hardness observed in the HAZ of the
thermite weld. To effectively handle this problem on the service rails, it is imperative that the
methods used are both easy and efficient.
Moreover, a groove on the worn thermite weld surface of operational rails is simple to
create. Flux-cored arc welding is highly practical for field sites due to its ability to utilize the
same power source as MMA welding. There is no need for expensive procedures or
equipment to repair the damaged surface on the thermite weld at the railway site. The
parameters and results obtained from this study provide the potential for fast and cost-
effective implementation in the actual railway engineering industry. This study aims to repair
the soft zone at the inter-critical HAZ of thermite-welded rails using FCAW, variable welding
heat inputs, and preheating temperatures. This study also examines how welding heat inputs
and preheating temperatures affect the microstructure and hardness of FCAW weld metal
and its HAZ.
2. METHODS
2.1. Experimental Procedures
The R260 rail steel type was joined together using the thermite welding process. Thermite
welding was performed with an Australian Thermit welding set. Flux-cored arc welding
(FCAW) with a 1.6 mm pearlitic wire electrode was used to fill a slot that was 10 mm in
diameter and 5 mm in depth made at the thermite weld’s HAZs (see Figure 1). The
quantitative analysis of chemical composition for as-received R260 rail and thermite weld was
examined using a Thermo ARL Model 3460 optical emission spectroscopy (OES). Table 1
provides the chemical composition of the welding electrode, thermite weld, and rail steel.
The chemical composition of the FCAW electrode was from the manufacturer. An OES
technique was employed to analyze the chemical composition of rail steel and thermite
welds. Welding voltage, travel speed, and electrode polarity were 25 V, 45 cm/min, and direct
current electrode positive (DCEP) for both conditions. A flow rate of 20 l/min was maintained
using pure CO2 gas as a shielding gas.
This study compares two welding conditions with varying currents and preheating
temperatures. Throughout the paper, the first condition will be referred to as FCAW 1 and
the second as FCAW 2. FCAW 1 used a welding current of 200 A and a preheating temperature
of 350°C, whereas FCAW 2 used a welding current of 250 A and a preheating temperature of
500°C. The heat input of FCAW 1 and FCAW 2 was 6.7 kJ/cm and 8.3 kJ/cm, respectively. To
perform welding on railway steel, it is necessary to subject it to a preheating process at a
temperature of 350°C, as determined by the carbon equivalent calculation outlined in
equation 1 (Alhassan & Bashiru, 2021), resulting in a carbon equivalent value of 0.94%. The
FCAW 2 sample was wrapped with a ceramic wool blanket after welding to keep up the
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cooling rate, but the FCAW 1 sample was not. Figure 2 displays a flowchart outlining the
concise experimental procedures for two different conditions.

1 1 1 1 1
Carbon equivalent (%) = C + Mn + Si + Cr + Mo + Ni (1)
6 24 5 4 15

Figure 1. Schematic of groove location to repair thermite HAZ.

Table 1. Chemical composition of FCAW electrode, rail steel, and thermite weld metal.
Elements C Si S Mn Cr P Ni Mo V Cu Al Fe
FCAW 0.13 0.64 - 1.7 0.48 - - 0.53 - - - Rest
Electrode
Rail Steel 0.78 0.31 0.01 0.75 0.04 0.1 - - - - - Rest
Thermite 0.54 0.67 0.007 1.05 0.18 - 0.07 0.03 0.09 0.03 0.16 Rest
Weld

Figure 2. Schematic brief experimental procedures.

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2.2. Metallographic Analysis

The macrostructure of the repaired HAZ of thermite weld on the rail head surface using
FCAW welding was cross-sectionally analyzed using an Olympus SZ2-ET stereo camera. An
optical microscope (OM) from Carl Zeiss Axio Scope.A1 and a Quanta 400 FEI scanning
electron microscope equipped with Oxford energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) were
employed for the microscopic analysis. The metallographic samples were ground using a
series of silicon carbide papers and a suspension of 3 µm alumina. To reveal the
microstructures, a solution consisting of 2% nitric acid and 98% ethanol, known as the 2%
initial solution, was employed for etching all of the samples.
2.3. Microhardness Testing
The MMT-X7B model micro-Vickers hardness tester, made in Japan by Matsuzawa
Company, was used to collect the measurements over a cross-section of the welded rail
sample at various locations, such as the weld metal, HAZ, and base rail. Under 2 mm from the
top surface, the micro-Vickers hardness of the samples was measured. Loads of 200 g (HV0.2)
and 10 seconds dwell time were used to capture the hardness profiles at intervals of 0.5 mm.
2.4. Measuring the interlamellar spacing of pearlite
The interlamellar spacings of pearlite were measured on SEM images using Image J
software. The interlamellar spacing of pearlite from the base Rail steel, thermite weld metal,
HAZ of FCAW 1, and HAZ of FCAW 2 was measured and the obtained results were compared.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Optical Microscopy (Macro and Microstructure)
The macro and microstructures of FCAW 1 and FCAW 2 as captured by an optical
microscope are depicted in Figures 3 and 4. In Figures 3 and 4, the macrographs show a
variety of locations (including the HAZ and the weld metal from thermite and FCAW) and
confirm that no cracks and defects were present in the cross-sectional welded sample. The
HAZ sizes of FCAW were measured at 2 mm from the top surface of the railhead, and they
averaged around 5 mm on both sides. It can be observed in the macrographs that the FCAW
weld metal and HAZ appeared between the boundary of the thermite weld and the base rail.
This also indicates that both thermite weld metal and base rail steel were unaffected by the
FCAW process. The location of specific microstructures is shown on their corresponding
macrographs of FCAW 1 and FCAW 2 (see Figures 3 and 4). In both conditions, the
microstructures of thermite weld and its HAZs exhibit pearlite microstructures with pro
eutectoid ferrite. Near the base rail, where the HAZ of the thermite ends, spherodized pearlite
microstructure is shown. Because of its altered microstructure, this region of thermite weld
is rather soft. The main purpose of this research is to improve this specific area using the
FCAW process.
Thermite-welded samples can be analyzed by examining five main locations. The regions
for investigation include weld metal (WM), the coarse-grain HAZ (CGHAZ), the fine-grain HAZ
(FGHAZ), intercritical HAZ (ICHAZ), and the base rail (Burapa et al., 2024). In both conditions,
the microstructure of the thermite weld and its HAZs is similar. The thermite weld metal
microstructure shows pearlitic microstructure with larger grain and some pro-eutectoid
ferrite. The HAZs of thermite welded rail consist of three distinct zones. The HAZ adjacent to
the thermite weld metal exhibits a pearlitic microstructure with a larger grain size, but smaller
than that of the weld metal. The grain size of the CGHAZ is larger in comparison to the grain

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size of the FGHAZ and ICHAZ. Within CGHAZ and ICHAZ, the pearlitic FGHAZ was identified.
The ICHAZ was observed at the boundary of HAZ adjacent to the base rail steel. The R260 rail
was utilized as the base material for both conditions. The microstructure of the R260 rail is
composed of a fully pearlitic structure. Pearlitic microstructure with fine grain is shown in the
HAZs of FCAW in both conditions. Pearlite microstructure is influenced by its interlamellar
spacing. However, under an optical microscope, pearlite's interlamellar spacing is not visible.
The microstructures of FCAW weld metals exhibit variations under different conditions. In the
case of FCAW 1, the weld metal's microstructure is bainite, whereas the weld metal
microstructure in FCAW 2 is entirely acicular ferrite. It can be noted that varying heat inputs
and preheating temperatures altered the FCAW weld microstructure.

Figure 3. Macro and microstructure (Optical) of FCAW 1.

Figure 4. Macro and microstructure (Optical) of FCAW 2.

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3.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

SEM images of pearlitic rail steel (R260) under different magnifications are displayed in
Figure 5. The SEM micrograph in Figure 5 (a) shows cementite as white and ferrite as black.
The color of pearlite microstructure revealed in SEM images differs from light micrographs.
When observed at high magnification, the lamellar eutectoid structure of pearlite becomes
visible in an electron microscopic image with greater resolution, as shown in Figure 5b. The
pearlite structure can be identified by its presence of a parallel nanoscale lamella structure
composed of ferrite and cementite. The formation of this structure originates from the
isothermal decomposition of austenite at around 723°C. Carbon steel containing a pearlitic
microstructure is commonly employed as the primary material for rail steel. The lamellar
microstructure referred to as pearlite consists of aligned cementite lamellae embedded inside
a softer ferrite matrix. The pearlitic rail steel exhibits higher wear resistance and strength. The
mechanical properties of this microstructure are well-suited for utilization in the railway
(Nikas et al., 2017; Masoumi et al., 2019).
In Figure 6, the SEM micrographs of thermite weld metal with different magnifications are
shown. The microstructure of thermite weld metal exhibits a lamellar pearlite structure.
When comparing the base rail steel, it is observed that the pro eutectoid ferrite phase exhibits
scattering within the pearlitic microstructure in the thermite weld metal, as shown in Figure
6a. Since the process of thermite welding can be considered a form of casting, it was
anticipated that the weld metal microstructure would mostly exhibit elongated and coarse
grains that are oriented along the direction of heat transfer. The occurrence of pro eutectoid
ferrite formation in the weld metal microstructures can be attributed to the interaction
between the peak temperature and the rate of cooling. The interlamellar spacings of pearlite
in the thermite weld metal are narrower than those of the base rail. Figure 6b shows the
microstructure of thermite weld metal at higher magnification.
Figure 7 displays the SEM images revealing the spheroidization of pearlite at the ICHAZ of
thermite weld metal under different magnifications. The images are taken at two different
magnifications: 25,000X in Figure 7a and 50,000X in Figure 7b. Spherical cementite phases
were observed under the SEM. The spheroidized microstructures exhibit an appearance of
cementite in a spherical morphology, which is uniformly dispersed throughout a ferrite
matrix. The spheroidization process typically takes place at the eutectoid temperature of
723°C (Fegredo et al., 1993). Pearlite commonly has a lamellar morphology. The formation of
a spheroidized microstructure results in reduced hardness, hence rendering the HAZ
susceptible to weakening (Oo & Muangjunburee, 2023).
Figure 8 shows the SEM micrograph of FCAW weld metal under different conditions. The
microstructure of FCAW weld metal varied depending on the welding conditions. Bainite
microstructure is visible in the weld metal of FCAW 1 (Figure 8a), whereas acicular ferrite with
metallic inclusions comprises the weld metal of FCAW 2 (Figure 8b). During the process of
bainite formation, the ferrite phase transforms a lath morphology that is aligned with the
austenite grain boundaries. In contrast to bainite, the formation of acicular ferrite occurs
through nucleation on the surface of intragranular nonmetallic inclusions (Madariaga et al.,
2001). The initial acicular ferrite plates develop on the non-metallic inclusions, while the
nucleation of secondary acicular ferrite takes place on the initially formed ferrite plates (Loder
et al., 2017).

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Figure 5. SEM micrographs of rail steel (a) 5,000 x magnification (b) 50,000 x magnification.

Figure 6. SEM micrographs of thermite weld metal (a) 5,000 x magnification (b) 50,000 x
magnification.

Figure 7. SEM micrographs of spheroidized cementite at intercritical HAZ of thermite weld

(a) 25,000 x magnification (b) 50,000 x magnification.
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Figure 8. SEM micrographs of FCAW weld metal (a) FCAW 1 (b) FCAW 2.
The elemental microanalysis of FCAW 1 weld metal was conducted using EDX. The EDX
spectra investigated on the SEM image of FCAW 1 weld metal are shown in Figure 9. The weld
metal of FCAW 1 is mainly composed of iron (Fe), and small amounts of manganese (Mn),
silicon (Si), and chromium (Cr) are also detected. Three locations were examined on the SEM
image. The results of elemental spectra exhibited similarity across all points.
Figure 10 shows the SEM image of FCAW 2 weld metal and its EDX spectra. The main area
of the EDX analysis in FCAW 2 weld metal was metallic inclusion. The detected components
in the inclusion were determined to be a mixture consisting of titanium oxide and manganese
sulfide. The EDX spectra show that the inclusion has a high concentration of oxygen,
manganese, and titanium, and a low concentration of sulfur. The inclusion of titanium and
manganese is important for the formation of acicular ferrite. Titanium can react with oxygen
to generate various titanium oxides. These titanium oxides have been identified to have a
high level of reactivity, particularly in serving as nucleation sites for the formation of acicular
ferrite. The high content of manganese facilitates the incorporation of inclusions and
promotes the initiation of acicular ferrite formation (Loder et al., 2017). Specifically, the
inclusion contains two different regions, characterized by various colors of grey and black.
Based on the results of spectrum 1 at the grey area, high concentrations of manganese and
titanium were observed. The results from spectrum 2 characterized at the black area exhibit
somewhat lower levels of titanium and oxygen in comparison to the elemental analysis results
of spectrum 1. It can be noted that the color of the inclusion is influenced by the concentration
of titanium present inside it. The results of spectrum 3 and spectrum 4 show the comparable
elemental composition results of FCAW 1.
The SEM microstructure of the HAZs for FCAW 1 is depicted in Figure 11a at a magnification
of 10,000x and in Figure 11b at a magnification of 50,000x. Figure 12a and Figure 12b show
the microscopic structures of the HAZs for FCAW 2 at 10,000X and 50,000X magnification,
respectively. The lamellar pearlite microstructure has been revealed in both cases. The
lamellar spacings of pearlite exhibited variations under different welding conditions. In the
context of FCAW 1, the use of lower heat input and shorter preheating temperatures, in
comparison to FCAW 2, led to an accelerated cooling rate. A more rapid cooling rate leads to
the production of a finer lamellar spacing of pearlite due to the accelerated transition of
austenite into pearlite. A reduced interlamellar spacing contributes to enhanced hardness in
the steel (Modi et al., 2001).
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Figure 9. EDX elemental analysis on the SEM micrograph of FCAW 1 weld metal.

Figure 10. EDX elemental analysis on the SEM micrograph of FCAW 2 weld metal.
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Figure 11. SEM micrographs of HAZ of FCAW 1 (a) 10,000 x magnification (b) 50,000 x
magnification.

Figure 12. SEM micrographs of HAZ of FCAW 2 (a) 10,000 x magnification (b) 50,000 x
magnification.
3.3. Hardness
Figure 13 shows the hardness profiles of the normal thermite weld, FCAW 1, and FCAW 2
conditions across the thermite weld metal to base rail. These results were acquired at 2 mm
from the top surface of the rail head. The heat generated by FCAW affected two regions
located on the measurement line. These regions refer to the area close to the fusion line of
the thermite weld and the area close to the end of the thermite HAZ near the base rail (see
Figure 13). The hardness values of two HAZs of FCAW are found to be similar under both
conditions. The main concern to improve in this study is at ICHAZ of thermite welded
condition. This area’s hardness is around 250 HV. After repairing the low hardness area at the
ICHAZ of thermite weld with FCAW 1 condition, the hardness is around 410 HV. Conversely,
when employing the FCAW 2 condition, the hardness is approximately 340 HV. When
compared to the hardness of the original rail and thermit weld metal, the values obtained
after repair using both FCAW conditions are higher. However, the hardness values of FCAW 2
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(about 340 HV) are comparable to those of the original rail steel (about 300 HV) and thermite
weld metal (about 320 HV). Compared to the original rails steel and thermite weld metal,
FCAW 1 has much higher hardness values. The hardness of the weld metal by FCAW 2 is
around 325 HV, while the hardness of the weld metal by FCAW 1 is around 385 HV. The
identical alloyed commercial electrode was employed; however, variations in welding heat
input and preheating temperature resulted in a difference of around 60 HV in the weld metal
hardness. In both FCAW 1 and FCAW 2, the hardness of HAZ is higher than that of the weld
metal. It can be noted that the microstructure is significantly important for evaluating the
hardness.
3.4. Measuring the Interlamellar Spacing of Pearlite
Table 2 presents a comparison of the measured interlamellar spacing and average
hardness values for the base rail, thermite weld metal, HAZ of FCAW 1, and HAZ of FCAW 2.
The interlamellar spacings were determined using SEM images. The HAZs of FCAW are
situated on the pearlitic rail steel and their microstructure shows lamellar pearlite. Moreover,
the initial region of FCAW’s HAZ is characterized as a spheroidized microstructure, where the
hardness decreases. The interlamellar spacings of the base rail and normal thermite weld are
around 230 nm and 180 nm. The interlamellar spacings of HAZ of FCAW 1 and FCAW 2 are
around 80 nm and 105 nm, respectively. Based on the results, rail steel exhibited the broadest
lamellar spacing, while the HAZ of FCAW 1 displayed the narrowest lamellar spacing.
Figure 14 illustrates how it affects interlamellar spacing on the hardness of pearlitic
microstructures. The hardness of pearlite decreases as the interlamellar spacing becomes
broader. The interlamellar spacing of rail steel exhibited the greatest width, while its average
hardness demonstrated the lowest value in comparison to the other conditions. The present
investigation revealed that the HAZ of FCAW 1 exhibited the shortest interlamellar spacing of
pearlite and the maximum hardness. However, the hardness of FCAW 1 is not equivalent to
that of rail steel and the original thermite weld metal. In contrast, the hardness of the HAZ in
FCAW 2 is slightly greater than that observed in rail steel and thermite weld metal. A hardness
level below 350 HV is accepted as appropriate for the restoration of pearlitic rail steel due to
being comparable to its hardness.

Figure 13. Hardness profiles along thermite weld metal to parent rail steel.
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Table 2. Comparison between interlamellar spacing of pearlite and average hardness.

Techniques Rail Steel Thermite Weld HAZ of FCAW 1 HAZ of FCAW 2
Interlamellar Spacing 226 ± 24 nm 186 ± 19 nm 79 ± 10 nm 102 ± 12 nm
Average Hardness 299 ± 18 HV 320 ± 10 HV 409 ± 16 HV 341 ± 3 HV

Figure 14. Comparison of average hardness and interlamellar spacing of pearlite.

3.5. Discussion
This research studied the effects of welding heat inputs and preheating temperatures of
repair rail head surface by flux-cored arc welding at HAZ of thermite welded rail. Welding heat
input and preheating temperature affected the cooling rate of weld metal and its HAZs. The
cooling rate influenced the microstructure and hardness of the repair weld. The two different
welding currents and preheating temperature which influenced the cooling rate were applied
and compared for the best options.
The optimum size for the HAZ of thermite on the surface of the rail is around 18-20 mm.
The specific design of the slot located within the range of the HAZ surface is critical for this
study. The effect of the repair weld will not affect the quality of the initial thermite weld metal
and the base rail steel. Consequently, the slot was positioned in the center of the HAZ,
ensuring that all effects resulting from the FCAW were limited to the thermite HAZ
boundaries. The thermal effect caused by FCAW resulted in the alteration of the lower
hardness areas, leading to the re-austenitization of the spheroidized region within the HAZ of
the thermite weld. This re-austenitization was primarily driven by the heat emerging from the
FCAW welding process.
The heat generated during the FCAW process influenced both sizes of the slot. Due to the
high temperatures produced by the FCAW process, the spheroidized microstructure refined
into a fine pearlite microstructure. During the process of welding, the spheroidized cementite
transforms austenite, resulting in the formation of a pearlite microstructure at the eutectoid
temperature during cooling. The methodologies and results obtained from this study possess

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the potential for direct implementation in practical engineering contexts within the railway
industry, characterized by rapid implementation and cost-effectiveness.
Insufficient heat was observed to affect the ICHAZ areas near the unaffected rail during the
process of thermite welding. The process of spheroidization is mostly influenced by the stage
of partial austenitization and the faster cooling rate (Nishikawa & Goldenstein, 2019; Ankit et
al., 2015). As a consequence, the lamella pearlite structure undergoes a transformation
wherein sphere-shaped cementite forms on the ferrite matrix. Due to this process, the HAZs
created during thermite welding are substantially softer than the parent rail steel. The
presence of a spheroidized cementite in the HAZ of thermite welded rail is considered a
potential disadvantage of thermite rail welding due to its lower hardness. Therefore, these
areas are necessary to improve by a simple and cost-effective method.
FCAW is a highly efficient welding process that can be readily employed in railway
construction and maintenance sites. The FCAW procedure is commonly employed to repair
surface imperfections seen on conventional rail heads in practical applications. The FCAW
method presents several advantages in comparison to alternative welding methods. These
advantages involve superior deposition rates in comparison to gas metal arc welding
(GMAW), enhanced ease of use and adaptability in comparison to submerged arc welding
(SAW), and increased productivity when compared to shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
(Mohamat et al., 2012; Masoumi et al., 2019). Moreover, FCAW combines the most
advantageous settings of GMAW and SMAW to establish a remarkable welding procedure
(Holly et al., 2019).
The cooling rate is a significant factor in determining the final microstructure of weld metal
and HAZs. The cooling rate is influenced by the preheating temperature and heat input.
According to Aglan et al. (2013), a slower cooling rate is exhibited when the preheating
temperature and heat input increase. The consideration of the cooling rate of steel from the
austenitic stage is significant concerning the production of acicular ferrite. When subjected
to the same alloying, a faster cooling rate has the potential to result in the formation of bainite
nucleated at the grain boundaries. Conversely, a slower cooling rate is more likely to the
formation of acicular ferrite nucleated at the non-metallic inclusions (Abson, 2018). As a
result, the weld metal of FCAW 1 showed a bainitic microstructure, while the weld metal
microstructure of FCAW 2 revealed acicular ferrite phases.
Khan et al. (2019) observed that a higher cooling rate leads to a reduction in the
interlamellar spacing of pearlite. The interlamellar spacing in pearlite microstructure, where
the distance between two lamellae of cementite is a significant variable in determining the
hardness of pearlite. In a study published by Porcaro et al. (2019), pearlite exhibiting narrower
interlamellar spacings exhibited greater values of hardness. The hardness of pearlitic steel
increases when the interlamellar spacing decreases. The interlamellar spacings of pearlite in
the thermite weld metal are narrower than those of the base rail. Therefore, the hardness of
thermite weld metal is a bit higher than that of rail steel.
According to the results of this study, the HAZ of FCAW 1 exhibited an interlamellar spacing
of about 79 nm and a hardness value of approximately 409 HV. On the other hand, the HAZ
of FCAW 2 revealed a hardness value of approximately 340 HV and an interlamellar spacing
of approximately 100 nm. Additionally, Wu and Bhadeshia (2012) found that the pearlite with
interlamellar spacing of 50 nm showed 422 HV. The obtained result from the following
research demonstrates a similarity to the finest interlamellar spacing observed in pearlite at
HAZ of FCAW 1, measuring approximately 79 nm, and the hardness of this region was found
to be approximately 409 HV.

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The hardness of the repaired weld metal and its HAZs are crucial factors to consider. Table
3 provides the comparative studies of rail head repair under different rails and welding
processes. In this research, the original rail steel has a hardness of approximately 300 HV,
while the thermite weld metal demonstrates a hardness of approximately 320 HV. The
repaired weld metal and its HAZs should not be more than 350 HV because the hardness of
the repair weld should be comparable with the original thermite weld metal and base rail (Oo
& Muangjunburee, 2024). Based on the results and discussion, it can be determined that the
parameters of the FCAW 2 condition are the most suitable for repairing the thermite welded
rail head.

Table 3. Comparison of different repair welding processes and hardness of repaired weld
metal and HAZ.
Rail Repaired
Repaired Base Rail Repaired Repaired HAZ
References Steel Weld
Area Hardness Methods Weld Hardness
Grade Hardness
Hernández et al. Thermite Fully - Laser Pearlite 360 HBN -
(2016) Weld and Pearlitic Cladding
its HAZs Rail
Allie et al. Rail Head Pearlitic 375 HBW GMAW Ferrite 300 HBW 340 HBW
(2011a) Surface Rail and and 420 and 400
Bainitic HBW HBW
Rail
Aglan et al. Rail Head R260 360 HB GMAW Ferrite 313 HB 313 HB
(2013) Surface Rail
SaifulAkmal and Rail Head UIC-54 300 HV FCAW Acicular 381 HV 350 HV
Wahab (2021) Surface Rail Ferrite
Jun et al. (2016) Rail Head UIC60 310 HV GMAW Ferrite 320 HV 400 HV
Surface Gr.260 and
Rail Pearlite
Mat et al. Rail Head RE115 377 HV SMAW Delta 323 HV 419 HV
(2015) Surface Rail Ferrite
Mortazavian et Rail Head 880 C- 95 HRB SAW Ferrite, 80 HRB 92 HRB
al. (2020) Surface Mn Rail Pearlite
and
Austenite
Muangjunburee Rail Head BS 100A 330 HV SMAW Bainite 400HV -
et al. (2023) Surface and 450
HV
This study HAZ of R260 300 HV FCAW Bainite 385 HV 410 HV
(FCAW 1) thermite Rail
weld
surface
This study HAZ of R 260 300 HV FCAW Acicular 325 HV 340 HV
(FCAW 2) thermite Rail Ferrite
weld
surface

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 Muangjunburee et al., Effects of Heat Input and Preheating Temperature on the Microstructure … | 436

4. CONCLUSION

The subsequent conclusions can be clearly described:

(i) Despite using the same welding electrode, welding heat input and preheating
temperature altered the weld metal microstructure. The weld metal has a bainite
microstructure in FCAW 1 and acicular ferrite in FCAW 2. The hardness values depend on
the microstructure. Bainitic weld metal from FCAW 1 is harder than that from FCAW 2.
Weld metal hardness from FCAW 2 is 325 HV, while FCAW 1 is 385 HV, a difference of
around 60 HV.
(ii) The HAZ of FCAW 1 and 2 exhibited fine pearlitic microstructure with varied interlamellar
spacings. The rail steel exhibited the broadest lamellar spacing (226 ± 24 nm) and the
smallest (79 ± 10 nm) in the HAZ (HAZ) of FCAW 1.
(iii) The hardness of the pearlitic microstructure depends on interlamellar spacing. The higher
cooling rate reduced pearlite interlamellar spacing, resulting in a finer microstructure.
Hardness increases with lamellar spacing decrease. HAZ hardness in FCAW 1 was 410 HV.
This hardness is undesirable for pearlitic rail and thermite weld repairs in railway
applications.
(iv) Slow cooling was maintained by increasing heat input and preheating temperature. In
FCAW 2, HAZ and weld metal are comparable in hardness to rail steel and thermite weld
metal.
(v) The current research summarizes that when it comes to repairing the damaged area of
the thermite-welded rail head surface, it is highly recommended to use a high heat input
and preheating temperature.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research is funded by the National Science, Research and Innovation Fund (NSRF) and
Prince of Songkla University (Grant No. ENG6601092S), as well as the Center of Excellence in
Metals and Materials Engineering (CEMME) at Prince of Songkla University. The authors
would like to acknowledge Mr. Wissarut Sangwiman, the Managing Director of Pearlite
Construction Partnership (PCP) Company, Thailand, for his assistance in supporting the
thermite welding performed out in this study. Also, the authors are grateful to Mr. Kanisorn
Muangjunburee and Mr. Sittidet Yotsakun, who helped out with the FCAW welding
experiments.
6. AUTHORS’ NOTE

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this
article. The authors confirmed that the paper was free of plagiarism.
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Low temperature impact toughness of structural steel welds with different

welding processes

Article in KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering · July 2015

DOI: 10.1007/s12205-015-0042-8

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KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering (2015) 19(5):1431-1437 Structural Engineering
Copyright ⓒ2015 Korean Society of Civil Engineers
DOI 10.1007/s12205-015-0042-8 pISSN 1226-7988, eISSN 1976-3808
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TECHNICAL NOTE

Low Temperature Impact Toughness of Structural Steel Welds

with Different Welding Processes
Hyun-Seop Shin*, Ki-Tae Park**, Chin-Hyung Lee***, Kyong-Ho Chang****,
and Vuong Nguyen Van Do*****
Received January 25, 2014/Revised June 7, 2014/Accepted June 24, 2014/Published Online January 5, 2015

··································································································································································································································

Abstract

Influence of welding process and welding consumable on the impact toughness at low temperatures of the Heat Affected Zone
(HAZ) and the weld metal in a structural steel weldment was investigated. A comparison of the low temperature impact toughness
was made between the welded joints fabricated by Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
processes, respectively. The Charpy impact tests along with the microstructural observations and the hardness measurements were
carried out to derive the effective welding method to guarantee the higher impact toughness of the HAZ and the weld metal at low
temperatures. Standard V-notch Charpy impact specimens were prepared and tested under dynamic loading condition. Variation of
the Charpy impact energy with respect to the test temperature and that of the hardness across the welds were presented and correlated
with the microstructure and the welding process. Analysis of the results unveiled that the weld metal of the FCAW joint has a little
higher low temperature impact toughness owing to the higher nickel content, whilst the HAZ of the SMAW joint has much superior
impact toughness at low temperatures attributed to the lower heat input; thus the efficient welding method to ensure higher low
temperature impact toughness of the HAZ and the weld metal is to employ a low heat input welding process using a welding
consumable with high nickel content.
Keywords: low temperature impact toughness, heat affected zone, weld metal, welding consumable, welding process
··································································································································································································································

1. Introduction impact toughness was estimated in terms of the upper shelf

energy and the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. Bayraktar
In the past decade, the increasing demand for the natural et al. (2004) examined the impact toughness of the weld metal
resources such as oil and gas has prompted the construction of and the HAZ for pipeline laser welds by using a new type of
steel structures in cold regions. The application of steel structures impact tensile testing to have correct evaluation of the laser weld
in cold environments requires clarifying whether the steels toughness properties at low temperatures. Ibrahim et al. (2010)
satisfy the required impact toughness at low temperatures, since performed a comparative study on the fracture behavior of
steel becomes more vulnerable to brittle fracture by impact austenitic and duplex stainless steel weldments at low temperatures,
loading as the ambient temperature goes down. Welding is which were fabricated by both shielded metal arc welding and
essential for the fabrication of steel structural members. Thus, tungsten inert gas welding, through instrumented impact testing.
the low temperature impact toughness of the weld metal, the Recently, Lee et al. (2012) carried out an experiment to assess
HAZ (Heat Affected Zone) and the base metal of the welded the low temperature impact toughness of multi-pass butt-welded
steel structures constructed at cold regions should be evaluated high strength TMCP (Thermo-Mechanical Controlled Process)
so as to secure the structural integrity of the welded parts. Moitra steel welds. The experiment included the microstructural observation
et al. (2002) investigated the microstructural effects on the fracture and the Charpy impact test of the HAZ and the weld metal. The
toughness at low temperatures of the HAZ of 9Cr–1Mo steel experimental investigation was also conducted on conventional
welds through the simulated HAZ specimens. The low temperature structural steel welds for comparison. They insisted that in order

*Member, Senior Researcher, Structural Engineering Research Division, Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Goyang 411-712, Korea (E-mail:
[email protected])
**Research Fellow, Structural Engineering Research Division, Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Goyang 411-712, Korea (E-mail:
[email protected])
***Member, Assistant Professor, The Graduate School of Construction Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, Korea (Corresponding
Author. E-mail: [email protected])
****Member, Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental & Plant Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, Korea (E-mail: [email protected])
*****Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (E-mail: [email protected])

− 1431 −
 Hyun-Seop Shin, Ki-Tae Park, Chin-Hyung Lee, Kyong-Ho Chang and Vuong Nguyen Van Do

to guarantee the low temperature impact toughness of the welded Table 1. Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties of the
joints, adoption of an appropriate welding process and suitable Base Material used
welding electrode should be made. Chemical composition (mass, %)
It has been known that welding process and welding consum- Base metal C Si Mn P S
able have considerable effects on the performance of steel EH36 0.08 0.32 1.5 0.008 0.003
welded joints. Reddy et al. (1998) studied the resistance against Mechanical properties
projectile penetration of the HAZs and the weld metals in high- Ultimate Charpy
Yield Stress Elongation
Base metal strength impact energy
strength low-alloy steel weldments fabricated by three different (MPa) (%)
(MPa) (J)
welding processes. The ballistic performance of the weldments EH36 500 572 22 429 (−40oC)
was explained on the basis of the microstructures, the hardness
gradients across the weldments and the thermal efficiencies of
the three welding processes. Magudeeswaran et al. (2008) investi- for use in cold environments. Table 1 shows the chemical
gated the influence of welding process and welding consumable composition and the mechanical properties of the base metal
on the transverse tensile and impact properties of armour grade based on the mill test certificate. Typical ferrite + pearlite features
quenched and tempered steel joints and reported that welding are revealed in the base metal microstructure in which the
process and welding electrode significantly affect the transverse portion of ferrite is much larger (see Fig. 1). Bevel butt joint
tensile strength and the impact toughness of the welded joints. configuration with the root gap of 6 mm, as shown in Fig. 2, has
However, they focused on the weld metal properties, and thus been prepared for joining the plates in order to secure the notch
limited information on the HAZ impact toughness was provided. position at the weld metal and the HAZ in the impact test
Moreover, in their work, the test temperature was confined to specimen. Two weld specimens were constructed, i.e. one was
room temperature; hence the effects that welding process and fabricated by SMAW process with 15 welding passes using an
welding consumable have on the low temperature impact tough- AC arc welding machine and the other was joined by FCAW
ness of structural steel welds are still unknown. Ren et al. (2009) process with 9 welding passes employing a CO2 semi-automatic
explored the effects of alloying elements in welding wires and welding machine. The welding consumables used to fabricate
welding process on the microstructures and low-temperature
impact toughness of weld metals. They indicated that optimal
contents of alloying elements in welding electrode together with
an appropriate welding heat input can improve the low temperature
impact toughness of weld metals. However, their work was
limited to the weld metal toughness of the submerged arc welded
pipeline steel.
In this study, the low temperature impact toughness of structural
steel welded joints fabricated with different welding processes
was evaluated through the Charpy impact test along with metallur-
gical observation and hardness measurement in order to find out
the effective welding method to guarantee the higher impact
toughness of the HAZ and the weld metal at low temperatures.
The welding processes employed are Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW) and Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW), which are
representative welding processes used in construction, nuclear
Fig. 1. Microstructure of the Base Metal
power plants and ship buildings and require different welding
heat input and different welding electrode during implementation.
The weld fillers used are welding consumables for steels for low
temperature use. Effects of the welding process and the welding
consumable on the impact toughness of the welded joints at low
temperatures were examined based on the absorbed energies, the
microstructures and the hardness; thus the efficient welding
method was derived.

2. Materials and Methods

The base material used in this study is EH36 TMCP steel plate
with 20 mm thickness, which is equivalent to ASTM A131 steel.
The TMPC steel is widely used in ship buildings and is guaranteed Fig. 2. Joint Configuration and Weld Specimen Size

− 1432 − KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering

 Low Temperature Impact Toughness of Structural Steel Welds with Different Welding Processes

Table 2. Chemical Compositions and Mechanical Properties of the Table 3. Welding Conditions and Process Parameters
Welding Consumables used
Chemical composition (mass, %) (a) Weld Specimen Made by SMAW Process
Welding electrode C Si Mn P S Ni Ti B Current Voltage Speed Heat Input
PASS Remarks
(A) (V) (cm/min) (KJ/cm)
S-76LTH
0.08 0.35 1.35 0.013 0.004 0.45 0.018 0.0015 1 170 20 ~ 25 15.7 12.9
(4ø)
Supercored 81-K2 2 170 20 ~ 25 26.3 8.7
0.07 0.36 1.05 0.015 0.006 1.55 0.05 0.004
(1.4ø) 3 170 20 ~ 25 22.3 10.3
Mechanical properties 4 170 20 ~ 25 17.9 12.9
Yield Stress Ultimate strength Elongation 5 170 20 ~ 25 17.7 13.0 Welding
Welding electrode polarity: AC
(MPa) (MPa) (%)
6 170 20 ~ 25 15.1 15.2
S-76LTH 540 590 30 Preheat
7 170 20 ~ 25 17.9 12.9
Supercored 81-K2 607 636 28 Temperature:
8 170 20 ~ 25 13.6 16.9
Not applied
9 170 20 ~ 25 14.4 16.0
10 170 20 ~ 25 15.8 14.5 Inter-pass
the weld specimens were S-76LTH for SMAW process and Temperature:
11 170 20 ~ 25 21.4 10.7 Up to 150oC
Supercored 81-K2 for FCAW process, which were low-hydrogen 12 170 20 ~ 25 14.3 16.1
welding electrodes and were produced in accordance with the 13 170 20 ~ 25 18.6 12.4
AWS A5.5 and AWS A5.29 specifications, respectively. The 14 170 20 ~ 25 16.6 13.8
weld fillers deposited are suited for steels targeted to low 15 170 20 ~ 25 13.8 16.6
temperature use. The chemical compositions and mechanical
properties of the welding consumables are presented in Table 2. (b) Weld Specimen Fabricated by FCAW Process
Prior to welding, welding electrode should be baked to reduce Current Voltage Speed Heat Input
PASS Remarks
the diffusible hydrogen content of the weld metal. In this study, (A) (V) (cm/min) (KJ/cm)
the electrodes were dried in 350 ~ 400oC oven for two hours, and 1 300 32 45.2 12.7 Welding
kept warm in 100 ~ 150oC incubator after the heating. The weld- 2 300 32 48.2 12.0 polarity:
3 300 32 37.9 15.2 DC(+)
ing conditions and process parameters used in the fabrication of
the respective weld specimen are typical of industrial practice 4 300 32 34.6 16.6 Preheat
and are given in Table 3. 5 310 32 30.0 19.8 Temperature:
6 310 32 30.0 19.8 Not applied
After the welding was over, microstructural analyses were
7 310 32 30.0 19.8 Inter-pass
carried out using the OLYMPUS PME3 optical microscope.
8 310 32 30.0 19.8 Temperature:
Conventional metallographic procedures were followed to prepare Up to 150oC
9 310 32 30.0 19.8
the specimens for microstructural examinations. The samples
were extracted from the weld metal, the HAZ and the base
material of the respective weldment. Then, they were polished
and etched by a 2% Nital solution for about 20 ~ 30s. Moreover,
Vicker’s microhardness testing machine (with diamond pyramid
indenter of 10 kg transverse load) was used for measuring the
hardness across the welds. The hardness was then correlated with
the microstructure and the welding process.
The Charpy impact tests were carried out using the Tinius
Olsen Charpy impact machine with standard Charpy V notch
specimens (10 × 10 × 55 mm) machined as per KS B 0809 (2001).
In order to obtain the effective welding process to ensure the
superior impact toughness at low temperatures of the steel
welded joints, specimens were extracted from the weld metal (a)
and the HAZ (b) as shown in Fig. 3. The impact test specimen
was cut with the centerline of its height corresponding to that of
the plate thickness, and the notch face of the specimen was
chosen perpendicular to the surface of the weld piece, with the
location of the notch measured relative to the centerline of the
Fig. 3. Notch Locations of the Impact Test Specimens
root gap or relative to the fusion line (Lee et al., 2014). This
allowed for impact tests where the notch was in the weld metal
and in the HAZ, respectively. The impact tests were conducted in standard specifications. The tests were performed in the temper-
accordance with KS B 0810 (2003) and KS B 0821 (2007) ature range from -60oC to -30oC at intervals of 10oC including

Vol. 19, No. 5 / July 2015 − 1433 −

 Hyun-Seop Shin, Ki-Tae Park, Chin-Hyung Lee, Kyong-Ho Chang and Vuong Nguyen Van Do

room temperature (20oC) with the impact velocities between 5

and 5.5 m/s. Three specimens were tested at each temperature as
recommended by the specifications, and each specimen was held
for approximately 10 min at the low testing temperature before
testing began to make sure the temperatures evenly distributed
throughout the specimen (Lee et al., 2014).

3. Results

The optical micrographs taken at the weld metals and the

HAZs of the welded joints with different welding processes are
displayed in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. Note that the location of
the microstructure in the HAZ or in the weld metal coincides
with that of the notch in the corresponding impact test specimen.
The micrograph taken at the weld metal zone of the SMAW joint
exhibits acicular ferrite and tangled ferrite along the grain
boundaries, whereas the weld metal of the FCAW joint consists
of dendrite having acicular ferrite in patches. The HAZ micro-
structures of the SMAW and FCAW joints show acicular ferrite
morphology. Nevertheless, fine acicular ferrite features in the
HAZ of the SMAW joint while coarse acicular ferrite features in

Fig. 5. Microstructures at the HAZs: (a) SMAW Joint and (b)

FCAW Joint

the FCAW counterpart are revealed. Moreover, the content of

acicular ferrite is much higher in the HAZ of the SMAW joint.
The hardness across the weld cross section which covers the
weld region, the HAZ and the base metal are presented in Table
4. Referring to the measurements, the weld metal and the HAZ
of the SMAW and FCAW joints have superior hardness than the
base material, indicating that there is no softening zone in the
joints. Moreover, it can be seen that the hardness values in the
weld metal and the HAZ of the SMAW joint are higher than the
corresponding FCAW counterparts.
The Charpy impact test allows the material properties for service
temperatures to be determined experimentally in a simple manner.
Fig. 6 shows the Charpy V-notch impact toughness requirements

Table 4. Hardness Data for the Base Metal, the HAZ and the Weld
Metal (HV10)
Location
Joint
Base metal HAZ Weld Metal
SMAW 185 185 186 206 206 204 203 204 216 212 210
Fig. 4. Microstructures at the Weld Metals: (a) SMAW Joint and
(b) FCAW Joint FCAW 183 183 185 186 188 188 191 187 204 203 204

− 1434 − KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering

 Low Temperature Impact Toughness of Structural Steel Welds with Different Welding Processes

Table 6. Charpy Impact Test Results for the HAZs

Test Charpy fracture Impact toughness
Joint
temperature energy (J) requirement (J)
Room temperature
400
(20oC)
Maximum: 366
−30oC Minimum: 328
Average: 342
Maximum: 387
−40oC Minimum: 304
SMAW 27
Average: 337
Maximum: 326
−50oC Minimum: 300
Average: 316
Fig. 6. Impact Testing Requirements (ASME, 2004) Maximum: 320
−60oC Minimum: 271
Average: 291
in joules for the standard impact specimens made of carbon and Room temperature
306
low alloy steels with respect to the maximum nominal thickness (20oC)
depending on the minimum specified yield strength (ASME, Maximum: 320
−30oC Minimum: 255
2004), which are not given in KS specifications. The graph is Average: 279
crucial in terms of the fact that it provides the minimum criteria Maximum: 250
for the use of steel in low atmospheric temperatures. This means −40oC Minimum: 205
FCAW 27
that if the impact toughness of the steel exceeds the required Average: 225
value specified in the graph at specific temperature, it can be Maximum: 215
−50oC Minimum: 185
safely used in the temperature. Variations of the absorbed energies Average: 203
with respect to the five test temperatures for the weld metals and Maximum: 175
the HAZs of the SMAW joint and the FCAW joint are tabulated −60oC Minimum: 115
in Tables 5 and 6, respectively. The impact toughness requirements Average: 142

Table 5. Charpy Impact Test Results for the Weld Metals. are also given in the tables.
Test Charpy fracture Impact toughness
Joint
temperature energy (J) requirement (J) 4. Discussion
Room temperature
147
(20oC)
From the results given in Tables 5 and 6, it can be found that
Maximum: 124
o
-3 C Minimum: 105 the weld metals and the HAZs of the joints fabricated using the
Average: 112 SMAW and FCAW processes satisfy the requirements up to the
Maximum: 124 test temperature of -60oC. It indicates that both the welded joints
-40oC Minimum: 102
SMAW
Average: 110
27 can be safely adopted up to the temperature. As shown in the
Maximum: 62 micrographs, the weld metals of the SMAW and FCAW joints
-50oC Minimum: 52 exhibit acicular ferrite with different second phase ferrite, respec-
Average: 55 tively. It is worth noting that the weld metal microstructure in the
Maximum: 40 SMAW joint show more acicular ferrite. Acicular ferrite is the
-60oC Minimum: 31
Average: 35 phase most commonly observed as austenite transforms during
Room temperature the cooling of low alloy steel weld deposits. It is the most prefer-
185
(20oC) able microstructure as it enhances the strength and toughness of
Maximum: 175 the weld metal. The interlocking nature of acicular ferrite, together
-30oC Minimum: 103
Average: 134 with its fine grain size, provides the maximum resistance to crack
Maximum: 153 propagation by cleavage (Yang et al., 1993). Hence, the weld
-40oC Minimum: 112 metal with higher acicular ferrite microstructure has higher hard-
FCAW 27
Average: 137 ness and toughness. Generally, manganese and molybdenum are
Maximum: 66 added to the alloy to promote the formation of the acicular
-50oC Minimum: 60
Average: 64 microstructure upon transformation from austenite (Junhua et al.,
Maximum: 48 2004). The higher content of manganese in the weld metal
-60oC Minimum: 34 chemistry of the SMAW joint contributes the larger formation of
Average: 40
acicular ferrite and thus results in the higher hardness in the weld

Vol. 19, No. 5 / July 2015 − 1435 −

 Hyun-Seop Shin, Ki-Tae Park, Chin-Hyung Lee, Kyong-Ho Chang and Vuong Nguyen Van Do

metal. Nevertheless, it is observed that the weld metal of the perature impact toughness than that of the SMAW joint
FCAW joint has a little higher impact toughness at low temper- owing to the higher nickel content of the welding electrode
atures than that of the SMAW joint, which is attributed to the used in the FCAW process, despite the larger formation of
higher nickel content of the Supercored 81-K2 electrode (see acicular ferrite in the weld metal of the SMAW joint.
Table 2). It has been reported that the weld metal toughness can 2. HAZ of the SMAW joint has much superior impact tough-
be increased by an increase of nickel content (Magudeeswaran et ness at low temperatures than that of the FCAW joint due to
al., 2008; Parker and Stratford, 1999) which is indispensable the higher acicular ferrite content attributed to the lower heat
composition to the weld filler targeted to steels for low temperature input during the welding process.
use. 3. An efficient welding method to ensure higher low tempera-
It is a common practice to correlate the HAZ properties with ture impact toughness of the HAZ and the weld metal is to
the heat input during welding. The difference in the ferrite employ a low heat input welding process using a welding
morphology in the HAZs of the SMAW and FCAW joints is due consumable with high nickel content.
to the difference between the heat input during the fabrication of
the welded joints. The formation of acicular ferrite is controlled Acknowledgements
by welding heat input, i.e. the cooling rate is a governing parameter
that determines the formation of acicular ferrite-based micro- This research was supported by a grant from a Strategic
structure. If the heat input is higher, i.e. the cooling rate is lower, Research Project (Development of High Performance Material
the content of acicular ferrite will be less, and vice versa. More- & Rapid Construction Technology for Extreme Environment)
over, the higher heat input leads to the coarse microstructure. In funded by the Korea Institute of Construction Technology.
the present investigation, the average heat input of 13.5 kJ/cm
was recorded during the fabrication of the SMAW joint, whereas References
the average heat input during the FCAW process was 17.3 kJ/cm.
Thus, the higher heat input during the fabrication of the FCAW ASME (2004). Impact testing requirments, Boiler & Pressure Vessel
joint promotes the coarser acicular ferrite features and lesser Code Sec. VIII Div. I.
acicular ferrite content in the HAZ compared to the SMAW Bayraktar, E., Hugele, D., Jansen, J. P., and Kaplan, D. (2004). “Evaluation
of pipeline laser girth weld properties by Charpy (V) toughness and
counterpart. Hence, the HAZ of the FCAW joint has much inferior
impact tensile tests.” Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
low temperature impact toughness than that of the SMAW joint Vol. 147, No. 2, pp. 155-162, DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2003.10.008.
in terms of higher upper-shelf energy and lower ductile-to-brittle Ibrahim, O. H., Ibrahim, O. S., and Khalifa, T. A. F. (2010). “Impact
transition temperature. In addition, the lower heat input of the behavior of different stainless steel weldments at low temperatures.”
SMAW joint favored the higher hardness in the HAZ and weld Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 1069-1076, DOI:
metal compared to that of the corresponding FCAW counterparts. 10.1016/j.engfailanal.2009.12.006.
The above results suggest that the more effective welding process Junhua, K., Lin, Z., Bin, G., Pinghe, L., Aihua, W., and Changsheng, X.
to ensure the higher fracture toughness of the HAZ and the weld (2004). “Influence of Mo content on microstructure and mechanical
properties of high strength pipeline steel.” Materials and Design,
metal at low temperatures is the SMAW process.
Vol. 25, No. 8, pp. 723-728, DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2004.03.009.
KS B 0809 (2001). Test pieces for impact test for metallic materials,
5. Conclusions Korean Standards.
KS B 0810 (2003). Method of impact test for metallic materials, Korean
In this study, an experimental program which included metallo- Standards.
graphic observation, hardness measurement and the Charpy impact KS B 0821 (2007). Methods of tension and impact tests for deposited
test for steel welds fabricated by different welding processes and metal, Korean Standards.
welding consumables was carried out to find out an effective Lee, C. H., Shin, H. S., and Park, K. T. (2012). “Evaluation of high
strength TMCP steel weld for use in cold regions.” Journal of
welding method to secure higher impact toughness of structural
Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 74, No. 1, pp. 134-139, DOI:
steel welded joints at low temperatures. The impact specimens 10.1016/j.jcsr.2012.02.012.
were extracted from the HAZs and the weld metals. Standard V- Lee, C. H., Shin, H. S., Park, K. T., and Chang, K. H. (2014). “Impact
notch Charpy specimens were prepared and tested under dynamic fracture energy of structural steel welds constructed at low ambient
loading condition. Variation of the Charpy impact energy with temperatures.” Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 50, No. 1,
respect to the test temperature and that of the hardness across the pp. 394-400, DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.09.043.
welds were presented and correlated with the microstructure and Magudeeswaran, G., Balasubramanian, V., Reddy, G. M., and
the welding process; thus effects of the welding process and the Balasubrarnanian, T. S. (2008). “Effect of welding processes and
consumables on tensile and Impact properties of high strength
welding consumable on the low temperature impact toughness of
quenched and tempered steel joints.” Journal of Iron and Steel
the HAZ and the weld metal were analyzed in detail. Based on Research International, Vol. 15, No. 6, pp. 87-94, DOI: 10.1016/
the experiments and discussion of the results, the following S1006-706X(08)60273-3.
conclusions can be made. Moitra, A., Parameswaran, P., Sreenivasan, P. R., and Mannan, S. L.
1. Weld metal of the FCAW joint has a little higher low tem- (2002). “A toughness study of the weld heat-affected zone of a 9Cr-

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1Mo steel.” Materials Characterization, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 55-61, Ren, D., Xiao, F., Tian, P., Wang, X., and Liao, B. (2009). “Effects of
DOI: 10.1016/S1044-5803 (02)00247-4. welding wire composition and welding process on the weld metal
Parker, J. D. and Stratford, G. C. (1999). “Review of factors affecting toughness of submerged arc welded pipeline steel.” International
condition assessment of nickel based transition joints.” Science and Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp.
Technology of Welding and Joining, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 29-39, DOI: 65-70, DOI: 10.1016/S1674-4799(09)60011-X.
10.1179/136217199322910734. Yang, J. R., Huang, C. Y., and Huang, C. F. (1993). “Influence of
Reddy, G. M., Mohandas, T., and Papukutty, K. K. (1998). “Effect of acicular ferrite and bainite microstructures on toughness for an ultra-
welding process on the ballistic performance of high-strength low- low-carbon alloy steel weld metal.” Journal of Materials Science
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Vol. 19, No. 5 / July 2015 − 1437 −

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 Improve Competence to Complete
the Requirements for International
Welder

Part of the Book Series "Material and Structure Engineering”

Analysis of Effect of Temperature Variation Preheat

on SMAW Welding of Microstructures, and ST60 and
SS400 Steel Hardness
Habibi Palippui
Department of Ocean Engineering Hasanuddin University, Indonesia
[email protected]; Tel.: +62-8122-537-2161

Abstract

Welding is a metal joining process by melting some base and filler metals. SMAW welding (Shielded Metal
Arc Welding) is one of the industry's most widely used welding methods. SMAW welding requires
preheating (preheating) to reduce residual stress, distortion, and cold cracking in the weld
metal. Preheat also can affect the microstructure and hardness of the weld metal. This study aims to
analyze variations preheating on SS400 and ST60 steel against micro tests by SMAW welding, namely
electric arc welding with covered electrodes. Temperature variation preheating used in SS400 steel was
140°C, 170°C, 300°C and 400°C in ST 60 steel. The results showed that the higher the temperature preheat,
the larger the grain size of the microstructure in the parent metal region, the heat-affected area, and the
weld metal area. The higher temperature preheat also led to a decrease in violence in the three areas. ST60
steel has a larger microstructure grain size and lower hardness than SS400 steel at all temperature
variations preheat.

Keywords: SMAW;Preheating; SS400 Steel; ST60 Steel

1. Introduction
The use of steel in manufacturing and construction processes, especially in shipping, is very
important. Steel is one of the most widely used building materials today because it is flexible,
durable and affordable. Almost every project requires the availability of steel, from the construction
of houses, roads, and bridges to multi-storey buildings. SS400 and ST 60 steels are low-carbon steel
types that are easy to weld.
The welding process plays an important role in construction. Welding is a process of joining
metals or non-metals by heating the material until the welding temperature is reached, with or
without pressure, only with pressure, or with or without fillers [1]. One type of welding is SMAW
(Shielded Metal Arc Welding). SMAW welding involves joining two or more similar metals using an
electric heat source and wrapped electrodes as additional material or filler to make a permanent
connection [2].
Many aspects must be considered in the welding process, starting from material knowledge to
the appropriate method for joining metals for maximum results. Welding processes in steel can
cause complex changes in metallurgical properties, deformations, and thermal stress around the
weld area, reducing the strength of the welded joint. Three parts distinguish the weld area: the weld
metal area, HAZ (Heat Affected and Zone), and the base metal [3].
One way to prevent the occurrence of cracks in the weld is to preheat treatment (preheating)
on the weld joint before the welding process is carried out. The heat treatment process is a process
that aims to change the properties of metals by changing the microstructure through heating at a

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Improve Competence to Complete the Requirements for International Welder 14

certain temperature and adjusting the cooling rate with or without changing the chemical
composition of the metal [4]. Preheating is heating the metal to a certain temperature before
welding to increase the temperature of the base metal and change the microstructure according to
the intended use.
Preheating the metal before the welding process affects the percentage of
carbon. Preheat causes a slow cooling rate in the weld metal and HAZ region, which is necessary to
prevent cracking due to the emergence of a martensite structure in the area due to the high cooling
rate [5].
From the explanation above, the formulation of the problem, which is the subject of this study,
is how the influence of process variations preheating on SS400 and ST60 steel against micro tests
using SMAW welding. This study aims to determine the differences in microstructure that occur in
SS400 and ST 60 steel materials after processing preheating prior to SMAW welding.

2. Materials and Methods

The method in this research is collecting data from journals, reference books, modules, articles,
and the internet. The objects studied in this study were SS400 and ST60 steel.
2.1 SS400 Steel
SS400 steel has a low carbon content making it easy to weld, and own tensile strength of 400-
560 MPa.

Figure 1. SS400 Steel Plate

The composition of the material is very important to know as validation to determine the level
of suitability of the type of material used in this study. SS400 / JIS G3101 / ASTM A36 starts with the
letters SS, often confused with stainless steel. However, SS here means mild steel.
2.2 ST60 Steel
ST 60 steel is medium carbon steel with a carbon content of 0.3 - 0.7% and tensile strength of
60 kg/mm2 or 600 N/mm2.

Figure 2. ST60 Steel Plate [6]

Based on the material certificate received, this material contains main elements such as
Manganese (Mn) of 0.67%, which can increase hardness and strength, and Silicon (Si) of 0.240%,
Improve Competence to Complete the Requirements for International Welder 15

which can improve overall performance, wear resistance, heat resistance and rust. This material
also contains other elements such as Carbon (C) at 0.500%, Phosphorus (P) at 0.018%, Sulfur (S) at
0.010%, Nickel (Ni) at 0.01%, Chrome (Cr) at 0 04%, Molybdenum (Mo) of 0.008%, and Vanadium
(V) of 0.003%.

Table 1. Material Composition [6]

Element Content (%)
S Sulfur 0,010
C Carbon 0,500
And Silicon 0,240
Mn Eat 0,67
P Phosphorus 0,018
In Nickel 0,01
Cr Chromium 0,04
Mo Molybdenum 0,008
IN Vanadium 0,003

2.3 SMAW Welding Machine

The SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding) is a metal joining technique that uses an electric heat
source and encapsulated electrodes to connect strongly. This method is often used in shipbuilding
and repair because of its affordability and ability to adjust the welding position, whether flat,
horizontal, vertical, or overhead.

Electrode

Wrapping Flux

Electrode Core
AC or DC Power

Electric Arc
Weld Metal Slag
Gas Shell

Metal liquid Work Unit

Figure 3. SMAW Welding [6]

The quality of the welded joint greatly determines the strength of the welded joint. Good welds
produce quality joints and heat.

2.4 Preheating
Preheating is the process of preheating the base metal around the area to be welded before
welding begins to reach and maintain a temperature preheat, which is desired. Tools that can be
used for preheating include gas burners, oxy-gas fires, and electric blankets. Ensuring the welding
area is heated evenly for good results is important. Uneven or excessive heating can cause problems
such as large residual stresses, distortion, or unwanted metallurgical changes in the base metal,
leading to increased cracking or decreased corrosion resistance.
2.5 Micrographic Test
Micrography is a technique used to study the microstructure of metals or alloys by taking
pictures of the microstructure. In this process, metal or alloy samples are prepared by smoothing
and polishing them until their surface is smooth and reflective. Then, the sample is etched with acid
or other reagents to clarify the metal grain boundaries. After that, microstructure images of the
sample can be taken using a microscope. By looking at the microstructure images, we can find the
structure of the metal or alloy being studied, such as grain size, grain shape, and crystal orientation.
Improve Competence to Complete the Requirements for International Welder 16

This information is very useful in determining the mechanical and physical properties of the metal
or alloy.
2.6 The stages of research include:
1. After studying the literature, it is continued by welding and forming specimens using SS400 and
ST60 materials.
2. Furthermore, data collection on specimens that have been tested using tools such as callipers
and micro-test equipment.
3. After the process, the results and conclusions are drawn at the end of this research activity.

3. Results

Based on the results of the micro testing that has been carried out, this test is grouped into two
types of variations, namely Group 1 SMAW welding results with variations preheat 140°C and 170°C
on SS400 steel and Group 2 SMAW welding results with variations preheat 300°C and 400°C on ST60
steel.
3.1 Micrographic Test
3.1.1 Micrographic Test Results Effect of SMAW Welding Process Using Preheating 140°C Against
Microstructure In SS400 Steel

Figure 4. Microstructure test results preheating 140°C on SS400 steel [7]

For specimen preheat at 140°C, SS400 steel has a fairly dense microstructure, hard properties,
and contains a ferrite phase.
3.1.2 Effect of Using SMAW Welding Process Preheating 170°C Against Microstructure In SS400
Steel.

Figure 5. Microstructure test results preheat 170°C on SS400 steel [7]

From the micro test, specimen preheat at 170°C, SS400 steel has a denser microstructure,
hardness, and a more dominant ferrite phase.
Improve Competence to Complete the Requirements for International Welder 17

Micrographic test results, seen in both temperature variations, preheat which produces round
grains of ferrite and pearlite at the weld, where ferrite at higher temperatures has more grains, is
more spread out and is larger compared to ferrite at lower temperatures, which indicates a
decreased hardness.
3.1.3 Effect of Using SMAW Welding Process Preheating 300°C Against The Microstructure Of ST60
Steel

Figure 6. Structure Micro Test results preheating 300°C on ST60 steel [6]

The specimen preheat temperature of 300°C shows that it has a fairly dense microstructure,
hard properties, and more ferrite phase.
3.1.4 Effect of Using SMAW Welding Process Preheating 400°C Against The Microstructure Of ST60
Steel.

Figure 7. Structure-Micro Test results Preheating 400°C on ST60 steel [6]

Preheat temperature of 400°C shows a softer structure and more ferrite phases.
Micrographic test results show that each variation preheats ferrite and pearlite phases. The
ferrite phase has low strength but good ductility, while the pearlite phase has strong strength and
is quite hard. The test results show that variations in preheat temperature of 300OC on SMAW
welding on ST 60 steel has higher hardness properties when compared to preheat temperature and
400OC. This result can be seen from the better microstructure density. The denser the
microstructure of a specimen, the harder the specimen. However, on variations in preheat
temperature, 400OC has a larger structural form to give a better strain value and better and more
ductile material properties.

4. Discussion

The results of the micro testing that has been done on SMAW welding with variations preheat
on steel SS400 and 60 grouped into two types of variations, namely Group 1 SMAW welding results
with variations preheat 140°C and 170°C on SS400 steel and Group 2 SMAW welding results with
variations preheat 300°C and 400°C on ST60 steel.
From the micrographic test results, it can be seen that each variation preheat. There are ferrite
and pearlite phases. The ferrite phase has low strength but good ductility, while the pearlite phase
has strong strength and is quite hard. On SS400 steel, a specimen preheat temperature of 140°C has
Improve Competence to Complete the Requirements for International Welder 18

a fairly dense microstructure, hard properties, and ferrite phase. While the specimen preheat
temperature of 170°C has a fairly dense microstructure, hard properties, and a more dominant
ferrite phase. The test results show that in both temperature variations, preheat produces round
grains of ferrite and pearlite on the weld, where ferrite at higher temperatures has more grains, is
more spread out and is larger than ferrite at lower temperatures indicating a decreased hardness.
On ST60 steel, a specimen preheat temperature of 300°C shows a fairly dense microstructure,
hard properties, and more ferrite phase. While the specimen preheat temperature of 400°C shows
that it has a softer structure and has more ferrite phases. The test results show that variations in
preheat temperature of 3000C on SMAW welding on ST60 steel has higher hardness properties
when compared to preheat temperature of 4000C. This result can be seen from the better
microstructure density. The denser the microstructure of a specimen, the harder the specimen.
However, on variations, preheat temperature of 400oC has a larger structural shape, giving a better
strain value and having more ductile and good material properties.
Overall, the test results show that preheat variations affect the specimen's microstructure,
hardness, and ferrite phase. Preheat Higher temperatures tend to produce more ferrite phase but
lower hardness.

5. Conclusions

Based on the results of the micrographic tests carried out, it can be concluded that the micro
tests on SMAW welding with variations preheat on steel SS400 and ST60 show that variation preheat
affect the microstructure, hardness, and ferrite phase of the specimen. Preheat Higher
temperatures tend to produce more ferrite phase but lower hardness. On SS400
steel, preheat temperature of 170°C produces a more dominant ferrite phase compared to preheat
temperature of 140°C. On ST60 steel, preheat temperature of 300°C produces higher hardness
properties than preheat temperature of 400°C. However, preheat a temperature of 400°C gives a
better strain value and has more ductile and good material properties.

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[12] S. Sulardjaka, D. F. Fitriyana, N. Iskandar, And D. I. Mubarok, "Characteristics Of Micro Structure
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 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect
Procedia CIRP 74 (2018) 748–751
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

10th CIRP Conference on Photonic Technologies [LANE 2018]

Influence of heat input and preheating on the cooling rate, microstructure

and mechanical properties at the hybrid laser-arc welding of API 5L X80
steel
G. Turichina, M. Kuznetsova,b,*, A. Pozdnyakova, S. Gookc, A. Gumenyukd, M. Rethmeierd
a
Saint-Petersburg State Marine Technical University, Lotsmanskaya str. 3, Saint Petersburg, 190121, Russian Federation
b
Peter the Great Saint-Petersburg Polytechnic University, Polytechnicheskaya str. 29, Saint Petersburg, 195251, Russian Federation
cFraunhofer Institute for Production Systems and Design Technology IPK, Berlin, Germany
dFederal Institute for Materials Research and Testing BAM, Berlin, Germany

* Corresponding author. Tel.:+7-812-552-9843 ; fax: +7-812-552-9843. E-mail address: [email protected]

Abstract

This study investigates the influence of hybrid laser-arc welding parameters: heat input and preheating on the cooling rates, microstructure and
mechanical properties of the welding joint. Samples from API 5L X80 steel with root thickness 14 mm were welded using welding wire MF
940 M. Decreasing cooling rate of welds from 588 °C/sec up to 152 °C/sec, weld metal hardness from 343±12 HV up to 276±6 HV and
ultimate tensile strength from 1019.5±14 MPa up to 828±10 MPa and increasing bainite phase term of the weld metal was detected at the
increasing preheating temperature up to 180 °C and maximal heat input. The mathematical relations of the input and output parameters were
created using linear regression equations. Preheating temperature 180 °C allows increasing maximal welding speed up to more than 3.0 m/min
with acceptable welding joint quality.
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the Bayerisches Laserzentrum GmbH.

Keywords: Hybrid laser-arc welding; API 5L X80 steel; cooling rate; microstructure; mechanical properties; regression equations

1. Introduction cooling rate narrows HAZ of the weld at the HLAW X120
steel [7].
Cooling rate, microstructure and mechanical properties of So many publications testify about influence of the heat
the welds can be changed in the wide range at the hybrid laser- input and preheating on the microstructure and mechanical
arc welding (HLAW) using heat input and preheating properties of the welds at the HLAW. But some publications
temperature. So, welding speed increases on the 14% and weld testify about absence of the influence [8].
metal hardness decreases on the 17% (from 410HV up to The publication is devoted research of the heat input and
350HV) at the HLAW samples from Х70 and S690QL steels preheating temperature influence on the cooling rate,
with constant laser power using preheating [1,2]. Similar microstructure, hardness, ultimate tensile strength and impact
results were received at the HLAW X65 steel [3]. Impact energy of the welds at the HLAW samples from X80 steel and
toughness of the weld increases at the increasing heat input up it continues of the last publication [9]. Regression equations
to defined level, exceeding of the heat input level has opposite describing influence of the welding speed and preheating
influence on the mechanical properties [4]. The ratio of laser temperature on the weld metal hardness and ultimate tensile
and arc power influences on the mechanical properties and strength were created in the work using experimental results.
degree of deformation of the weld [5]. Cooling rate decreases
at the presence and increasing of the arc power [6]. Increasing

2212-8271 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the Bayerisches Laserzentrum GmbH.
10.1016/j.procir.2018.08.018

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 G. Turichin et al. / Procedia CIRP 74 (2018) 748–751 749

2. Experimental procedure Three test samples for Charpy impact test, two for ultimate
tensile strength and one for hardness test were made from
2.1. Welding equipment and test materials every weld.
a b
Experimental part was carried out using a 20 kW fiber laser
YLR – 20000 (IPG) and semiautomatic welding machine
Qineo Pulse 600А (Cloos). Preheating of the test samples was
performed using current source GLW 450 I-H-P-R (Cloos)
with electric heating element.
Welding samples from API 5L X80 steel with overall
dimensions 240x100x23.7 mm3, root face thickness 14 mm Fig. 1. Scheme of (a) ultimate tensile strength sample with boundary
dimensions and (b) ultimate tensile strength samples location in weld metal
and groove angle 22.5° were welded using metal cored welding
wire MF 940 M (EN ISO 18276) with diameter 1.2 mm.
Chemical compositions of the steel and welding wire are given All tests results were controlled in accordance with DIN
in Table 1 and Table 2 accordingly. EN ISO 3183-2011 «Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries -
Steel Pipe for Pipeline Transportation Systems».
Table 1. Chemical compositions of the API 5L X80 steel (wt %)
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni
2.3. Design of the experimental work
0.052 0.33 1.82 0.008 0.0008 0.17 0.01
Mo Cu V Nb Ti N Fe The study was carried out using DOE 2k type. The
0.14 0.02 0.004 0.04 0.012 0.004 Bal. mathematical relations of the input and output parameters were
created using linear regression equations. Input parameters are
Table 2. Chemical compositions of the welding wire MF 940 M (wt %)
welding speed (S) and preheating temperature (T). Output
C Si Mn P S Ni N Fe parameters are average weld metal hardness (HV), average
0.05 0.6 1.4 0.015 0.015 2.0 0.004 Bal. weld metal ultimate tensile strength (G).
Heat input depends from welding speed and laser power.
HLAW was carried out in the PC welding position. Arc Welding speed diapason was chosen from 1.8 m/min up to 3
torch had angle of 30° from laser beam with wire stick out 16 m/min. Laser power (PL) and wire rate (R) values depended
mm. Laser head and arc torch were mounted on an industrial from welding speed for creating welds with stable through
robot. Arc had a leading position. Distance from the axes of penetrations.
the electrode to the laser beam was 3.5 mm. Laser beam focal Preheating temperature was varied from 20 °C (room
plane was below the top surface on 4 mm. Gas mixture M21 temperature) up to 180 °C. Upper limit of the preheating
(82% Ar and 18% CO2) with supply rate of 20 l/min was used. temperature was chosen for avoiding unnecessary changes in
the structure of the base material.
2.2. Testing equipment and welds inspections
3. Experimental results
Defects classification was carried out according to DIN EN
ISO 13919-1. Measuring of thermo cycle of the HLAW was The HLAW parameters are shown in the Table 3.
performed using four alumel-chromel thermocouples which
were soldered on the back side of the welded joint by a Table 3. HLAW parameters
resistance welding machine PSG 1000/3 with starting point of Weld, T, S, PL, R, IA, UA, Q,
1-1.5 mm from the joint edge and 30 mm interval. No 0
C m/min kW m/min A V kW*min/m
Examination of the welds microstructure was performed 1 180 3.0 18.3 18 491 34.7 11.8
using optical microscope Polyvar Met with 500x magnification 2 180 1.8 15.6 11 334 30.6 14.3
3 20 3.0 18.3 18 507 36.2 12.2
in three points on vertical axis of the weld metal: 2 mm from 4 20 1.8 15.6 11 327 30.4 14.2
the root, at the middle and 2 mm from the top. 5 100 2.4 18 14.5 420 32.6 13.2
Hardness tests were performed across the weld metal, 6 100 2.4 18 14.5 420 32.6 13.2
fusion zone, HAZ and the base metal according to DIN EN 7 100 2.4 18 14.5 420 32.6 13.2
ISO 14577 at room temperature in three lines: 2 mm from the
root, at the middle and 2 mm from the top of the weld. 3.1. Welds appearance
Charpy impact tests were carried out according to DIN EN
10045 at temperature -20 °C with V-notch located at the middle All welds (except weld 5) had a stable full penetration.
of weld metal. Weld 5 had instability full penetration partly. Minor undercuts
Weld 3 with the highest cooling rate of the weld metal was were observed in the weld 2 and weld 3.
chosen for ultimate tensile strength testing. Test samples were
made using electric discharge sawing with boundary 3.2. X-ray inspection
dimensions in 2 times less than minimal boundary dimensions
from DIN 50125-2009. Scheme of ultimate tensile strength Insignificant number of the pores were detected in the
sample and the samples location in weld metal are shown on metal of the welds 6 and 7. Other welds didn’t have inner
Fig. 1. Testing of the samples was carried out according to defects and had high quality accordingly standard EN ISO
DIN EN ISO 6892-1:2009 using Material Test System 810 13919-1. All welds metal zones with inner defects were cut
machine. and were not researched.

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3.3. Thermal cycle of the HLAW element Mn (Table 1) also. The alloying elements suppressed
carbon diffusion at the polymorphic transformation because of
The thermo cycles of the HLAW for different welding decrease of the point Ac3. Therefore weld metal with
parameters are presented on the Fig. 2. martensite and bainite phase was formed because of high
cooling rate. Proportion of the martensite and bainite of the
weld metal was depend from cooling rate. Weld metal had
more martensite at the cooling rate increasing and opposite
phase composition at the cooling rate decreasing (regime 3 -
51.7% martensite and 48.3% bainite; regime 4 - 43.3%
martensite and 56.7% bainite).
Martensite phase increased in the upper part of the weld
metal because of irregular mixing welding wire alloying
elements (Ni and Mn) in the welds and their higher
concentration in the upper part of the weld metal [10,11].

3.5. Hardness test and ultimate tensile strength results

Average hardness of the all welds are shown in Table 5.

Fig. 2. Thermo cycles of the HLAW in HAZ
Test samples from the weld 3 were broke at the base
material with average ultimate tensile strength 678 MPa.
Heat input decreased from 14.3 kW*min/m (regime 2 –
Average values of the all tests are shown in the Table 6.
yellow curve) up to 11.8 kW*min/m (regime 1 – red curve) at
the welding speed increasing from 1.8 m/min up to 3.0 m/min, Table 6. Values average hardness and ultimate tensile strength of the weld
Fig. 2. Take away heat from weld metal in the base metal metal with standard deviation
direction is more intensively in the initial moment because of Welds 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
high temperature gradient. The base metal temperature Av. value
increased during the weld metal cooling. Therefore hardness, 299±2 276±6 343±12 305±16 311±6 327±16 320±15
HV
temperature gradient of the HAZ (at the measuring temperature σav, МPa 852.5±26 828±10 1019.5±14 959±0 949.8±16
diapason from 800-500 °C) with high heat input had less value
by comparison temperature gradient at the HLAW with low Weld metal strength properties increased at the cooling rate
heat input (red curve (regime 1) – 180 °C/sec and yellow curve increasing (regime 3) and it can be seen opposite trend at the
(regime 2) – 152 °C/sec). The temperature gradient and cooling decreasing cooling rate because of welding speed decreasing
rate decreases at the increasing preheating temperature (red (regime 4) or preheating temperature increasing (regime 1),
curve (regime 1) – 180 °C/sec and pink curve (regime 3) – 588 Table 6.
°
C/sec), Table 4. Carbon atoms didn’t diffuse from crystallization and distort
Table 4. Cooling curves parameters at HLAW
crystal lattice because of high cooling rate of the welds metal
at the HLAW. Therefore hardening structure of the metal with
Cooling curve
parameters / Welds
1 2 3 4 5 unsatisfying welds mechanical properties can be obtained [12].
Cooling time (T5/8), sec 1.67 1.98 0.51 0.84 0.91 So weld metal (regime 3 – cooling rate 588 °С/sec) had
Cooling rate, °C/sec 180 152 588 357 330 average hardness 343HV. It is higher than 325HV accordingly
to the standard DIN EN ISO 3183-2011 «Petroleum and
3.4. Metallographic examination Natural Gas Industries - Steel Pipe for Pipeline Transportation
Systems». Average weld metal hardness was decreased down
Few incomplete fusions and intergranular liquations were to 299HV because of preheating temperature of 180 °С using.
found at the top and at the root of the weld 1 accordingly. In other words welds with satisfying mechanical properties can
Microstructure of the welds metal consisted from be obtained at the welding speed more than 3.0 m/min using
martensite and bainite phase components in different preheating temperature of 180 °С and HLAW productivity with
proportions, Table 5. preheating can be increased more than on the 60%.

Table 5. Phase components of the welds metal, % 3.1. Charpy test

Weld, 2 mm from the
2 mm from the top Middle
No top All test samples were broken differently: at the weld metal
1 80m.+20b. 25m.+75b. 10m.+90b. (3 samples), at the partly base metal and weld metal (12
2 50m.+50b. 25m.+75b. 5m.+95b.
3 100m. 40m.+60b. 15m.+85b.
samples) and at the base metal (5 samples). Impact energy had
4 85m.+15b. 40m.+60b. 5m.+95b. different values because of test samples had different character
5 75m.+25b. 30m.+70b. 10m.+90b. of a fracture, Table 7. Test samples appearance is shown on the
6 75m.+25b. 30m.+70b. 15m.+85b. Fig. 3.
7 75m.+25b. 40m.+60b. 10m.+90b.
m. – martensite; b. – bainite
Table 7. Averaged charpy test results with standard deviation
Welds 1 2 3 4 5, 6, 7
The welding wire MF 940 M has alloying elements Mn and
Impact
Ni in the significant value, Table 2. Base metal has alloying 176±84.3 145±93.5 247±54.1 259±104 247±100
energy, J

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 G. Turichin et al. / Procedia CIRP 74 (2018) 748–751 751

a b c of martensite in the weld metal, hardness and ultimate

tensile strength. Decrease of the heat input and increase
preheating temperature has opposite effect.

• Weld metal has softer microstructure in the root than in the

top because of higher concentration of the Ni and Mn alloy
elements from welding electrode was in the top weld metal
[11].
Fig. 3. Appearance of the character samples fracture: (a) plastic character, 293J
(test sample 1.1); (b) elastic-plastic character, 189J (test sample 3.2); elastic • HLAW of X80 steel with preheating temperature 180 0C
character, 63J (test sample 5.2) increases productivity of the welding more than on the 60%.

Charpy test results didn’t show any correlation between • Regression equations were created for prediction weld
input and output parameters. But it can be noted that test metal hardness and ultimate tensile strength for HLAW pipe
samples were broke at the weld metal with elastic character of steel X80-X120 with welding wire MF 940M or others
the fracture had average value of impact energy 75±24 J. Test wires with similar chemical composition.
samples were broke partly at the weld metal-base metal had
plastic-elastic character of the fracture with average value of Reference
impact energy 226±82 J. And test samples were broke at the
base metal had plastic character of the fracture with average [1] Lahdo, R., Seffer, O., Springer, A., Kaierle, S., Overmeyer, L., Collmann,
value of impact energy 274±84 J. That speaks for higher M., Schaumann, P., Neumeyer, J., Schuelbe, H., Nacke, B., Induction
strength properties of the weld metal and it confirms results of Assisted GMA-Laser Hybrid Welding of High-Strength Fine-grain
the hardness and ultimate tensile strength tests indirectly. Structural Steels. In: Proccedings of the ICALEO Conference, Miami,
Deviation of the path fracture from weld metal to base USA, 2013, paper #902.
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hybrid welding of high-strength fine-grain structural steel with an inductive
path deviation” (FPD) [13]. The authors list some reasons of
preheating. Physics Procedia 2014; 56: 637–645.
the FPD formation: narrowness of the laser weld metal and [3] Gumenyuk, A., Rethmeier, M., Developments in hybrid laser-arc welding
small volume of the weld metal involved in deformation technology. Handbook of Laser Welding Technologies 2013. p. 505- 521
process, asymmetry of the stress concentrator because of [4] R.S. Funderbur. A look at Heat Input. Welding Innovation 1999; XVI, 1: 1-
specific weld metal form and presence zones of the welds with 4.
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All charpy test results satisfy of standard DIN EN ISO in Laser-Arc Hybrid Welded Butt-joint with Different Energy Ratios.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology 2015; 220: 36-45.
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and Laser MAG Hybrid Welding for Land Pipeline Application. Welding
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[7] Wang, H.H., Wu, K.M., Lei, X.W., Qian. Y., Effect of fast cooling process
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2012; 17; 4: 309 – 313.
ultimate tensile strength: [8] Cooper, R., Silva, J.H.F., Trevisan, R.E., Influence of preheating on API
5L-X*) pipeline joint welding with selfshielding flux-cored wire. Welding
𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯(𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺, 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻) = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐– 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎– 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 (1) International 2005; 19: 882 – 887.
[9] Turichin G., Kuznetsov M., Sokolov M., Salminen A. Hybrid Laser Arc
Welding of X80 Steel: Influence of Welding Speed and Preheating on the
𝛔𝛔𝛔𝛔в(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖, 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 + 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖– 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐– 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 (2)
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties. Physics Procedia 2015; 78: 35 –
44.
Results of calculations using the equations matches with [10] Gook S., Gumenyuk A., Rethmeier M.. Hybrid laser arc welding of X80
experimental results with inaccuracy up to 15% for welds and X120 steel grade //Science and technology of welding & joining 2014;
which obtained at the HLAW of the low carbon low-alloy 19, 1: 15-24.
steels Х80-Х120 [10, 14]. [11] Tsibulskiy I., Kuznetsov M., Akhmetov A. Effect of Welding Position
and Gap between Samples on Hybrid Laser-Arc Welding Efficiency //
Applied Mechanics and Materials 2014; 682: 1-5.
Conclusions [12] Verhoeven J.D. Steel Metallurgy for Non-Metallurgists; 2007, 213p.
[13] Ohata M., Morimoto G., Fukuda Y., Minami F., Inose K., Handa T.
In this study set of experiments of HLAW X80 pipeline Prediction of ductile fracture path in Charpy V-notch specimen for laser
steel with high power fiber laser and welding wire MF 940M beam welds. Welding in the World 2015; 59, 5: 667- 674.
was conducted. Influence of the welding speed and preheating [14] Rethmeier M., Gook S., Gumenyuk A. Prospects of application of laser-
GMA hybrid welding for manufacturing of large diameter longitudinal
temperature on the cooling rate, microstructure, hardness,
welded high strength steel pipes. Proceedings of the VII International
tensile strength and impact energy was defined for welds with scientific and technical Conference “Beam technologies and laser
acceptable quality in the experiments. The main conclusions application” 2013; 130-140.
can be summarized in the following:

• Increase of the heat input and decrease of the preheating

temperature shows the increase in cooling rates, proportion

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 metals
Article
Influence of Heat Treatment in the Microstructure of a
Joint of Nodular Graphite Cast Iron when Using the
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding Process with Perlitic
Grey Cast Iron Rods as Filler Material
Francisco-Javier Cárcel-Carrasco * , Manuel Pascual-Guillamón, Fidel Salas-Vicente and
Vicente Donderis-Quiles
Inst. Tecnología Materiales, Universitat Politècnica de València, 46022 Valencia, Spain;
[email protected] (M.P.-G.); [email protected] (F.S.-V.); [email protected] (V.D.-Q.)
* Correspondence: [email protected] (F.-J.C.-C); Tel.: +34-963-87-7000; Fax:+34-963-87-9459




Received: 9 December 2018; Accepted: 30 December 2018; Published: 7 January 2019


Abstract: The present article analyses the influence of preheating and a postweld heat treatment in
the microstructure, mechanical properties and wear behaviour of a joint of nodular graphite cast iron
when using the tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding process with perlitic grey cast iron rods as filler
material. Data obtained from the tests and the microstructural study of the samples show that the
absence of a postweld heat treatment and of preheating leads to the apparition of hard structures
and a notable reduction in elongation. Preheating or annealing the weld avoid the presence of these
hard structures and increase the ductile behaviour of the joint although at the cost of a further loss
of mechanical strength. Wear rate was found to be higher at the weld bead than at the base metal,
even when the hardness of both areas is the same.

Keywords: weldability; pre-heating; spheroidal graphite cast iron

1. Introduction
Cast irons are alloys of iron, carbon and silicon that favours the formation of graphite,
whose carbon content, due to the fact that a high percentage of carbon can induce brittleness,
is maintained below 4%. Their classification depends on its metallographic structure, according
to the percentages of carbon and other alloying elements. Although these materials do not have the
mechanical properties of steels, they are used in numerous applications such as: hydraulic valves,
transmissions, gears, nuts, shafts, hydraulic components, pistons, guides or engine liners [1].
Grey cast irons have low mechanical characteristics due to the presence of graphite flakes,
which act as discontinuities in the matrix, giving rise to the presence of stress concentrators. Because of
the good castabilityand low price of grey cast irons, they are used extensively for ornamental objects,
manhole covers, heat exchangers or bandstands
In contrast, in nodular cast irons the addition of Magnesium, Magnesium-ferrosilicon or
Magnesium-Nickel favours the formation of graphite nodules instead of graphite flakes, improving the
mechanical strength, toughness and ductility of the cast iron without losing the ease of the moulding
ofgrey cast irons [2]. This type of cast iron is employed in pipes and fittings, automotive applications,
agricultural machinery and general industrial equipment.
Malleable cast irons castings are another type of cast irons, although with less applications than
grey or nodular cast irons. They are basically iron-carbon alloys with a high carbon content that has a
graphite-free structure (white cast irons) in their as-cast condition but are afterwards subjected to a
thermal treatment that leads to the dissolution of cementite and the apparition of graphite.

Metals 2019, 9, 48; doi:10.3390/met9010048 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2019, 9, 48 2 of 11

There are two types of malleable castings: White heart malleable cast iron (European), which are
decarburized cast irons with graphite in the form of irregular nodules and black heart cast iron
(American) whose final structure after the heat treatment of the white cast iron is formed mainly of
pearlite or perlite and irregular nodules of graphite.
Welding cast iron pieces is not a common practice and usually it is limited to repair operations
and not joining due to the apparition of martensite or fragile carbides during the cooling phase of the
joint. Nevertheless and although joining of cast iron pieces remains a difficult issue, it is possible if
some precautions are taken.
The weld is usually performed using Ni, Ni-Cu or Ni-Fe electrodes for the best performance,
although if a lower cost is mandatory, low-carbon manganese steels for non-machinable joints or cast
iron rods can be used.
The mechanical properties of a weld joint depend on the welding process and the filler material
but also on the preheating temperature and on the duration and temperature of the postweld heat
treatment [3]. These two heat treatments are optional but necessary for high carbon content alloys such
as cast irons in order to reduce the cooling rate and avoid or reduce the apparition of hard structures
at the heat affected zone (HAZ).
The aim of this study has been to evaluate the influence of preheating and subjecting the weld
to a postweld heat treatment on the mechanical characteristics of a TIG weld of two nodular iron
plates when a perlitic grey cast iron rod is used as filler material. The use of grey cast iron as filler
material is justified by its lower cost when compared to Ni electrodes and the possibility of obtaining a
machinable joint. Furthermore, the presence of hard microstructures is almost unavoidable in cast iron
joints, even after an annealing when high cost Ni electrodes have been used [3–5] but it could be less
difficult to get rid of them with a thermal treatment if cast iron rods are used.
The wear behaviour of the joint was also evaluated due to the fact that many tools fabricated using
nodular cast iron are affected by wear (ploughs, gears, drums, automotive components, etc.) [6–8]
and the changes in hardness and microstructure caused by the welding process will affect its wear
resistance mainly due to the presence of hard structures of martensite and carbides.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
A nodular cast iron was used as base material. Its chemical composition and mechanical
characteristics are shown in Table 1 and the mechanical properties of this cast iron can be seen
in Table 2.

Table 1. Composition of the base and the filler materials.

Nodular Cast Iron (Base Material)

C Mn S Ni Cu Si P Cr Mo Mg
3.61 0.045 0.007 0.02 0.026 2.8 0.02 0.03 <0.01 <0.032
Perlitic Grey Cast Iron (Filler Material)
C Mn S Ni Cu Si P Cr Mo Mg
2.5 0.4 0.01 - - 1.1 0.09 - - -

As filler meal, an ER perlitic grey cast iron rod with a diameter of 4 mm whose composition and
properties can be seen in Tables 1 and 2 was selected. This material has lower properties than the base
material due to the effect of the graphite flakes and does not seem to be the best option to weld nodular
cast irons. Nevertheless, it is important to know the microstructure and properties of the joint and how
the best properties can be obtained in case no other suitable material is available.
Metals 2019, 9, 48 3 of 11

Table 2. Mechanical properties of the base and the filler materials.

Mechanical
Metals 2019, 9 FOR Properties
PEER REVIEW Perlitic Grey Cast Iron Nodular Cast Iron 3 of 11

Ultimate strength MPa 325 420

As filler meal, an ER perlitic MPa
Yield strength grey cast iron rod with
305 a diameter of 4 mm whose
340 composition and
properties can Elongation
be seen in Tables 1%and 2 was selected. 9 This material has lower14 properties than the
base materialYoung
due tomodulus
the effect of the
MPagraphite flakes and does not seem to be160,000
130,000 the best option to weld
nodular cast irons. Nevertheless, HV
Hardness it is important to know
248 the microstructure196 and properties of the
joint and how the best properties can be obtained in case no other suitable material is available.
The microstructure of both materials can be seen in Figure 1. The nodular cast iron has a
The microstructure of both materials can be seen in Figure 1. The nodular cast iron has a
ferritic-perlitic matrix and the grey cast iron has a perlitic matrix with flake graphite type V
ferritic-perlitic
(star-like). matrix and the grey cast iron has a perlitic matrix with flake graphite type V (star-like).

Figure
Figure 1. Microstructureofofcast
1. Microstructure castirons
irons (A)
(A) Nodular
Nodularcast
castiron (B)(B)
iron Perlitic grey
Perlitic castcast
grey iron.iron.

2.2. Welding
2.2. Welding Processes
Processes
The The plates were
plates wereobtained
obtained by sand bymould
sand casting six plates
mould of dimensions
casting six plates170 mm of ×50 mm ×6
dimensions
mm. These plates
170 mm ×50 mm × 6 mm. where subsequently milled to dimensions 170 mm × 50
These plates where subsequently milled to dimensions mm × 5 mm. The edges
were prepared for welding with a single 30° bevel by means of a refrigerated cut with an adjustable
170 mm × 50 mm × 5 mm. The edges were prepared for welding with a single 30◦ bevel by
band saw.
means of a refrigerated cut with an adjustable band saw.
The joint was carried out using the TIG process, one of the techniques currently most used for
The jointwhose
elements was carried
thicknessout is using the8 TIG
less than mm process,
and for theone of pass
root the techniques currently
in parts of greater most used
thicknesses in for
elements whose thickness is less than 8 mm and for the root pass in parts of greater
order to avoid a lack of penetration. The use of this technique is advisable in the welding of castings thicknesses in
orderoftospheroidal
avoid a lack of penetration.
graphite The use of that
of certain thicknesses this require
technique is advisable
previous in the[9].
preparation welding of castings
The welding
of spheroidal
parametersgraphite
were: DCof certain
current thicknesses
between 120 andthat
130 Arequire
at 14 V,previous preparation
direct polarity [9]. The
and an Argon welding
gas flow
rate of 12
parameters L/min.
were: DC The net heat
current input was
between 455and
120 J/mm.
130 A at 14 V, direct polarity and an Argon gas flow
rate of 12The weldsThe
L/min. were netdone
heatininput
two passes
was 455using
J/mm.a Fronius Trans TIG 1700 machine (a first root pass
and a second filling pass, Fronius international,
The welds were done in two passes using a Fronius Wels, Austria),
Trans TIG both
1700with a circular
machine movement
(a first of and
root pass
advance in the horizontal plane and from right to left. The angle of inclination of the tungsten
a second filling pass, Fronius international, Wels, Austria), both with a circular movement of advance
electrode was between 70° and 80° in the advance direction while the angle of the filler rod was
in the horizontal plane and from right to left. The angle of inclination of the tungsten electrode was
about 20° on the horizontal plane. A separation of 2 mm was maintained between both plates and
between 70◦ and
the bevels 80◦cleaned
were in the and
advance direction
deoxidized. Thiswhile
helps the
avoidangle of the and
undercuts fillerinclusions
rod was andabout 20◦ on
ensure a the
horizontal plane. A separation of 2 mm was maintained between both plates and the bevels were
good penetration.
cleaned andDuedeoxidized. Thisinhelps
to the difficulty avoidofundercuts
the process welding castandirons
inclusions and ensure
and in order to avoid a cracking
good penetration.
due to
Duestresses
the to thegenerated
difficultyininthe thecooling,
processtheofweld
welding
passescast
wereirons
madeand in order
in lengths to avoid cracking
of approximately 30 mm due to
that were peened while hot with a small peen hammer to relieve residual
the stresses generated in the cooling, the weld passes were made in lengths of approximately 30 mm stresses. Another
drawback
that were of cast
peened whileironhot
welding
with aissmall
the lack of fluidity
peen hammer ofto
therelieve
moltenresidual
metal, what causes
stresses. porositydrawback
Another and
complicates obtaining a good penetration.
of cast iron welding is the lack of fluidity of the molten metal, what causes porosity and complicates
As cast irons have a great tendency to produce fragile structures at the HAZ during the cooling
obtaining a good penetration.
of the joint, once finished, the weld was covered with a ceramic blanket to avoid rapid cooling [10].
As cast irons have a great tendency to produce fragile structures at the HAZ during the cooling of
The welded samples were divided into three groups depending on the exact welding process:
the joint, once finished, the weld was covered with a ceramic blanket to avoid rapid cooling [10].
-The Group
welded1: samples
Without preheating or postweld
were divided heat
into three treatment.
groups depending on the exact welding process:
- Group 2: The coupon was annealed at 900 °C for 1 h and slowly cooled down inside the furnace.
- Group 1: Without preheating or postweld heat treatment.
Metals 2019, 9, 48 4 of 11

- Group 2: The coupon was annealed at 900 ◦ C for 1 h and slowly cooled down inside the furnace.
- Group 3: The plates where preheated up to 450 ◦ C before welding. The temperature was
maintained around this value between passes.

2.3. Tests
Different test samples were obtained from each coupon:

- Five test pieces of 20 mm width and 100 mm length for tensile tests
- One sample for metallographic examination of the weld and microhardness measurement
- One sample for pin-on-disc tests.

The tensile tests were performed in an Instron universal testing machine (Instron, Norwood, MA,
USA) model 4204 at a speed of 5 mm/min according to the UNE-EN 10002-1 standard for tensile tests
at room temperature. SEM images were taken for each one of the surfaces of the breakthroughs at 3 kV
in order to obtain information about the fracture.
For the micrographic examination, the specimens were grinded up to number 1000 sandpaper
and subsequently polished using 3 and 1 µm diamond paste. Finally they were etched with Nital 3.
Microhardness was measured according to the UNE-EN 876 standard using an Innovatest
400Amicrohardness tester (Innovatest Europe BV, Maastricht, The Netherlands) with a load of 300 g
and a dwell time of 10 s at the HAZ, the fusion line and the weld bead. The hardness corresponds to
the mean value of 5 indentations.
To compare the wear behaviour of the weld bed with the wear behaviour of the HAZ and the
base metal a pin-on-disk test was carried out for each one of the groups using a normal load of 10 N
and a radius of 5 mm. A F-5210 steel ball of 5 mm diameter was used in the tests, that covered 50 m of
distance at a rotational speed of 60 rpm. The circular path of the ball covered both the weld bead and
the base metal. The surface was grinded up to 500 grit sandpaper before the tests.
After the pin-on-disc tests the response of the material was evaluated measuring the profile of the
wear track using a Marh M2 profilometer (Microtest, Madrid, Spain) [11,12].

3. Results
Table 3 show the mean value of the results obtained from the tensile tests and Figure 2 shows
the microhardness profile evolution from the base metal to the weld bead. Each hardness value
corresponds to the mean value of 5 measurements.

Table 3. Mechanical characteristics of spheroidal graphite cast iron welding (A is the Elongation).

Group Ultimate Strength (MPa) Yield Strength (MPa) A%

Without heat treatment 370 ± 18 330 ± 18 9
900 ◦ C postweld annealing 320 ± 11 295 ± 11 12
450 ◦ C preheating 335 ± 10 310 ± 10 10.5
Metals 2019, 9, 48 5 of 11
Metals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11

Metals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11

Figure 2. MicroVickers hardness evolution from the base metal to the weld bead for group 1, group 2
Figure at
(preheated 2. MicroVickers hardness
450 ◦ C) and group evolution(annealed
3 samples from the base metal
at 900 to the weld bead for group 1, group 2
◦ C).
Figure 2. MicroVickers
(preheated at 450 °C)hardness
and groupevolution
3 samplesfrom the base
(annealed metal
at 900 °C). to the weld bead for group 1, group 2
(preheated
Figure at 450the
3 shows °C)wear
and group
tracks3onsamples (annealed
the surface at coupons
of the 900 °C). after the pin-on-disc tests. The profile
Figure 3 shows the wear tracks on the surface of the coupons after the pin-on-disc tests. The
of the tracks at the weld bead and at the base metal can be seen in Figure 4.
profile of
Figure 3 the tracks
shows at the
the wearweld beadon
tracks andthe
at the base metal
surface of thecan be seen in
coupons Figure
after the4.pin-on-disc tests. The
profile of the tracks at the weld bead and at the base metal can be seen in Figure 4.

Figure 3. Wear tracks for (A) group 1, (B) group 2 (preheated at 450 °C) and (C) group 3 samples
Figure 3. Wear tracks for (A) group 1, (B) group 2 (preheated at 450 ◦ C) and (C) group 3 samples
(annealed at 900 °C).
(annealed at 900 ◦ C).
Figure 3. Wear tracks for (A) group 1, (B) group 2 (preheated at 450 °C) and (C) group 3 samples
(annealed at 900 °C).
Metals 2019, 9, 48 6 of 11
Metals 2019, 9 FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11

Figure4.4.Wear
Figure Weargraphs:
graphs:(a,b)
(a,b)Without
Withoutthermic
thermictreatment.
treatment.(c,d)
(c,d)With
Withpreheating 450◦°C.
preheating450 (e,f)Annealed
C. (e,f) Annealed
at 900◦°C.
at900 C.

4. Analysis of Results
Figure 5 shows the microstructure of the HAZ, the weld bead and the interface between them
for group 1 coupons. The microstructure at the weld bead (Figure 5a) is that of a grey cast iron with
compacted graphite [13]. The HAZ (Figure 5b) show large graphite nodules surrounded by ferrite in a
perlitic matrix where some small precipitates of iron carbide are present. The most important changes
have taken place next to the fusion line (Figure 5c), where hard ledeburite coexists along graphite
nodules. The presence of such a hard microconstituent raise the hardness of the zone to 510 HV,
much higher than the one measured at the weld bead or the HAZ [14], where hardness decreases
rapidly by one-half. A notable hardness increment with respect to the base or the filler metal was
found around the fusion line.
 decreases rapidly by one-half. A notable hardness increment with respect to the base or the filler
changes
metal washavefound
takenaround
place the
nextfusion
to the fusion line (Figure 5c), where hard ledeburite coexists along
line.
graphite This change in the microstructurealeads
nodules. The presence of such hardtomicroconstituent raise the of
a more brittle behaviour hardness
the jointofinthe zone to 510
comparison
HV, withmuch higher
the base than
metal, thethough
even one measured at the
the mechanical weld bead
properties orjoint
of the the are
HAZ [14],than
higher where
thosehardness
of the
decreases rapidly
filler metal, by one-half.
perhaps due to theA notable
effect of thehardness increment
part of the base metalwith
that respect
melts andto mixes
the base
withorthe
the filler
filler
metal
Metals was
2019, found
9, around the fusion line.
metal (dilution) to form the weld bead, changing its composition. Elongation, that goes from 14% to
48 7 of 11
9%, This change
is the in the microstructure
most affected parameter. leads to a more brittle behaviour of the joint in comparison
with the base metal, even though the mechanical properties of the joint are higher than those of the
filler metal, perhaps due to the effect of the part of the base metal that melts and mixes with the filler
metal (dilution) to form the weld bead, changing its composition. Elongation, that goes from 14% to
9%, is the most affected parameter.

Figure
Figure 5. 5.Micrograph
Micrographof
of the
the joint
jointwithout
withoutpreheating
preheatingnornor
post weld
post heatheat
weld treatment. (a) Weld
treatment. bead. (b)
(a) Weld bead.
HAZ. (c) Interface.
(b) HAZ. (c) Interface.

In the
This tensile
change testsmicrostructure
in the the breakage tookleadsplace
to a at
morethe weld
brittlebead (Figureof
behaviour 6A)
theand theincrack
joint faces
comparison
show the intergranular aspect that can be seen in the scanning electron microscopy
with the base metal, even though the mechanical properties of the joint are higher than those of the (SEM) image
Figure
shown
filler in5.Figure
metal, Micrograph
perhaps 7. due of
tothe
thejoint without
effect of thepreheating
part of the nor postmetal
base weld heat
that treatment.
melts and(a) Weldwith
mixes bead.the
(b) filler
metalHAZ. (c) Interface.
(dilution) to form the weld bead, changing its composition. Elongation, that goes from 14% to
9%, is the most affected parameter.
In the tensile tests the breakage took place at the weld bead (Figure 6A) and the crack faces
In the tensile tests the breakage took place at the weld bead (Figure 6A) and the crack faces show
show the intergranular aspect that can be seen in the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image
the intergranular aspect that can be seen in the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image shown in
shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7.

Figure 6. Location of the break in the tensile tests. (A) At the weld bead in group 1, (B) at the HAZ in
group 2 and (C) at the fusion line in group 3.

Figure 6. Location of the break in the tensile tests. (A) At the weld bead in group 1, (B) at the HAZ in
Figure 6. Location of the break in the tensile tests. (A) At the weld bead in group 1, (B) at the HAZ in
Metalsgroup
2019, 9 2FOR
andPEER
(C) at the fusion line in group 3.
REVIEW 8 of 11
group 2 and (C) at the fusion line in group 3.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. SEM
SEM image
image of
of the
the broken
broken surface
surface for
for group
group 11 samples.
samples.

Figure 8 corresponds to the different microstructures found at the joint after an annealing at 900
°C for 1 h and subsequent slow cooling in the furnace. A notable difference is observed with respect
to the previously described microstructure, in which no treatment had been applied.
The most important change (Figure 8c) is the absence of ledeburite or any other rest of fragile
 Figure 8 corresponds to the different microstructures found at the joint after an annealing at 900
°C for 1 h and subsequent slow cooling in the furnace. A notable difference is observed with respect
to the previously described microstructure, in which no treatment had been applied.
The most important change (Figure 8c) is the absence of ledeburite or any other rest of fragile
Metals 2019, 9, 48
microstructures next to the fusion line. In its place, a fast transition between the weld bead and the 8 of 11
Figure 7. SEM image of the broken surface for group 1 samples.
base material is found. The effect of the heat treatment leads at the HAZ (Figure 8b) [15] to the
disappearance of the perlitic-ferritic matrix, that is replaced by a fully ferritic matrix with a hardness
Figure 88corresponds
Figure correspondstotothethedifferent
differentmicrostructures
microstructures found
found at the
at the joint
joint after
after an annealing
an annealing at 900at
below 174 HV. Similar hardness values were measured at the weld bead (Figure 8a) [16]. The main
◦ C for
900for
°C 1 h and1 hsubsequent
and subsequent slow cooling
slow cooling in the in the furnace.
furnace. A notable
A notable difference
difference is observed
is observed with
with respect
difference between the microstructure of the weld bead and the HAZ is the graphite shape,
respect
to the to the or
previously
compacted previously described
described
vermicular microstructure,
microstructure,
at the weld fullyinnodular
in which
bead and which
no no
treatment treatment
at the had
HAZbeen had
[17]. been applied.
applied.
The most important change (Figure 8c) is the absence of ledeburite or any other rest of fragile
microstructures next to the fusion line. In its place, a fast transition between the weld bead and the
base material is found. The effect of the heat treatment leads at the HAZ (Figure 8b) [15] to the
disappearance of the perlitic-ferritic matrix, that is replaced by a fully ferritic matrix with a hardness
below 174 HV. Similar hardness values were measured at the weld bead (Figure 8a) [16]. The main
difference between the microstructure of the weld bead and the HAZ is the graphite shape,
compacted or vermicular at the weld bead and fully nodular at the HAZ [17].

Figure
Figure 8. 8. Micrographofofthe
Micrograph thejoint
jointafter
afteran
anannealing
annealing at
at 900
900 °C.
◦ C.(a)
(a)Weld
Weldbead.
bead.(b)
(b)HAZ.
HAZ.(c)(c)
Interface.
Interface.

TheBreakage took placechange

most important at the HAZ as shown
(Figure in Figure
8c) is the 6B. of
absence The aspect of or
ledeburite theany
broken surface
other can
rest of be
fragile
seen in Figure 9. In this case, the aspect of the fracture corresponds to a more ductile behaviour
microstructures next to the fusion line. In its place, a fast transition between the weld bead and the base at a
ferriticismatrix.
material found. The effect of the heat treatment leads at the HAZ (Figure 8b) [15] to the disappearance
of the perlitic-ferritic matrix, that is replaced by a fully ferritic matrix with a hardness below 174 HV.
Similar hardness values were measured at the weld bead (Figure 8a) [16]. The main difference between
the microstructure of the of
Figure 8. Micrograph weld beadafter
the joint andan the HAZ isatthe
annealing 900graphite shape,
°C. (a) Weld compacted
bead. orInterface.
(b) HAZ. (c) vermicular at
the weld bead and fully nodular at the HAZ [17].
Breakage took
Breakage took place
place at
at the
the HAZ
HAZ asas shown
shown inin Figure 6B. The aspect of the broken surface can be
seen in
seen in Figure
Figure 9. In
In this
this case,
case, the
the aspect
aspect of
of the
the fracture
fracture corresponds
corresponds toto a more ductile behaviour
behaviour at
at a
ferritic matrix.

Figure 9. SEM image of the broken surface for group 2 samples.

Figure
Figure 9.
9. SEM
SEM image
image of
of the
the broken
broken surface
surface for
for group
group 2 samples.

The softening of the microstructure caused by the annealing improves elongation, that now
reaches a value of 12% but is also accompanied by a drop in the values of yield and ultimate strength.
The new values of these variables are now very similar to the ones of the filler metal but with a higher
elongation. This still represents a loss of properties for the welded plates in every aspect.
The microstructure (Figure 10) of the group 3 coupons, welded after preheating the plates at
450 ◦ C could be described as a mixture between the two previously described. No hard structures
of cementite can be observed next to the fusion line (Figure 10c), an effect of the slower cooling rate
caused by having heatedthe plates at 450 ◦ C before welding. At the HAZ (Figure 10b) graphite nodules
surrounded by ferrite are observed in a perlitic matrix. The higher harness values are found at the
HAZ, around 0.5 mm from the fusion line. At this zone, values near 350 HV were measured, while at
the fusion line hardness was only 225 HV. This location of the most hardened material is due to the
 cementite can be observed next to the fusion line (Figure 10c), an effect of the slower cooling rate
The microstructure (Figure 10) of the group 3 coupons, welded after preheating the plates at 450
caused by having heatedthe plates at 450 °C before welding. At the HAZ (Figure 10b) graphite
°C could be described as a mixture between the two previously described. No hard structures of
nodules surrounded by ferrite are observed in a perlitic matrix. The higher harness values are found
cementite can be observed next to the fusion line (Figure 10c), an effect of the slower cooling rate
at the HAZ, around 0.5 mm from the fusion line. At this zone, values near 350 HV were measured,
caused
whileby having
at the heatedthe
fusion plateswas
line hardness at only
450 °C225before
HV. Thiswelding.
locationAtofthe
the HAZ (Figure 10b)
most hardened graphite
material is
nodules
Metals surrounded
2019, 9, 48 by ferrite are observed in a perlitic matrix. The higher harness
due to the coincidental combination of maximum reached temperature and cooling rate of each values are found
9 of 11
at the HAZ, around 0.5 mm from the fusion line. At this zone, values
point of the joint. At the weld bead hardness in maintained always below 240 HV. near 350 HV were measured,
while atInthe fusion
these line hardness
coupons was distribution
the hardness only 225 HV. is This location
inverted of the to
in relation most
thehardened material is
original materials,
coincidental
duewhere
to the combination of maximum reached temperature and cooling rate of each point of the joint.
thecoincidental combination
higher hardness correspondsof to
maximum reached
the filler [18]. temperature and
The microstructure cooling
at the rate
weld bead of each
show
At the
point weld
vermicular bead
of the joint. hardness
At the
graphite in
in aweld maintained
bead hardness
ferritic-perlitic always below
in although
matrix, maintained240
someHV.
always below
irregular 240 HV.
graphite nodules are visible.
In these coupons the hardness distribution is inverted in relation to the original materials,
where the higher hardness corresponds to the filler [18]. The microstructure at the weld bead show
vermicular graphite in a ferritic-perlitic matrix, although some irregular graphite nodules are visible.

Figure
Figure 10.10.Micrograph
Micrographofofthe
thejoint
jointpreheated
preheated at
at 450 ◦ C.(a)
450 °C. (a)Weld
Weldbead.
bead.(b)
(b)HAZ.
HAZ.(c)(c)
Interface.
Interface.

In The achieved
these couponsmechanical strength
the hardness of this joints
distribution is isinverted
a bit higher than the to
in relation corresponding
the originaltomaterials,
group
2, although with a lower value of elongation.
where the higher hardness corresponds to the filler [18]. The microstructure at the weld bead show
Figure
The 10. Micrograph
surface showed of the
an joint preheated
aspect between at 450 °C.and
ductile (a) Weld bead. The(b) HAZ. propagated
(c) Interface. in an
vermicular graphite in a ferritic-perlitic matrix, although somebrittle.
irregular crack
graphite nodules are visible.
intergranular
The achieved way along the strength
mechanical fusion line as indicated
of this joints is ainbit
Figure
higher6C.than
A SEM image of the surface
the corresponding is 2,
to group
The achieved
shown in Figure mechanical strength of this joints is a bit higher than the corresponding to group
11.
although with a lower value of elongation.
2, although with a lower value of elongation.
The surface showed an aspect between ductile and brittle. The crack propagated in an
The surface showed an aspect between ductile and brittle. The crack propagated in an
intergranular way along the fusion line as indicated in Figure 6C. A SEM image of the surface is
intergranular way along the fusion line as indicated in Figure 6C. A SEM image of the surface is
shown in Figure 11.
shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11. SEM image of the broken surface for group 3 samples.

Regarding the wear resistance of the joint, it was evaluated measuring the width and depth of
the wear track both at the weld bead and at the HAZ (base material). The wear behaviour of the
material near the fusion line, where ledeburite was found for group 1 coupons, was not evaluated
Figure
Figure
due to the small size 11.
11.
of this SEM
SEM image
zone. image of
of the
the broken
broken surface
surface for
for group
group 33 samples.
samples.

Regarding thethe wear

wear resistance
resistanceofofthe
thejoint,
joint,it itwas
was evaluated
evaluated measuring
measuring thethe width
width andand depth
depth of
of the
the wear track both at the weld bead and at the HAZ (base material). The wear behaviour
wear track both at the weld bead and at the HAZ (base material). The wear behaviour of the material of the
material near the
near the fusion fusion
line, whereline, where ledeburite
ledeburite was found was for found
group for group 1 was
1 coupons, coupons, was not due
not evaluated evaluated
to the
due tosize
small the of
small
thissize of this zone.
zone.
For the group 1 coupons the wear track had a width of 0.30 mm and an average depth of
2.5 microns at the HAZ and of 0.35 mm and 3 microns at the weld bead (Figure 4a,b) [19].
The width of the wear track at the HAZ for the group 2 coupons (with preheating) was 0.4 mm
and the depth 4 microns. These values were 0.65 mm and 5 microns at the weld bead (Figure 4c,d).
Finally, in group 3 (annealed coupons) the wear track profile had a dimensions of 0.4 mm width
and 4 microns depth at the base material and 0.9 mm width and 7 microns depth at the weld bead
(Figure 4e,f).
Lower hardness values lead to higher wear and a bigger track as the resistance to abrasive
wear diminishes but hardness is not the only influencing variable, as can be seen in the fact that
wear is always higher at the weld bead than at the base metal even when both zones have the same
Metals 2019, 9, 48 10 of 11

hardness [20,21]. This indicates that the microstructure and the shape adopted by graphite plays a
crucial role, being the vermicular graphite the most susceptible to wear.

5. Conclusions
In summary, the use of grey cast iron as filler material reduces the hardness of the fusion line with
respect to the use of Ni alloys, case in which values of 700 HV are obtained [3,17,18], facilitates the
dissolution of these hard microstructures with an annealing and even avoids its apparition when
preheating at 450 ◦ C, what does not happen with Ni alloys and mechanical characteristics similar
to those obtained with Ni-based electrodes are reached [5,17,18]. Nevertheless, the use of grey cast
iron, with lower mechanical characteristics than the base metal, limits the properties to those of the
filler alloy.
The maximum loss of elongation corresponds to the weld carried out without preheating
or postweld heat treatment, although it has the higher strength. These welds have the hardest
microstructure with presence of ledeburite at the fusion line.
A preheating at 450 ◦ C is enough to avoid very hard structures at the fusion line and a certain
recovery of ductility, avoiding the high cost of an annealing.
The most important ductility recovery happens when the joint is subjected to an annealing
treatment at 900 ◦ C. In this case elongation reaches 12%, although the values of ultimate and yield
strength reaches their minimum. With this treatment hardness also reaches its lower values in all the
weld zones, below the hardness of the base material, that now has a ferritic matrix due to the ferritizing
effect of the annealing.
The changes that take place in the microstructure lead to a different breakage location for each
test group. At the weld bead for group 1 samples, at the HAZ for group 2 samples, when the weld was
annealed and at the fusion line when the plates were preheated.
As regards the wear behaviour of the joint, the most hard structures are, as expected, also the lest
affected by wear. This means the joints carried out without preheating and not annealed are the most
resistant to wear and the less resistant the annealed ones, with wear track widths of 0.35 and 0.9 mm
each one at the weld bead.
Another important result is that the wear track width is always wider and deeper at the weld bead
than at the HAZ even when the hardness of both zones are very similar. This means the vermicular
shape of the graphite at the weld bead makes this material more susceptible to wear than the graphite
nodules of the base material.

Author Contributions: In this investigation, F.-J.C.-C. and M.P.-G. conceived and designed the experiments;
F.-J.C.-C., F.S.-V. and V.D.-Q. performed the experiments; F.-J.C.-C., F.S.-V. and M.P.-G. analysed the data; V.D.-Q.
contributed materials/analysis tools; F.-J.C.-C. and M.P.-G.wrote the paper.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: We would like to give thanks to materials technology institute (ITM) of Universitat Politècnica
de València, Spain, for supporting this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Studies on Effects of Welding Parameters on the Mechanical Properties of

Welded Low-Carbon Steel

Article in Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering · January 2015
DOI: 10.4236/jmmce.2015.33017

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Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering, 2015, 3, 142-153
Published Online May 2015 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/jmmce
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jmmce.2015.33017

Studies on Effects of Welding Parameters on

the Mechanical Properties of Welded
Low-Carbon Steel
M. A. Bodude1*, I. Momohjimoh2
1
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
2
Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Yaba College of Technology, Lagos, Nigeria
Email: *[email protected], [email protected]

Received 25 February 2015; accepted 25 March 2015; published 31 March 2015

Copyright © 2015 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
In this work, the effect of heat input on the mechanical properties of low-carbon steel was studied
using two welding processes: Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW) and Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW). Two different edge preparations on a specific size, 10-mm thick low-carbon steel, with
the following welding parameters: dual welding voltage of 100 V and 220 V, various welding cur-
rents at 100, 120, and 150 Amperes and different mild steel electrode gauges of 10 and 12 were
investigated. The tensile strength, hardness and impact strength of the welded joint were carried
out and it was discovered that the tensile strength and hardness reduce with the increase in heat
input into the weld. However, the impact strength of the weldment increases with the increase in
heat input. Besides it was also discovered that V-grooved edge preparation has better mechanical
properties as compared with straight edge preparation under the same conditions. Microstruc-
tural examinations conducted revealed that the cooling rate in different media has significant ef-
fect on the microstructure of the weldment. Pearlite and ferrite were observed in the microstruc-
ture, but the proportion of ferrite to pearlite varied under different conditions.

Keywords
Low Carbon Steel, Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW), Heat
Affected Zone (HAZ)

1. Introduction
Fusion welding processes are widely used for fabrications in many engineering applications such as aerospace,
*
Corresponding author.

How to cite this paper: Bodude, M.A. and Momohjimoh, I. (2015) Studies on Effects of Welding Parameters on the Me-
chanical Properties of Welded Low-Carbon Steel. Journal of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering, 3,
142-153. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jmmce.2015.33017
 M. A. Bodude, I. Momohjimoh

automobile and ship building industries. Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW) is the most commonly used gas weld-
ing process because of its high flame temperature. Gas welding is a welding process that melts and joins the
metals by heating them with flame caused by the reaction between a fuel gas and oxygen [1].
The main advantage of the OAW process is that the equipment is simple, portable and inexpensive. The total
heat input per unit length of the weld in OAW process is rather high, resulting in large Heat Affected Zone
(HAZ) which causes severe distortion [2]. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is a process that melts and
joins metals by heating them with an arc established between a stick-like covered electrode and the metals. The
welding equipment is also simple, portable and inexpensive [3].
One of the limitations of the two welding processes mentioned above as reported by Sindo [1] is the low
power density of the heat source. The power density increases from a gas flame to an electric arc and a high-
energy beam, and as the power density of the heat source increases, the heat input to the work piece that is re-
quired for welding decreases. The portion of the work piece material exposed to a gas flame heats up so slowly
that before any melting occurs, a large amount of heat is already conducted away into the bulk of the work piece.
Excessive heating can cause damage to the work piece, including weakening and distortion [4]. However, con-
trol of welding parameters such as welding current, voltage and speed can reduce the amount of heat input into
the weld. Besides, edge preparation prior to welding can significantly affect the quality of the weld.
In view of the fact that arc welding processes like SMAW offer a wide spectrum of thermal energy for joining
different thicknesses of steel, it was considered important that undertaking the present study would be very
beneficial in gaining an understanding of the mechanical properties of low-carbon steel that influence the service
performance of the welded joints under different heat input combinations i.e. low heat input and high heat input
[5] [6].
The chemical composition of steel has impact on the weldability and the mechanical properties of the material.
According to Monika et al. [7], several elements are purposefully added in the production of structural steel, but
other undesirable elements may equally be present arising from the scrap materials charged during the steel-
making process. Carbon, manganese, tungsten and other elements increase strength and may increase the risk of
cold cracking and therefore higher preheat and inter pass temperatures, better hydrogen control and sometimes
post heat are necessary to avoid cracking [7].
Ueji [3] noted that weld fusion zone microstructure of low-carbon steel depends on the chemical composition
of the material and the cooling rate. For steels, the required critical cooling rate for achieving martensite in the
microstructure can be estimated using the following equation
logv =7.42 − 3.13C − 0.71Mn − 0.37Ni − 0.34Cr − 0.45Mo (1)
where v is the critical cooling rate in kmol/hr.
Volume of melted metal is a function of heat input which in turn is governed by the welding parameters such
as welding current and welding time. Increasing current decreases the fusion zone size while increasing time in-
creases the fusion zone size [8] [9].
Ultrafine grained refinement from conventional grained size (10 µm) to less than 1 µm provides a preferable
high strength to metallic materials used for structural applications as reported by Lowe and Zhu [10]. Ultrafine
grained steel structural component in engineering application can be done by welding to produce complex
structure which is difficult to manufacture directly. The major disadvantage of fusion welding of this ultrafine
grained steel is the occurrence of grained growth during welding leading to reduction in strength [3]. Careful
control of welding parameters can reduce the amount of heat input into the weld thereby avoiding the excessive
grained growth and allotropic transformation in metals, thus improving the mechanical properties of the welded
steel metal.
This work is therefore aimed at investigating the effects of welding current and voltage at two different edge
preparations on the mechanical properties of low-carbon steel, using oxy-acetylene and shielded metal arc
welding processes.

2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
Hot-rolled plate of low-carbon steel was obtained from a local metal market (Owode-Onirin) in Lagos, Nigeria.
10 mm thickness samples of the steel plate were cut and prepared for welding. E6013 electrode with gauge size

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M. A. Bodude, I. Momohjimoh

10 and 12 were selected for the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process.

2.2. Procedure
Two edge preparations were done to perform welding on Butt Straight and single V groove joints. The test spe-
cimen was prepared in two 200 × 50 × 10 mm thick steel plates pieces and then welded together to give a fi-
nished test plate 200 × 100 × 10 mm with a weld down the middle as shown in Figure 1. Three stages were fol-
lowed for the experiment. In the first stage the metals plate with the prepared edges were taken for forming the
welded joint. The material pairs selected for forming the welded joints are shown in Figure 1.
The second stage was the welding process and the joint formation using different process parameters.
The third stage was undertaken to study the effect of welding parameters on the mechanical properties and
microstructure of welded joint.
The pieces of steel cut were paired and aligned on a table by the use of an angular Iron and then setting up of
welding circuit before welding. Welding of samples in horizontal position was performed continuously by
SMAW using the varied welding parameters: dual voltage device 100 V and 220 V, various welding current at
100, 120 and 150 Amperes.

2.3. Hardness Testing

Hardness testing of welding joints was performed in accordance to ASTM A370-14 standard using Rockwell
Testing Machine. The sample specimen was placed with the surface on the anvil, and slowly turning the hand
wheel until the specimen was raised to touch the indenter. The numbers were read directly from the dial indica-
tor and converted to the Rockwell number.
Hardness Test was done in a row to ensure that the Base Material, Heat Affected Zone and Weld Metal at a
distance ≤2 mm from surface and 2 mm from fusion line were captured. Schematic representation of Butt and
Groove welded joint with the locations of hardness testing and examination of microstructure is shown in Fig-
ure 2.
Rockwell Micro Hardness traverses (1-mm increments) were produced across the weld regions using a 150-g
load and a 10 s dwell time.

2.4. Tensile Testing

Tensile Test was conducted on the welded steel sample using a hydraulic extensometer with prepared machined
specimen dimensioned 85 × 50 × 10 mm. The tensile testing was done in accordance to ASTM A370-14 stan-
dard. Tensile samples were prepared by milling of the top and bottom surfaces to remove flashing and other
surface irregularities. The standard shape is obtained using lathe machine as shown in the Figure 3.

2.5. Impact Testing

Test specimens with a V notch in the fusion zone for impact test fracture were performed according to ASTM
E23 standard.
The prepared specimen was placed on the Anvil with V-notch gauge. The Pendulum was set to predetermined
level 220ft.Ib (298.642 J) and released to strike and fracture the positioned specimen. The value of Energy Im-
pacted was taken and recorded.

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the bead on plate location and di-

mensions.

144
 M. A. Bodude, I. Momohjimoh

Figure 2. Butt welded joint with the sample locations of hardness testing.

Figure 3. Showing the standard machined for tensile test.

2.6. Metallographic Test

Metallographic samples were produced from welds in accordance to ASTM E 23. Grinding, Polishing, etching
with 2% Nital and Metallographic examination of butt and groove welds were performed using optical micro-
scope Olympus PMG3 with magnification ×500.

3. Results and Discussion

Figure 4 clearly shows the mechanical properties of the welded steel at fixed Voltage (220 V) and varying Cur-
rent in Straight Edge preparation welded sample. It was discovered that current adjustment affects the weld bead
size, appearance, penetration and strength of the weld. There was a decrease in Hardness and Tensile strength of
the welded steel as the current was increased. With increased current, the heat generated increased causing the
grain to recrystallized and grow in size. Increased in grain size increases the impact strength (toughness) of the
weld but reduction in hardness and tensile strength of weldment and heat affected zone as depicted by the graph.
This was in agreement with [4]. Similarly, the amount of heat input from the heat source is given by
( I × V ) 60
H= .
S
This shows that as the current increases more heat is produce into the weld causing more expansion and con-
traction between the weldment and the base metal. This increased the residual stresses resulting in lower me-
chanical properties.
Figure 5 shows the mechanical properties of the welded steel at fixed voltage (220 V) and varying current in
the V groove edge welded sample. From this plot, the hardness as well as the tensile strength of the weldment
and heat affected zone decreased with an increase in the current. This again is due to increase in heat input into
the weldment. The heat persisted for a period of time and is quickly conducted away into the base metal as a re-
sult of low power density of the welding process (SMAW) as reported by Sindo [1]. Consequently, the based
metal was affected due to high heat input into the weld resulting in grain size increased. This case is also similar

145
M. A. Bodude, I. Momohjimoh

Figure 4. Fixed voltage (220 V) and varying current with straight edge.

Figure 5. Fixed voltage (220 V) and varying current with V groove edge.

to what happened in Figure 4. The only exception is that Figure 5 is with V-grooved edge with high amount of
weldment deposit. This increased the residual stresses in the weldment and heat affected zone. Residual stresses
can significantly affect the engineering properties of the material and this has contributed to reduction in
strength and hardness of the weldment and heat affected zone as shown in the Figure 5.
In Figure 6, the current was fixed at 100 A while the voltage was varied from 100 V to 200 V. The hardness
and the tensile strength of the weldment and the heat affected zone reduced as the voltage increases. This is sim-
ilar to that of Figure 4 and Figure 5 as they all conformed to the mathematical model equation relating heat
source and welding parameters (current and voltage) [5] [6]. Besides it is difficult to maintain constant gap be-
tween the arc and the weldment in manual welding, and as such the system is self-adjusting such that increase in
voltage will not cause significant increase in welding current as reported by Tariq in his lecture 2014 at King
Fard University of Petroleum Saudi Arabia.
Figure 7 shows similar phenomenon as that in Figure 6, though the edge preparation differences caused sig-
nificant changes in the mechanical properties. It was observed in Figure 6 that the tensile strength at 100 A is
about 500 N/mm2 while the corresponding tensile strength in Figure 7 is about 420 N/mm2. This is because
grove edge accommodates more weld deposit than straight edge and therefore the bonding strength should have
been better than that of straight edge. As reported in several literature, the more the weld deposit, the higher the
expansion and contractions consequently increase in residual stresses in the weldment and the heat affected zone.
Gery et al. [4] noted that, residual stresses can significantly affect the mechanical properties of the weldment. It
was also noted that the impact strength is slightly higher in Figure 7 than in Figure 6 with the similar reasons
explained above.
Figure 8 and Figure 9 depict fixed current and voltage with different edge preparation. The phenomenon in
both figures was almost the same as there were no changes in the heat input into the weldment. However differ-

146
 M. A. Bodude, I. Momohjimoh

Figure 6. Fixed current (100 A) varying voltage with straight edge.

Figure 7. Fixed current (100 A) varying voltage with V groove edge.

Figure 8. Fixed voltage and current with straight edge preparation.

147
M. A. Bodude, I. Momohjimoh

Figure 9. Fixed voltage and current for different edge preparations with V groove edge.

ences in edge preparations caused slight disparity in the values of the mechanical properties of the two types of
preparation under study. Tensile strength is higher in V-grooved edge in Figure 9 than that of straight edge in
Figure 8 as the effect of bonding is dominant over the residual stress due to constant heat input into the weld-
ment. Similarly, the impact strength (toughness) also improved slightly in V-grooved edge in the Figure 9 than
the corresponding impact in Figure 8.
In Figure 10 and Figure 11, the same scenario is exhibited except that the electrode is of different composi-
tions. It was discovered that the use of different electrode at constant current and voltage did not have any sig-
nificant changes in the tensile strength and hardness of the welded steel. However there is a noticeable im-
provement in the impact strength in V-grooved edge in Figure 11 than that of Figure 10.
Figure 12 and Figure 13 shows the mechanical properties of the welded steel at fixed current and voltage for
different cooling medium with straight edge and V-grooved edge preparations respectively. The cooled in still
air samples has a lower tensile strength, and higher hardness values as shown in Figure 12. This may be due to a
slow rate of cooling in draft air than that of still air. Low cooling rate led to grain growth of the welded joint [3]
[8] [9]. In Figure 13, it was observed that there was decrease in the hardness value of the sample cooled in the
still air, and this can be attributed to decrease in the concentration of hydrogen on the joint surface that caused
long time or delay in cooling rate.
Figure 14 shows the comparison of the mechanical properties of samples welded with oxy-acetylene in
straight edge and V-Beveled edge preparations. From this figure, the tensile strength and the hardness values of
the two types of preparations were totally different. As compared to SMAW, the mechanical properties of OAW
as reported in Figure 10 is lower than that of SMAW shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5 respectively. This is due
low power density of OAW process.
The results of microstructural examination revealed that all the welded joints contain pearlite and ferrite
phases.
Figure 15(a) shows the structure of the Base Metal of the Low Carbon Steel used for this study. The structure
consists of about 80% to 85% ferrite (white) and about 15% to 20% pearlite (black).
It was observed that the grain-refined area exhibits extremely small ferrite grains, clearly indicating that very
fine ferrite and pearlite is formed due to the heating and cooling cycles of the SMAW process [7].
Figure 15(a) and Figure 15(b) show the microstructures of the Weld Zone of samples welded at Constant
Voltage and varied Current setting, representing a grain-coarsened area, which exhibits predominantly White
Ferrite (WF) and pearlite.
Figure 16(a) and Figure 16(b) show the structure of the samples welded at constant current, and varied Vol-
tage setting. It was observed that a large amount of pearlite is present in the ferrite matrix. As the current was
increased, the pearlites become finely distributed within the coarse matrix with an increase in the proportion of
the ferrite to pearlite.
Figure 17(a) and Figure 17(b) compare the prepared straight edge and the prepared V-grooved edge and it
was discovered that ferrite phase were more than pearlite phase in their microstructure which also indicates

148
 M. A. Bodude, I. Momohjimoh

Figure 10. Fixed voltage and current for different types of electrode with straight edge.

Figure 11. Fixed voltage and current for different types of electrode with V groove edge.

Figure 12. Fixed voltage and current for different cooling medium with straight edge.

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M. A. Bodude, I. Momohjimoh

Figure 13. Fixed voltage and current for different cooling medium with V groove edge.

Figure 14. Welding with oxyacetylene flame with straight edge and V-bevelled edge.

(a) (b)

Figure 15. (a) Fixed voltage (220 V) and varying current; (b) Base metal with straight edge.

150
 M. A. Bodude, I. Momohjimoh

(a) (b)

Figure 16. (a) Fixed current (100 A) varying voltage with straight edge; (b) Fixed voltage (220 V) and varying current
with V groove edge.

(a) (b)

Figure 17. (a) Fixed voltage and current for edge preparations with straight edge; (b) Fixed current (100 A) and varying
voltage with V groove edge.

higher ductility in Figure 17(a); this is in agreement with the work of [5] [6].
Examination of the Welded Zones in Figure 18(a) and Figure 18(b) also revealed the effect of electrode size
on the microstructure. The observed structure is of coarse pearlite in ferrite matrix which became more coarse as
the grain size increased. This observation explained the decrease in the hardness and tensile strength values as
the heat energy input was increased.
Microstructure for samples welded with fixed voltage and current setting for different cooling medium were
shown in Figure 19(a) and Figure 19(b). These plates revealed the effects of cooling rate after welding on the
properties of the steel. Cooling in still air produces coarse grain structure of both ferrite and pearlite while cool-
ing in draft air produces fine grain size. This is due to slow cooling of the weldment in still air [3].
Figure 20(a) and Figure 20(b) revealed fine-grain microstructure of weldment of sample with Oxyacetylene
welding procedure. Fine grain ferrite and pearlite were observed in this area as compared to the base metal mi-
crostructure (Figure 19(a)). However, as observed from Figure 21(a) and Figure 21(b) better grain refinement
were noticed than in Figures 20(a) and Figure 20(b). This clearly indicates that during the heating and cooling
cycles, a very fine grain structure is formed in the FZ. This area is generally termed as the grain-refined area.
From the observation of the plates, the microstructures with higher concentration of the pearlite phase will
have more hardness and strength but with lower ductility. Ferrite crystals were formed as a result of transforma-
tion in low-carbon steel upon cooling from the austenitic state. It is not possible to state the relationship mathe-
matically, but since the ferrite grains are nucleated and grow; their size will depend on time and temperature,

151
M. A. Bodude, I. Momohjimoh

(a) (b)

Figure 18. (a) Fixed voltage and current for different types of electrode with straight edge; (b) Fixed voltage and current
for diff edge preparations with V groove edge.

(a) (b)

Figure 19. (a) Fixed voltage and current for medium with straight edge; (b) Fixed voltage and current for different types of
electrode with V groove edge.

(a) (b)

Figure 20. (a) Welding with oxyacetylene with straight edge; (b) Fixed voltage and current for cooling medium with V
groove edge.

152
 M. A. Bodude, I. Momohjimoh

(a) (b)

Figure 21. (a) Fixed voltage (220 V) and varying current with straight edge; (b) Welding with oxyacetylene flame with
V groove edge.

especially on the cooling rate.

4. Conclusions
The following conclusion can be drawn from the present study:
 Adequate edge preparation of the weldment enhances the strength of the welded steel. This may be due to
the high diffusion of the weld metal which in turn may enhance bonding of the two metal pieces.
 The hardness, tensile and impact strength of the welds are functions of the microstructure; therefore these
properties are structural sensitive.
 It was observed that the strength and hardness of the joint increase with the decrease in heat input.
 The toughness increases while the hardness and tensile strength of the joint decrease.

References
[1] Kou, S. (2003) Welding Metallurgy. 2nd Edition, John Wiley& Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 17-20.
[2] Puchoicela, J. (1998) Control of Distortion of Wed Steel Structures. Welding Journal, 77, 49-52.
[3] Ueji, R., Fujii, H., Cui, L., Nishiokioka, A., Kunishige, K. and Nogi, K. (2006) Friction Stir Welding of Ultrafine
Grained Plain Low-Carbon Steel Formed by the Martensite Process. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 423, 324-
330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2006.02.038
[4] Gery, H., Long, P. and Maropoulos, E. (2005) Effects of Welding Speed, Energy Input and Heat Source Distribution
on Temperature Variations in but Joint Welding. Journal of Material Processing Technology, 167, 393-401.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.06.018
[5] Muthupandi, V., Srinivasan, P., Bala, S.K. and Sundaresan, S. (2003) Effect of Weld Metal Chemistry and Heat Input
on the Structure and Properties of Duplex Stainless Steel Welds. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 358, 9-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(03)00077-7
[6] Yan, J., Goa, M. and Zeng, X. (2010) Study on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 304 Stainless Steel Joints
by TIG, Laser and Laser-TIG Hybrid Welding. Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 4, 512-517.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2009.08.009
[7] Monika, K., Bala, M.C., Nanda, P.K. and Prahalada, K.R. (2013) Effect of Heat Input on the Mechanical Properties of
MIG Welded Dissimilar Joints. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, 2.
[8] Easterling, K.E. (1998) Modeling the Weld Thermal Cycle and Transformation Behavior in the Heat Affected Zone. In:
Cerjak, H. and Easterling, K.E., Eds., Mathematical Modeling of Weld Phenomenon, The Institute of Materials.
[9] Marashi, P., Pouranvari, M., Amirabdollahian, S. and Abedi, G. (2008) Microstructure and Failure Behavior of Dissi-
milar Metal Spot Welds between Low Carbon Steel, Galvanized and Austenistic Stainless Steels. Materials Science
and Engineering: A, 420, 175-180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2007.07.007
[10] Lowe, T.C. and Zhu, Y.T. (2003) Commercialization of Nanostructured Metals Produced by Severe Plastic Deforma-
tion Processing. Advanced Engineering Materials, 5, 373-378. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2007.07.007

153

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2020) 110:729–740
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-020-05865-y

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Multi-objective optimization of FCA welding process:

trade-off between welding cost and penetration under hardness
limitation
Mohand Akli Sahali 1

Received: 25 April 2020 / Accepted: 31 July 2020 / Published online: 15 August 2020
# Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is an innovative semi-automatic assembly process that is increasingly used in the industrial

W
sector. However, the achievement of quality welds on steels with a low weldability index often and inevitably rhymes with high
production costs. Therefore, the optimization of welding conditions in order to find a compromise between economic and
technological criteria is of great interest. This document proposes the determination of optimal welding parameters, which
minimize the total welding cost and maximize weld penetration simultaneously under maximum allowable hardness limitation
IE
in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of high-strength low alloy steel (HSLA) grade S460. The decision variables chosen are welding
current, welding speed, voltage and preheating temperature. For this purpose, a mathematical model of the total welding cost for
the FCAW process has been developed. Then, the optimization problem is implemented with Matlab™ software and solved
using a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II). The near optimal solutions are presented as a Pareto front. The
choice of optimal welding parameters according to the operator’s objective is made simple and practical. The study highlighted
EV
the major role of preheating in reducing the total welding cost and preserving the quality of the weld joint for HSLA steel.

Keywords Optimization . FCAW . Welding cost . Depth of penetration . Weldability

1 Introduction The selection of optimal welding parameters plays an im-

PR

portant role in the control of this process. Welding current,

Electrical arc welding is a joining technique by melting mate- welding speed, wire feed rate, welding angle, voltage, type
rials without mechanical action. This category includes major and flow rate of the shielding gas and preheating temperature
processes such as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas are, among others, the main welding conditions selected in
metal arc welding (GMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW) previous optimization works. In addition, various criteria for
and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW). FCAW is halfway be- economic or technological quality optimization are widely
tween SMAW and GMAW. The wire electrode is filled rather documented in the literature. Examples of such criteria are
than solid; the flux embedded within the wire has the same minimum welding cost [2–7], minimum welding power con-
function as the SMAW electrode coating. FCAW has been sumption [8–10], maximum weld penetration [11–14], maxi-
widely used in the industry due to its relatively high deposi- mum tensile strength [15, 16], minimum width of the heat-
tion rate and good mechanical and geometrical properties of affected zone (HAZ) [17] and minimum susceptibility to cold
its weld bead [1]. FCAW is able to weld thick sections in all cracking [18].
positions with relative rapidity, allowing it to compete with One of the major difficulties associated with the welding
SAW [2]. process is cold cracking, especially in low and high alloy
steels. Indeed, the HAZ undergoes a thermal cycle of rapid
heating followed by a more or less long cooling. The metal-
* Mohand Akli Sahali lurgical weldability is characterized by the final microstruc-
[email protected]
ture in the HAZ which depends mainly on the equivalent
1
UAMB, Laboratoire de Mécanique, Matériaux et Énergétique,
carbon content in the steel and the cooling rate between 800
Département de Génie Mécanique, Faculté de Technologie, and 500 °C. The higher these two factors are, the more fragile
Université Abderrahmane Mira, 06000 Bejaia, Algeria
M. ZUK, J. GORKA, A. CZUPRYNSKI, M. ADAMIAK ISSN 0543-5846
METABK 55(4) 613-616 (2016)
UDC – UDK 621.15:621.791.052:621.78:620.18=111

PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURE OF THE WELD

JOINTS OF QUENCH AND TEMPERED 4330V STEEL
Received – Primljeno: 2015-11-20
Accepted – Prihvaćeno: 2016-03-15
Original Scientific Paper – Izvorni znanstveni rad

This work outlines the research on welding of heat treated 4330V steel using the flux core arc welding process. The
research describes the effect of preheat temperature, interpass temperature, heat input, and post weld heat treat-
ment on strength, hardness, toughness, and changes of microstructure in the weld joint. Welding with the lower
heat input and without post weld heat treatment results in optimal mechanical properties in the weld metal. Aus-
tempering at 400 °C results in optimal mechanical properties in the heat affected zone (HAZ). Increasing preheats
and interpass temperature from 340 to 420 °C did not improve Charpy V-notch values or ultimate tensile strength in
the weld metal or heat affected zones.
Key words: 4330V steel, flux cored arc welding (FCAW), post weld treatment, mechanical properties, structures

INTRODUCTION high enough temperatures for the required duration [1].

In this case, the weld and HAZ may contain some mar-
Heat Treatable Low Alloy (HTLA) steels are charac- tensite and retained austenite. Appropriate postweld op-
terized by relatively high strength, high toughness and erations can be used to transform the retained austenite
high hardenability. The high hardenability of HTLA to martensite or bainite.
steels ensures high strength across relatively large cross
sections, but it also complicates the welding process.
The 4330V grade steel is a high strength, high tough- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
ness, heat treatable low alloy steel for application in the Five experiments were performed on quench and
oil, gas and aerospace industries. It is typically used for tempered 4330V steel. Five Welding Procedure Specifi-
large diameter drilling parts where high toughness and cations were used, each using the same filler metal. The
strength are required [1]. The welding process for this 4330V chosen for the experimental research was cold-
steel type is difficult by its high hardenability (large straightened hardened and tempered bar. It was pro-
amount of alloying elements). In order to ensure high duced using the electric vacuum degas process. The
toughness and to prevent cracking, this steel must be material has a high hardenability and a martensitic mi-
welded using a low hydrogen process [2]. Studies of cro-structure. Heat treatment can either temper the mar-
weld metal composition based on AISI 4340 steel indi- tensite or form a martensite-bainite mixed structure.
cate that its resistance to solidification cracking can be One 25lb spool of 1,6 mm thickness flux core arc weld-
improved by maintaining the sum of sulphur and phos- ing wire was used for all experiments. The wire was
phorus contents below 0,025 %. Improving cracking selected based on its similarity in chemical composition
resistance also can be obtained by using filler metal to 4330V and its design for high strength high tough-
with a lower carbon and alloy content [1, 3-8]. Low hy- ness applications. The key differences in chemical com-
drogen welding procedures must be used with con- position are lower carbon content and higher nickel
trolled preheat and interpass temperatures to prevent content in the filler metal, the intent being to reduce
excessive hardness and cracking in the weld metal and hardenability, improve toughness and maintain compa-
HAZ [8-14]. Post weld heat treatment is also used to rable strength, Table 1. The transformation tempera-
improve toughness. A common approach to welding tures and the expected microstructure are similar in the
HTLA steels is to slow the cooling rate of the weld filler metal and the weld metal.
enough to permit formation of softer bainite instead of The weld samples for the experiments were obtained
hard martensite [1]. Lower bainite is preferred over up- by saw cutting a 255 mm diameter 360 mm long 4330V
per bainite due to its higher toughness [15]. Complete bar into plates of approximately 25 mm thickness. The
transformation to bainite may not be possible, either plates were then machined to uniform thickness and the
due to chemical composition or an inability to maintain appropriate bevel geometry. Five weld procedures were
created, one for each experiment. There was a variation
M. Zuk, J. Gorka, A. Czuprynski, M. Adamiak, Faculty of Mechanical in joint type, shielding gas, post weld heat treatment,
Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland current, voltage and wire feed speed, Table 2.

METALURGIJA 55 (2016) 4, 613-616 613

 M. ZUK et al.: PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURE OF THE WELD JOINTS OF QUENCH AND TEMPERED 4330V STEEL

Table 1 Base Metal to Filler Metal comparison for chemical composition, mas. %, C- equivalent

Plate material C Mn Si P S Cr Ni Mo V Cu Ce*

Base metal 0,31 0,87 0,28 0,007 0,002 0,94 1,93 0,47 0,057 0,16 0,89
Filler metal 0,09 1,12 0,20 0,013 0,009 0,60 3,11 0,50 - 0,72 0,75
Remarks: * - carbon equivalent

Table 2 Welding procedure specification

Process specification
Sample Joint Type Shielding Gas Preheat Temperature / °C Interpass Temperature / °C Post Weld Heat Treatment
Sample 1 single-bevel butt 75 %Ar 250 250 none
25 %CO2
Sample 2 double –V butt 100 %CO2 340 340 none
Sample 3 double –V butt 100 %CO2 420 420 none
Sample 4 single-bevel butt 75 %Ar 420 420 Austemper
25 %CO2 400 °C , 10 hours
Sample 5 double –V butt 75 %Ar 420 420 Austemper
25 %CO2 400 °C , 10 hours
Remarks: Base material 4330V thickness – 25 mm. Filler metal YS140AC – 1,6 mm, Joint preparation – machine bevel, Polarity – DCEP, Welding
position – PA (1G).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION likely containing a significant amount of bainite, Figure

1. This was consistent with the results predicted by the
All samples show a tempered martensite structure in isothermal transformation chart.
the base metal. The heat affected zones and weld metal The material inspection certificate from the steel mill
display mixed structures. The weld metal of sample 4 for the 4330V used in the experiments indicates 34,4
(austempered) appears to be the least martensitic and HRC (~330 HV) 1” (25 mm) below the surface of the bar.

a) Macrograph sample 4, b) Microstructure sample 4, Base metal,

etching Adler 500 x, etching Nital

c) Microstructure sample 4, Weld metal, d) Microstructure sample 4 – Fusion

500 x, etching Nital line, 500 x, etching Nital
Figure 1 4330V steel macro and microstructure, sample 4

614 METALURGIJA 55 (2016) 4, 613-616

 M. ZUK et al.: PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURE OF THE WELD JOINTS OF QUENCH AND TEMPERED 4330V STEEL

Figure 2 Vickers hardness 2 mm below surface Figure 3 Vickers hardness near root pas

Although the material has a high hardenability, the hard- to the formation of a partially bainitic structure. Tem-
ness is expected to be lower further away from the sur- pering did not reduce the tensile strength of the weld
face and higher closer to the surface, so there will be metal as would have been expected, it is suspected that
hardness variation in the plates used for the experiments. the embrittlement in this sample had some strengthen-
Thus the 340 HV average hardness of the base metal in ing effect, Table 3.
the welded pieces is consistent with the measurements on Increasing the preheat/interpass tempe-rature from
the material inspection certificate. There was no signifi- 340 to 420 °C had no effect on the HAZ toughness. This
cant difference in peak hardness in the HAZ between is likely due to the high hardenability of 4330V. Tem-
samples 1, 2, 3 (250, 340 and 420 °C preheat/interpass pering at 400 °C for 10 hours also did not improve the
tempe-rature). Sample 3 was welded with a higher heat HAZ toughness. The base material was originally tem-
input and this appears to have enlarged the HAZ. Aus- pered at 620 °C, it is probable that a temperature of 400
tempering at 400 °C for 10 hours significantly reduced °C was insufficient to temper the HAZ. Austempering
HAZ hardness down to levels comparable to the base at 400 °C did significantly improve HAZ toughness,
metal. This is likely attributable to the formation of a likely due to the toughness of the bainitic structure.
mixed bainite-martensite structure. Tempering at 400 °C Tempering and austempering both reduced the weld
also reduce the HAZ hardness but not to the extent of metal toughness, Table 3. The presence on Cr, Ni, Mn,
austempering. There was very little variation in weld the relatively long time spent between 375 °C and 575
metal hardness in samples 1-4, and in these samples the °C, and slow cooling in this temperature range makes it
hardness was relatively close to the hardness of the base likely that the toughness loss was due to temper embrit-
metal. Sample 5 was tempered at 400 °C and had a sig- tlement.
nificantly higher hardness in the weld metal.
This could have been caused by temper embrittle-
CONCLUSIONS
ment, although the most pronounced effects of this phe-
nomenon are generally a decrease in toughness not nec- Of the five experiments, welding with the lower heat
essarily an increase in hardness, Figures 2 and 3. input and no post weld heat treatment resulted in optimal
The tensile strength in all samples was very close to mechanical properties in the weld metal. Joints (sample
the 1 055 MPa ultimate tensile strength of the base met- 2) had a 1 055 MPa ultimate tensile strength and 26,7 J
al. Austempering appears to have reduced the tensile Charpy V-notch at -40 °C in the weld metal. Austemper-
strength of the weld metal slightly, which is attributable ing at 400 °C resulted in optimal mechanical properties in

Table 3 Strength properties of welded joints

Tensile strength Impact strength
Sample
Rm / MPa Location V-Notch weld / J V-Notch HAZ / J
Sample 1 Welded joint did not meet the requirements of ISO 5817
Sample 2 1 055 Weld 26,7 18,7
Sample 3 1 030 HAZ 23,3 18,9
Sample 4 990 Weld 14,0 24,0
Sample 5 1 025 Weld 14,6 18,6

METALURGIJA 55 (2016) 4, 613-616 615

 M. ZUK et al.: PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURE OF THE WELD JOINTS OF QUENCH AND TEMPERED 4330V STEEL

the HAZ. Increasing preheat and interpass temperature [7] A. Lisiecki, Welding of thermomechanically rolled fine-
from 340 to 420 °C did not improve Charpy grain steel by different types of lasers, Arch Metall Mater
59 (2014) 4, 1625-1631.
V-notch values or ultimate tensile strength in the
[8] M. Opiela, Effect of thermomechanical processing on the
weld metal or heat affected zones. The higher tempera- microstructure and mechanical properties of Nb-Ti-V mi-
ture increased the width of the heat affected zone. Aus- croalloyed steel, J Mater Eng Perform 23 (2014) 9, 3379-
tempering at 400 °C reduced HAZ hardness to a level 3388.
comparable to the base metal. Both tempering and aus- [9] J. Górka, Weldability of thermomechanically treated steels
tempering at 400 °C for 10 hours reduced toughness in having a high yield point, Arch Metall Mater 60 (2015) 1,
469-475.
the weld metal.
[10] M. Opiela, Elaboration of thermomechanical treatment
conditions of Ti-V and Ti-Nb-V microalloyed forging ste-
REFERENCES els, Arch Metall Mater 59 (2014) 3, 1181-1188.
[11] J. Bernetič, B. Bradaškaja, G. Kosec, E. Bricelj, B. Kosec,
[1] C. Mikia. K. Homma, T. Tominaga, High strength and high F. Vodopivec, L. Kosec, Centreline formation of Nb(C, N)
performance steels and their use in bridge structures, eutectic in structural steel, Metalurgija 49 (2010) 1, 29-32
Journal of Constructional, Steel Res 58 (2002), 3–20. [12] Hillfoot Multi Metals, 4330V modified – Ni-Cr-Mo-V
[2] C. Lee. H. Shin. K. Park, Evaluation of high strength Through Hardening Steel, http://www.aspectdemo.com/
TMCP steel weld for use in cold regions, J. Constr. Steel hillfoot/sites/default/files/4330V_-_Issue_1.pdf.
Res. 74 (2012), 134–139. [13] K. Packard, Selecting and Caring for Flux Cored Wire,
[3] J. Górka, Analysis of simulated welding thermal cycles Welding Journal 7 (2007), 32-34
S700MC using a thermal imaging camera, Advanced Ma- [14] D. Janicki, Disk laser welding of armour steel, Arch Metall
terial Research 837 (2014), 375-380. Mater 59 (2014) 4, 1641-1646.
[4] A. Lisiecki, Diode laser welding of high yield steel, Proc. [15] H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, Bainite in Steels, Second Edition,
of SPIE Vol. 8703, Laser Technology 2012: Applications Institute of Materials (March 2001), Cambridge University
of Lasers, 87030S (January 22. 2013). Press Chapter 14, pp. 397-398.
[5] A. Grajcar, M. Różański, S. Stano, A. Kowalski, Micro-
structure characterization of laser-welded Nb-microallo-
yed silicon-aluminum TRIP steel, J Mater Eng Perform 23
(2014) 9, 3400-3406.
[6] K. Oates, R. William, M. Alexander, Welding Handbook,
Materials and Applications Part 2. Volume Four Eight Edi- Note: The responsible translator for English language is Translation
tion, Miami: American Welding Society (1998). Bureau “TRANSLATIUM”, Wroclaw, Poland

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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365928298

Effect of heat input on microstructure and mechanical

properties in underwater wet flux-cored arc welding of
structural steels

Article in MRS Advances · December 2022

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EFFECT OF HEAT INPUT ON
MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES IN UNDERWATER WET FLUX-
CORED ARC WELDING OF STRUCTURAL
STEELS
Isis Fernanda de Luna¹, Patricia Costa¹, Gerardo Altamirano-Guerrero¹, Antonio Guía-
Hernández¹, Rocío Ochoa-Palacios¹, Luis E. Ramírez², Alexandro Buendía¹

1 Tecnológico Nacional de México/IT Saltillo, Blvd. V. Carranza 2400 Col. Tecnológico,

Saltillo 25280, Coahuila, México.
2 Consultores Asociados en Soldadura, Saltillo, Coahuila, México

ABSTRACT

In recent years the researches have been leaning towards the use of the wet welding process
using the self-shielded flux-cored arc welding (FCAW-S) due to its higher productivity.
Processing parameters such as welding current (I), arc voltage (E) and welding speed (v)
notably determine the final microstructure and resulting mechanical properties of underwater
wet welds. In this research work, the effect of the heat input generated by experimental
underwater wet welding using the FCAW-S process on the microstructure and microhardness
of weld beads made on ASTM A36 steel plates is investigated. For this purpose, experimental
underwater welding tests were carried out in a special tank containing 30 centimeters of water
column using three levels of heat input (578, 694 and 1074 J/mm) and a commercial filler metal
(AWS E71T-GS). The microstructure and mechanical properties of the weld beads obtained
were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Vickers hardness tests,
respectively. In general, the experimental results show that the microstructure in both heat-
affected zone (HAZ) and fusion zone (FZ) is basically constituted by martensite (M) for the
three energy levels studied, which is related to the high cooling rates involved in the underwater
welding processes. In addition, the mechanical properties reveal that the hardness values
decrease with the increase in heat input due that increasing the ratio decreases the cooling rate
and the martensite resulting is less hard. Finally, it is concluded that it is necessary to change
the filler metal or looking for better parameters configuration to obtain higher heat input and
change de microstructure in the fusion zone (FZ) to improve the mechanical properties in the
welded component.

INTRODUCTION

The “underwater welding” is the process in which two similar or dissimilar metals are
joined in an underwater (sub-aquatic) environment [1-3]. The American Welding Society
(AWS) has cataloged about 50 different welding processes[4], however, just a few of them
can be used for underwater welding since the equipment’s adaptability to aqueous
environments and the applications required are very complex [5] . The most widely used
underwater welding procedure is by shielded metal arc stick welding (SMAW), however,
current developments are related to the application of FCAW-S mainly due to its higher
productivity [6-8].
The underwater wet FCAW-S process is carried out directly in an aquatic environment
at a depth of up to 100 meters [9]. The FCAW-S process is widely used to join components
in the naval industry, nuclear industry, maritime platforms, components and structures
made of carbon steel and low alloy steel. This productive process is capable of achieving
higher deposition rates and can be applied for general welding or specific situations in
repairs, for welding out of position or high deposition [5]. In recent years, due to its higher
productivity, this practical process has been the object of attention in the scientific research
field [10-12].
The majority of studies in this regard are focused on improving the electric arc stability
during the underwater wet FCAW-S process. For example, Yang et al. [13] showed in their
studies that the arc voltage directly influences the size of the bubbles that are formed during
the reactions in the weld pool and a low voltage promotes greater turbulence in metal
transfer due to the small diameter of the bubbles which decreases the arc stability. In this
context, Fu et al. [14] stated that the globular transfer mode must be reduced to stabilize
the arc, decrease the amount of spatter and improve the welding quality. Similarly, Guo et
al. [2] reported that voltage directly influences in arc stability using wet FCAW-S process.
Their results showed that the appropriate voltage range is 30-34 V to wire diameter of 1.6
mm and a wire feed speed of 5 m/min. Xu et al. [15] showed that in underwater wet welds
the arc ignition time is less than dry welds (onshore) since gases are generated within the
metal droplets molten, deteriorating the stability of the electric arc and consequently the
quality of underwater wet welds is lower than those made in dry.
Another challenge of underwater wet welding is the high cooling rates that promote
the development of structures of high hardness which degrade the mechanical properties
of the metal joint. In an aquatic environment, the cooling rate of the welds is much higher
than in those obtained in dry welds [16-18]. This can lead to a loss of ductility of the weld
metal and the heat affected zone (HAZ). In this sense, Chen et al. [19] studied the effect
of the cooling rate generated by the flow of water on the mechanical properties and
microstructures of two structural steels with different carbon equivalent values. Their
results showed that joints in steels with higher carbon equivalents demonstrated more
susceptibility to cold cracking. On the other hand, Tomków et al. [20] used the tempering
bead technique and showed that in this way it is possible to reduce the HAZ and ZF
hardness of an HSLA steel.
It is well known that internal and surface porosity is a very common serious problem
in underwater welding. In this regard, Xu et al. [21] demonstrated in their experiments that
supersonic vibration decreases porosity in stainless steel welds using the FCAW-S process
[21]. Likewise, Chen et al. [22] performed underwater wet welds with the ultrasonic-
assisted FCAW-S process which improved the arc stability, refined the microstructure of
the fusion zone (FZ) and consequently, the toughness increases around 20% compared to
the wet FCAW-S conventional process.
As stated above, it is clear that the control of microstructural development is of vital
importance to obtain the desired mechanical properties. In general, it is known that the
shape and size of the solidification structures in a weld bead are those that directly affect
the mechanical properties thus, fine grains will result in good mechanical properties and,
therefore, good joint quality [16]. To improve the toughness in the joint is desirable
presence of acicular ferrite and lower oxygen content in the fusion zone (FZ) [23].
Currently there is little information in the scientific literature strictly focused on
development microstructural and its relationship with the mechanical properties in
underwater wet welding using FCAW-S process. Therefore, in this research work, the
FCAW-S process was applied in underwater conditions in ASTM A36 steel plates (1G
position). The influence of heat input caused by process parameters such as welding
current (I), arc voltage (E), and welding speed (v) on the final microstructure and the
microhardness of welding beads is described in detail.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chemical composition of the experimental material (ASTM A 36 steel and filler
metal) is given in Table 1. Three tests were made with different parameters for the
elaboration of the weld beads. The ASTM A36 steel plate was welded with the underwater
FCAW-S process inside the water tank using a wire that meets with AWS E71T-GS
specification and its chemical composition is showed in Table 1. The Esab EMP 235i
welding machine was used to obtain beads of 30 cm. The water column employed was 30
cm depth.

Table 1. Chemical composition of steel ASTM A36 and filler metal (% wt.)

The metallographic samples were characterized in the cross-section of the beads.

Conventional metallographic preparation techniques were used to be able to observe the
microstructure present in the welding zones and finally carry out Vickers Microhardness
measurements with 500g test load during 15 s and two measurements were made for each
weld zone (BM, HAZ and FZ). To determine the microstructure by scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) the samples were etched with Nital 2%.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 1 shows the welding beads obtained identified by low, medium and high heat
input, which numbered from 1 to 3, respectively. It is possible to observe that the beads
along 30 cm contain surface porosity and this is due to the underwater wet environment
but it is necessary to find a way to reduce that porosity. As can see, the porosity decreases
with increasing heat input.

Figure 1. Weld beads obtained.

The microstructure presents in the HAZ and FZ is similar for the three samples studied.
For this reason, it is decided to present only the microstructure of sample 3 (Figure 2). As
can be seen, in the macrograph (Figure 2A) the presence of internal pores is observed,
which, as mentioned above, is related to the accelerated cooling involved in the underwater
wet welding process and also by the instability of the electric arc that is characteristic of
the underwater FCAW-S process. Other authors [25–30] have also reported surface and
internal porosity in weld beads obtained by the FCAW process. In this context, Xu et.al
[30] studied the behavior of the underwater melt pool and their results showed that the
porosity in underwater wet welding is much higher that the presented in the onshore
welding, however, it is possible to reduce considerably the porosity in the underwater wet
welding using supersonic vibration. The supersonic vibration reduces the size of bubbles
in the melt pool and this decreases the porosity in the weld bead. Another form to decreases
the porosity in the weld beads is using higher heat input that depends of the welding
parameters configuration.
In relation the microstructural analysis, the base metal (BM) is constituted by ferrite
and pearlite (Figure 2B). These phases will be transformed when the steel plate is welded
since different temperatures are obtained in each welding zone. The HAZ is divided into
three other regions: the intercritical (HAZ-IC – Figure 2C), the fine-grained (HAZ-FG –
Figure 2D) and the grain-growing (HAZ-GC – Figure 2E) region. The microstructure
presents in each sub-regions of the HAZ is different because the peak temperatures of ones
are different.
In the intercritical zone (HAZ-IC) there are a partial refining of the microstructure
because the temperature of this region is between 727°C (A 1, lower equilibrium
temperature between ferrite and austenite) and the austenitization temperature. So, the
perlite from BM is transformed to austenite during the heating and this austenite transforms
to fine perlite in the cooling. Then, the microstructure in this zone is composed by ferrite
and fine perlite as showed in Figure 2C. The microhardness measurement in this was 197
HV and is coherent with the microstructure.
On the other hand, the fine-grain zone (HAZ-FG) is composed by ferrite, perlite and
bainite as showed in Figure 2D. In this zone, the peak temperature is higher the
austenitization temperature (A3, upper equilibrium temperature between ferrite and
austenite) and this allows the nucleation of austenite grains that transforms to other
products depending of cooling rate. In this case, the transformation product in this region
was a mixture of perlite, bainite and ferrite and the microhardness value of 251 HV is
according to the microstructure.
The microstructure in the coarsening grain zone (HAZ-GC) is showed in Figure 2E
and is composed by martensite, since the microstructure and microhardness value of 373
indicate the presence of this microconstituent. The peak temperature in this region is well
above A3 and thus, the austenite grains grow increasing the hardenability and favoring the
formation of martensite.
Finally, in the fusion zone (FZ), a totally martensitic microstructure is obtained
presenting microhardness values of 412 HV, which is due to the rapid cooling that takes
place within the underwater wet welding (Figure 2F). The typical columnar growth of this
region of the weld is also observed.
Figure 3 presents the hardness profiles for the three levels of heat input studied. It can
be seen that the microhardness results of the ZAC and ZF are higher than those of the base
metal. In addition, for the FZ, it is noted that the increase in heat input decreases the
microhardness in the one.
What is sought in welding is that it be strong enough to be able to withstand the forces
and/or loads that are applied to it. Previously it was seen that in the FZ there is martensite.
The characteristic of martensite is that the harder, the more brittle the material becomes;
therefore, this microstructure is not desirable in the FZ. So that, it is important to seek to
decrease the hardness in this region, either by increasing the heat input or by changing in
the chemical composition of the filler metal.
Figure 2. Metallographic characterization of the different welding regions (sample 3). BM: Base Metal;
HAZ-IC: Intercritical heat affected zone; HAZ-FG: Fine-grained heat-affected zone; HAZ-CG: Coarse-
grained heat-affected zone; ZF: Fusion zone; F: Ferrite; P: Pearlite; M: Martensite; B: Bainite.

Figure 3. Profile of microhardness measurements Vickers in the samples studied.

CONCLUSIONS

The experimental results show that the microstructure in the HAZ-CG and in the FZ is
basically constituted by martensite for the three energy levels studied, which is related to
the high cooling rates involved in the process. The experimental conditions that presented
the best results were carried out with a heat input greater than 1000 J/mm. The increase in
heat input decreases both the hardness and the surface porosity, obtaining better quality
welds, however, even with heat input greater than 1000 J/mm the martensitic phase
continues appearing in the FZ and the resulting hardness remains with very high values.
These behavior shows that it is still necessary improve the combination of processing
parameters in order to obtain better quality in the weld beads. Finally, as future work, it is
proposed to change the filler metal or seek a better configuration of parameters to generate
a higher heat input with the purpose of changing the microstructure in the FZ and therefore
improve the mechanical properties in the welded component
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We appreciate the financial support for this research from the Tecnológico Nacional
de México and Consultores Asociados en Soldadura funds and the knowledge acquired.
The author P Costa thanks CONACYT for their support in the form of postdoctoral
fellowship

CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

The authors declare no competing interests.

DATA AVAILABILITY

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available
from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Influence of Heat Input on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Gas

Tungsten Arc Welded HSLA S500MC Steel Joints

Article in Metals · March 2022

DOI: 10.3390/met12040565

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 metals
Article
Influence of Heat Input on Microstructure and Mechanical
Properties of Gas Tungsten Arc Welded HSLA S500MC
Steel Joints
Kianoosh Kornokar 1 , Fardin Nematzadeh 1, *, Hossein Mostaan 1 , Amirhossein Sadeghian 2 ,
Mahmoud Moradi 2,3, *, David G. Waugh 2 and Mahdi Bodaghi 4, *

1 Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Arak University,

Arak 38156-88349, Iran; [email protected] (K.K.); [email protected] (H.M.)
2 Faculty of Engineering, Environment and Computing, School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Automotive
Engineering, Coventry University, Gulson Road, Coventry CV1 2JH, UK;
[email protected] (A.S.); [email protected] (D.G.W.)
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Malayer University,
Malayer 65719-95863, Iran
4 Department of Engineering, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University,
Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
* Correspondence: [email protected] (F.N.); [email protected] (M.M.);
[email protected] (M.B.)

Abstract: High-strength low alloy (HSLA) S500MC steel is widely used for chassis components,
structural parts, and pressure vessels. In this study, the effects of heat input during automatic



gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) on microstructure and mechanical properties of thermomechani-


cally controlled processed (TMP) S500MC steel were investigated. A butt joint configuration was
Citation: Kornokar, K.; Nematzadeh,
used, and welding was performed in autogenous mode. Six different levels of heat input namely
F.; Mostaan, H.; Sadeghian, A.;
1.764 kJ/mm, 1.995 kJ/mm, 2.035 kJ/mm, 2.132 kJ/mm, 2.229 kJ/mm, and 2.33 kJ/mm were con-
Moradi, M.; Waugh, D.G.; Bodaghi,
M. Influence of Heat Input on
sidered. Microstructural investigations revealed a different microstructure than base metal in the
Microstructure and Mechanical fusion zone (FZ) of all welded joints which was most likely due to a lath martensitic microstructure
Properties of Gas Tungsten Arc surrounded by retained austenite. With increased heat input, the amount of retained austenite and
Welded HSLA S500MC Steel Joints. the size of packets increased. In the heat-affected zone (HAZ), two distinct regions of coarse grain
Metals 2022, 12, 565. https:// (CG-HAZ) and fine grain (FG-HAZ) were observed. Due to the presence of carbides in the HAZ,
doi.org/10.3390/met12040565 mostly a martensitic microstructure with smaller packets, compared to FZ, was formed. By increasing
Academic Editors: Francisco J.
the heat input and through the dissolution of carbides, the dimension of packets increased. Due to
G. Silva and António Bastos Pereira microstructural changes and grain growth, in both the FZ and the HAZ, the mechanical properties
produced by TMP were lost in these regions. However, failure occurred in the base metal of all
Received: 27 February 2022
samples with a maximum tensile strength of 690 MPa. Thus, tensile strength in the weld zone and
Accepted: 25 March 2022
HAZ were higher than the base metal even for the highest heat input indicating the formation of a
Published: 27 March 2022
good joint between S500MC plates with GTAW, regardless of heat input.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in Keywords: gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW); heat input; S500MC steel; microstructure; mechani-
published maps and institutional affil- cal properties
iations.

1. Introduction
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) is a con-
This article is an open access article ventional arc welding technique in which a non-consumable tungsten electrode creates an
distributed under the terms and arc on the workpiece [1]. GTAW has several advantages over other arc welding methods
conditions of the Creative Commons such as good metallurgical and mechanical properties of welds between almost all metals
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// including dissimilar ones [2]. Moreover, GTAW normally creates spatter-free joints with
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ minimum distortion and a narrow heat-affected zone (HAZ) [3]. However, it is well-known
4.0/).

Metals 2022, 12, 565. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12040565 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2022, 12, 565 2 of 10

that the quality of welds produced with fusion welding processes is highly dependent on
selecting suitable process parameters [4].
S500MC is a grade of high-strength low alloy (HSLA) steels that are normally de-
veloped by thermomechanical processing (TMP) [5]. Small quantities of carbide and
nitride-forming elements such as Ti, Nb, and V are present in the chemical composition
of HSLA steels. These elements are responsible for the high strength as a result of grain
refinement and precipitation hardening [6,7]. HSLA steels are used for welded components
in various applications such as construction, transport, and off-shore structures due to their
superior combination of strength, toughness, and formability [8,9]. Although S500MC steel
possesses good weldability owing to relatively low carbon levels, the effect of heat input
and cooling rate during welding can easily alter the microstructure of the fusion zone (FZ)
and the HAZ through the formation of hard and brittle phases such as a martensitic struc-
ture, thereby diminishing the mechanical properties [10]. Furthermore, the susceptibility of
S500MC steel to cold cracking in the fusion zone has been reported in the literature [11].
Several studies have been conducted on the weldability of HSLA steels and the
effects of process parameters on the weld geometry and phase transformations in the
FZ and the HAZ during fusion welding [12–15]. Musa et al. investigated the effect of
GTAW parameters on the microstructure and microhardness of the HAZ in L450 HSLA
steel. It was concluded that welding parameters had a massive effect on the hardness
profile and microstructural features of welds [16]. The increase of welding heat input
resulted in an increase in the width of HAZ and the growth of prior austenite grains.
A relationship between weld microstructure and mechanical properties in HSLA steels
was established by Oyyaravelu et al. They observed martensitic structure in the weld
zone due to very high cooling rates [17]. Miletić et al. studied the properties of HSLA
steel welded joints. They reported a decrease in impact toughness of S690QL steel due
to the increase in welding heat input [18]. The impact of GTAW parameters on the weld
bead profile of 15CDV6 HSLA steel was studied by Skariya et al. using an optimization
approach to maximize the depth of penetration while minimizing the HAZ [19]. In a
similar study, a Taguchi Optimization technique was used by Pamnani in GTAW of DMR
249 A HSLA steel to optimize the process parameters to achieve the highest depth of
penetration [20]. The relationship between fatigue and fracture ductile-Brittle transition in
S500 welds was studied by Salabba et al. [21]. They reported a constant reduction in fatigue
crack propagation rate with decreasing test temperature even below the ductile-brittle
transition temperature.
GTAW is a cost-effective process and can easily be automated which makes it important
to optimize the process parameters in the GTAW of S500MC. Despite the advances, the
influence of heat input on the phase transformations during the GTAW of S500MC HSLA
steel has not been fully understood yet. The tensile strength of a weld is highly dependent
on microstructure which is determined by microstructural changes induced by welding
conditions. In the present study, the effect of welding heat input on microstructure, and
tensile strength of gas tungsten arc welded joints was investigated. Six levels of heat
input from low to high were compared in terms of their effect on the FZ and the HAZ
microstructure and the mechanical properties of joints.

2. Materials and Methods

For this study, HSLA S500MC steel plates were mechanically cut into
60 mm × 30 mm × 1.5 mm pieces. The chemical composition of S500MC steel based
on quantometer analysis is listed in Table 1. The equivalent carbon content (CE) was
calculated in accordance with Equation (1) [22] as 0.39 indicating good weldability. The
mechanical properties of S500MC based on standard EN 10,025 are presented in Table 2.

Mn Cu + Ni Cr + Mo + V
CEIIW = C + + + (1)
6 15 5
Metals 2022, 12, 565 3 of 10

Table 1. Chemical composition of S500MC (wt.%).

Element Fe C Si Mn Ni Cu P Cr Mo S Al V Ti
Composition Bal. 0.11 0.14 1.64 0.0075 0.016 0.01 0.03 0.021 0.002 0.05 0.004 0.004

Table 2. Mechanical properties of S500MC.

Elongation Tensile Strength Yield Strength

(%) (MPa) (MPa)
≥14 550–700 ≥500

Before welding, surface oxides were removed by grinding, and then acetone was used
to clean any residue or grease on the joint surfaces. A square groove with a root opening
of 0.5 mm was used for welding. Experiments were carried out with an automatic GTAW
system on an adjustable welding table. The tungsten electrode contained 2% thorium and
the diameter was 3.2 mm. The welding torch angle was placed at 60◦ to the horizontal
surface. Welding was performed with direct current electrode negative (DCEN) for lower
spatter and a more stable arc. No filler metal was used for welding. During the welding,
argon gas with a purity of 99.98% was used as the shielding gas. The gas flow rate was
10 L/min. To reduce welding-induced distortion, samples were fixed during the exper-
iments using a fixture. Welding was carried out in one pass and with a butt-welding
configuration. Welding parameters used in this study are presented in Table 3. To investi-
gate the influence of heat input on microstructure and tensile strength of joints, various
welding currents and speeds were selected to adjust the heat input for each experiment.
Voltage and arc length was kept at a constant level. Heat input, one of the most im-
portant parameters in GTAW, was calculated for each set of welding parameters using
Equation (2) [23].
V ∗ I ∗ 60
H = (2)
1000 ∗ S
where H is heat input (kJ/mm), V is voltage (V), I is current (A), and S is welding speed
(mm/min). The calculated heat input value for each experiment based on Equation (2) is
also presented in Table 3. Schematics of the GTAW process and actual welding of S500MC
steel in butt configuration are presented in Figure 1a,b, respectively.

Table 3. Welding parameters used in experiments.

Welding
Arc Length Heat Input
Experiment No. Current (A) Voltage (V) Speed
(mm) (kJ/mm)
(mm/min)
1 105 21 3 75 1.764
2 95 21 3 60 1.995
3 105 21 3 65 2.035
4 110 21 3 65 2.132
5 115 21 3 65 2.229
6 120 21 3 65 2.33

To study the microstructure, specimens were cut in the middle of the weld line
transverse to the welding direction and then were subjected to grinding using SiC abrasive
papers up to 2500 grade. Next, samples were polished to a 1 µm finish, followed by
etching in 2% Nital solution for 10 s. Meiji IM-7200 inverted metallurgical microscope
(Meiji Techno, San Jose, CA, USA) was used for microstructural investigations. Tensile tests
were carried out on standard tensile samples to study the mechanical properties of joints.
Tensile test specimens were extracted using electrical discharge machining (EDM) according
to standard ASTM-E8. Tensile tests were conducted at room temperature and with an
overhead speed of 2 mm/min. A VEGA TESCAN-XMU scanning electron microscope
Metals 2022, 12, 565 4 of 10

Metals 2022, 12, 565 4 of 10

(SEM, TESCAN, Brno, The Czech Republic) was used for examining the fractured surface
of joints.

Figure 1. (a) Schematics of GTAW process, (b) GTAW of S500MC steel in butt configuration.

To study the microstructure, specimens were cut in the middle of the weld line trans-
verse to the welding direction and then were subjected to grinding using SiC abrasive
papers up to 2500 grade. Next, samples were polished to a 1 µm finish, followed by etch-
ing in 2% Nital solution for 10 s. Meiji IM-7200 inverted metallurgical microscope (Meiji
Techno, San Jose, CA, USA) was used for microstructural investigations. Tensile tests
were carried out on standard tensile samples to study the mechanical properties of joints.
Tensile test specimens were extracted using electrical discharge machining (EDM) accord-
ing to standard ASTM-E8. Tensile tests were conducted at room temperature and with an
overhead speed of 2 mm/min. A VEGA TESCAN-XMU scanning electron microscope
(SEM, TESCAN, Brno, The Czech Republic) was used for examining the fractured surface
of joints.
Figure 1.
Figure (a)Schematics
1. (a) Schematics of
of GTAW
GTAW process,
process, (b)
(b) GTAW
GTAW of
of S500MC
S500MC steel
steel in
in butt
butt configuration.
configuration.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
To study the microstructure, specimens were cut in the middle of the weld line trans-
3.1. Microstructure
3.1. Microstructure
verse Figure
to the welding direction and thenof were
basesubjected to grinding
welding.using SiC
beabrasive
Figure 22shows
showsthe the microstructure
microstructure of base metalbefore
metal before welding. Ascan
As can be seen,the
seen, the
papers up tomicrostructure
base metal
metal 2500 grade. Next, samples
consisted were
ferritepolished
of ferrite to a 1and
(light areas)
areas) µm pearlite
finish, followed by etch-
(dark areas)
areas) with
base microstructure consisted of (light and pearlite (dark with
ing in 2%
small Nital
grain sizesolution for 10 s. Meijithermomechanical
IM-7200 inverted treatment.
metallurgical microscope (Meijiof
small grain size asasa aresult
result
of of prior
prior thermomechanical treatment. TheThe microstructure
microstructure of the
Techno,
the base San Jose,
metal CA, USA) was used for microstructural investigations. Tensile tests
base metal was was in a normalized
in a normalized state.state.
were carried out on standard tensile samples to study the mechanical properties of joints.
Tensile test specimens were extracted using electrical discharge machining (EDM) accord-
ing to standard ASTM-E8. Tensile tests were conducted at room temperature and with an
overhead speed of 2 mm/min. A VEGA TESCAN-XMU scanning electron microscope
(SEM, TESCAN, Brno, The Czech Republic) was used for examining the fractured surface
of joints.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Microstructure
Figure 2 shows the microstructure of base metal before welding. As can be seen, the
base metal microstructure consisted of ferrite (light areas) and pearlite (dark areas) with
small grain size as a result of prior thermomechanical treatment. The microstructure of
the base metal was in a normalized state.

Figure2.2.S500MC
Figure S500MCHSLA
HSLAsteel
steel microstructure
microstructure consisting
consisting of ferrite
of ferrite (light(light
areas)areas) and pearlite
and pearlite (dark
(dark areas).
areas).
The optical micrograph of sample No. 5 is illustrated in Figure 3. The welded joint
can beThe optical
divided micrograph
into weld metalof(WM),
samplecoarse
No. 5grain
is illustrated
(CG-HAZ),in Figure 3. The
fine grain welded joint
(FG-HAZ), and
can be
base divided
metal. into weld
Columnar metal
grain (WM),
growth coarse
towards grain
the (CG-HAZ),
center finemostly
of weld and grain (FG-HAZ), and
in the opposite
direction of heat flow can be observed at the interface of the weld zone. By increasing
the welding power or decreasing the welding speed the heat input increased. In all weld
samples, with heat inputs ranging from 1.764 kJ/mm to 2.33 kJ/mm, complete penetration
was observed with the width of fusion zone, CG-HAZ, and FG-HAZ all increasing with
the increase in heat input. The fusion zone width increased from 3.7 mm in sample No. 1
to 5.5 mm in sample No. 6. The increase in weld width, due to the increase in heat input,
during fusion welding S700MC steel has been reported by Tomkow et al. [24]. Weld geom-
etry is very important in GTAW and can determine the mechanical properties. Complete
penetration was observed in welded samples. Suitable weld depth and width indicated
Figure 2. S500MC HSLA steel microstructure consisting of ferrite (light areas) and pearlite (dark
proper welding parameters. Furthermore, no macro defects such as cracks or pores were
areas).
observed. Figure 4 illustrates the effect of heat input on the fusion zone microstructure in
The optical micrograph of sample No. 5 is illustrated in Figure 3. The welded joint
can be divided into weld metal (WM), coarse grain (CG-HAZ), fine grain (FG-HAZ), and
 increase in heat input. The fusion zone width increased from 3.7 mm in sample No. 1 to
5.5 mm in sample No. 6. The increase in weld width, due to the increase in heat input,
during fusion welding S700MC steel has been reported by Tomkow et al. [24]. Weld ge-
ometry is very important in GTAW and can determine the mechanical properties. Com-
plete penetration was observed in welded samples. Suitable weld depth and width indi-
Metals 2022, 12, 565 5 of 10
cated proper welding parameters. Furthermore, no macro defects such as cracks or pores
were observed. Figure 4 illustrates the effect of heat input on the fusion zone microstruc-
ture in welded samples. Fusion zone microstructure was most likely composed of lath
welded samples.
martensitic Fusion zone
microstructure microstructure
surrounded was most
by retained likely composed
austenite due to theofhigh
lath hardenabil-
martensitic
microstructure surrounded by retained austenite due to the high hardenability
ity of S500MC. By increasing the heat input the amount of retained austenite of S500MC.
was in-
By
creased due to an increase in peak temperature. Moreover, higher heat inputdue
increasing the heat input the amount of retained austenite was increased to an
increased
increase in peak temperature. Moreover, higher heat input increased the size of
the size of martensite packets due to more cooling time. Other researchers have also dis- martensite
packets due to more cooling time. Other researchers have also discussed the influence of
cussed the influence of heat input on retained austenite and the size of martensitic struc-
heat input on retained austenite and the size of martensitic structure [25,26]. This is due to
ture [25,26]. This is due to the fact that during the welding process micro-alloyed carbides
the fact that during the welding process micro-alloyed carbides were dissolved removing
were dissolved removing the barrier for grain growth, resulting in coarse grains in the
the barrier for grain growth, resulting in coarse grains in the fusion zone compared to the
fusion zone compared to the base metal. Four factors generally determine the final micro-
base metal. Four factors generally determine the final microstructure of low carbon low
structure of low carbon low alloy steels: cooling time, alloying elements, size of initial
alloy steels: cooling time, alloying elements, size of initial austenite, and the amount of
austenite, and the amount of oxygen [27]. Due to the autogenous nature of welding in this
oxygen [27]. Due to the autogenous nature of welding in this investigation, the amount
investigation, the amount of oxygen was identical in all samples. The amount of alloying
of oxygen was identical in all samples. The amount of alloying elements was also similar.
elements was also similar. It was observed that increasing the heat input caused the dis-
It was observed that increasing the heat input caused the dissolution of precipitates and
solution of precipitates and increased the size of martensite packets. More cooling time
increased the size of martensite packets. More cooling time promoted the formation of
promoted
coarser the formation
martensite of coarserthe
and increased martensite
amount ofand increased
retained the amount
austenite. Thus,of in
retained aus-
this study
tenite. Thus,
cooling in this
time and study
initial coolinggrain
austenite timesize,
and initial
which austenite grainby
were affected size,
heatwhich
input,were affected
determined
by heat input, determined the
the final microstructure of welds. final microstructure of welds.

Figure3.3.Optical
Figure Opticalimage
imageof
ofweld
weldregion
regionininsample
sampleNo.
No.55with
withaaheat
heatinput
inputofof2.229
2.229kJ/mm
kJ/mmshowing
showing
WM,HAZ,
WM, HAZ,and
andbase
basemetal.
metal.

According to Figure 5 showing the microstructure of HAZ, two distinct regions of fine
grain HAZ (FG-HAZ) and coarse grain HAZ (CG-HAZ) can be observed. CG-HAZ was
adjacent to the weld zone and by further moving away from the FZ, FG-HAZ was observed.
It is well-known that microstructural changes in GTAW are dependent on welding thermal
cycle and hardenability [28]. In CG-HAZ temperature peak during welding reached single-
phase austenite which during cooling most likely transformed into martensite. Due to the
dissolution of carbides grains increased in size compared to the base metal. The amount of
grain growth was directly related to heat input; with higher heat input the size of grains
further increased. The temperature only reached the ferrite–austenite region in FG-HAZ
thus there was a chance for austenite nucleation. It can be concluded that during the
cooling process part of the austenite grains transformed into pearlite and the rest turned
into martensite. As a result, the final microstructure of FG-HAZ was most likely composed
of ferrite-pearlite and martensite phases. The difference in FZ and CG-HAZ microstructure
was because carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides were dissolved in weld metal during
welding creating larger initial austenite grains compared to CG-HAZ. However, in HAZ
smaller grain austenite was present leading to finer martensitic microstructure.
Metals 2022, 12, 565 6 of 10
Metals 2022, 12, 565 6 of 10

Figure 4. Effect of heat input on fusion zone microstructure, (a) 1.764 kJ/mm, (b) 1.995 kJ/mm, (c)
Figure 4. Effect of heat input on fusion zone microstructure, (a) 1.764 kJ/mm, (b) 1.995 kJ/mm,
2.035 kJ/mm, (d) 2.132 kJ/mm, (e) 2.229 kJ/mm, (f) 2.33 kJ/mm.
(c) 2.035 kJ/mm, (d) 2.132 kJ/mm, (e) 2.229 kJ/mm, (f) 2.33 kJ/mm.
AccordingProperties
3.2. Mechanical to Figureof5Joints
showing the microstructure of HAZ, two distinct regions of
fine grain HAZ (FG-HAZ) and coarse grain HAZ (CG-HAZ) can be observed. CG-HAZ
Figure 6 shows the failed samples after tensile testing. As can be seen, failure occurred
was adjacent to the weld zone and by further moving away from the FZ, FG-HAZ was
in the base metal, in all samples. Due to the presence of martensitic microstructure in
observed. It is well-known that microstructural changes in GTAW are dependent on weld-
the fusion zone and HAZ weld region is stronger than the rest of the weldment while
ing thermal cycle and hardenability [28]. In CG-HAZ temperature peak during welding
lower strength is expected in base metal owing to ferrite/pearlite microstructure which led
reached
to failuresingle-phase
in that zone.austenite which during
The mechanical cooling
properties most in
of joints likely transformed
high-quality welds into mar-
should
tensite. Due to the dissolution of carbides grains increased in size compared
be equal to or higher than the base metal [29,30]. Thus, S5500MC steel was successfullyto the base
metal. The
welded amount
using of grain
the GTAW growth
process wasfor
even directly relatedheat
the highest to heat
inputinput; with ithigher
in which wouldheat
be
input the size of grains further increased. The temperature only reached the ferrite–aus-
expected to see the lowest strength in the weld region and largest width for the weld zone
tenite
and theregion
HAZ.in FG-HAZ thus there was a chance for austenite nucleation. It can be con-
cluded that during the cooling process part of the austenite grains transformed into pearl-
ite and the rest turned into martensite. As a result, the final microstructure of FG-HAZ
was most likely composed of ferrite-pearlite and martensite phases. The difference in FZ
and CG-HAZ microstructure was because carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides were dis-
solved in weld metal during welding creating larger initial austenite grains compared to
Metals 2022, 12, 565 7 of 10

Metals 2022, 12, 565 7 of 10

CG-HAZ. However, in HAZ smaller grain austenite was present leading to finer marten-
sitic microstructure.

Figure 5. Effect of heat input on microstructure of HAZ, (a) 1.764 kJ/mm, (b) 1.995 kJ/mm, (c) 2.035
Metals 2022, 12, 565 Figure 5. Effect of heat input on microstructure of HAZ, (a) 1.764 kJ/mm, (b) 81.995 of 10 kJ/mm,
kJ/mm, (d) 2.132 kJ/mm, (e) 2.229 kJ/mm, (f) 2.33 kJ/mm.
(c) 2.035 kJ/mm, (d) 2.132 kJ/mm, (e) 2.229 kJ/mm, (f) 2.33 kJ/mm.
3.2. Mechanical Properties of Joints
Figure 6 shows the failed samples after tensile testing. As can be seen, failure oc-
curred in the base metal, in all samples. Due to the presence of martensitic microstructure
in the fusion zone and HAZ weld region is stronger than the rest of the weldment while
lower strength is expected in base metal owing to ferrite/pearlite microstructure which
led to failure in that zone. The mechanical properties of joints in high-quality welds should
be equal to or higher than the base metal [29,30]. Thus, S5500MC steel was successfully
welded using the GTAW process even for the highest heat input in which it would be
expected to see the lowest strength in the weld region and largest width for the weld zone
and the HAZ.

Figure 6. Tensile samples with heat inputs ranging from 1.764 kJ/mm (sample No.1) to 2.33 kJ/mm
Figure 6. Tensile samples with heat inputs ranging from 1.764 kJ/mm (sample No.1) to 2.33 kJ/mm
(sample No.6) after fracture, showing failure in base metal.
(sample No.6) after fracture, showing failure in base metal.
The tensile properties of welded joints are given in Table 4. The maximum tensile
strength of around 680 MPa and yield strength of 580 MPa were observed in all samples
indicating base metal failure in all samples and higher strength of weld metal. The stress–
strain curve and SEM image of the fractured surface of the sample with a heat input of
Metals 2022, 12, 565 Figure 6. Tensile samples with heat inputs ranging from 1.764 kJ/mm (sample No.1) to 2.33 kJ/mm
8 of 10
(sample No.6) after fracture, showing failure in base metal.

The tensile properties of welded joints are given in Table 4. The maximum tensile
The tensile properties of welded joints are given in Table 4. The maximum tensile
strength of around 680 MPa and yield strength of 580 MPa were observed in all samples
strength of around 680 MPa and yield strength of 580 MPa were observed in all samples
indicating base metal failure in all samples and higher strength of weld metal. The stress–
indicating base metal failure in all samples and higher strength of weld metal. The stress–
strain curve and SEM image of the fractured surface of the sample with a heat input of
strain curve and SEM image of the fractured surface of the sample with a heat input of
2.33 kJ/mm (sample No.6) are presented in Figure 7a,b, respectively. The stress–strain
2.33 kJ/mm (sample No.6) are presented in Figure 7a,b, respectively. The stress–strain
curve shows a maximum yield strength of around 589 MPa and tensile strength of 675
curve shows a maximum yield strength of around 589 MPa and tensile strength of 675 MPa
MPa which are similar to that of base metal. Dimples can be seen in the SEM image indi-
which are similar to that of base metal. Dimples can be seen in the SEM image indicating
cating ductile
typical typical ductile
fracturefracture
which is which is expected
expected owing owing to ductile
to ductile ferrite ferrite
matrixmatrix of S500MC
of S500MC base
base metal,
metal, the region
the region of failure.
of failure. It is well-known
It is well-known that carbides
that carbides presentpresent
in graininboundary
grain boundary
play a
play a significant
significant rolefracture
role in the in the fracture
of HSLA of steels
HSLAassteels
theyas they
can can nucleate
nucleate microcracks
microcracks [31].
[31]. Most
Most likely carbides present in the S500MC base metal matrix, like other
likely carbides present in the S500MC base metal matrix, like other HSLA steels, acted as HSLA steels,
actedinitiation
crack as crack initiation sites in
sites resulting resulting
the microin the micro
void void formation
formation and final failure.
and final failure.

Table4.4.Tensile
Table Tensileproperties
propertiesofofwelded
weldedjoints.
joints.

ExperimentNo.
Experiment No. Tensile Strength(MPa)
Tensile Strength (MPa) Yield Strength(MPa)
Yield Strength (MPa)
1 690 580
1 690 580
22 685
685 550
550
33 680
680 562
562
44 676
676 590
590
5 684 575
5 684 575
6 675 589
6 675 589

Figure 7. (a) Stress–strain curve of welded joint with a heat input of 2.33 kJ/mm, (b) SEM image of
the fracture surface of 2.33 kJ/mm sample indicating ductile fracture.

4. Conclusions
In this paper, the effect of different levels of heat input on microstructure and tensile
property during the gas tungsten arc welding of S500MC HSLA was investigated. These
conclusions can be drawn from the observations:
1. The microstructure of base metal consisted of ferrite and pearlite in the normalized
state. However, the weld metal microstructure altered to most likely lath martensite
and retained austenite. By increasing the heat input the size of martensitic packs was
increased due to the dissolution of carbides. The amount of retained austenite also
increased by the increase in heat input.
2. Heat-affected zone microstructure could be divided into two regions, namely, coarse
grain HAZ (CG-HAZ) near the weld zone and fine grain HAZ (FG-HAZ) adjacent to
the base metal. In CG-HAZ, a fine martensitic microstructure was observed while in
FG-HAZ, a combination of pearlite and martensite formed as the final microstructure.
Metals 2022, 12, 565 9 of 10

3. Although microstructural changes occurred in FZ and HAZ, this did not negatively
affect the tensile strength, and maximum tensile strength of 690 MPa was achieved.
The presence of martensite microstructure in weld metal apparently increased the
strength in that region leading to failure in the base metal.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.K. and M.M.; Data curation, K.K.; Formal analysis,
K.K., F.N., H.M., A.S., M.M., D.G.W. and M.B.; Funding acquisition, M.M.; Investigation, K.K., F.N.,
H.M., A.S., M.M., D.G.W. and M.B.; Methodology, K.K., F.N., H.M. and M.M.; Project administration,
M.M.; Supervision, F.N., H.M. and M.M.; Visualization, K.K.; Writing—original draft, K.K. and A.S.;
Writing—review & editing, K.K., F.N., H.M., A.S., M.M., D.G.W. and M.B. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: All data genertated in this study can be found within the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Effect of Welding Thermal Cycles on Microstructure and Mechanical

Properties of Simulated Heat Affected Zone for a Weldox 1300 Ultra-High
Strength Alloy Steel

Article in Archives of Metallurgy and Materials · March 2016

DOI: 10.1515/amm-2016-0024

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 Arch. Met. Mater., Vol. 61 (2016), No 1, p.

DOI: 10.1515/amm-2016-0024-WĘGLOWSKI

M. ST. WĘGLOWSKI*,#, M. ZEMAN*, A. GROCHOLEWSKI**

EFFeCT OF WeLDiNG THeRMAL CYCLeS ON MiCROSTRUCTURe AND MeCHANiCAL PROPeRTieS OF SiMULATeD

HeAT AFFeCTeD ZONe FOR A WeLDOX 1300 ULTRA-HiGH STReNGTH ALLOY STeeL

In the present study, the investigation of weldability of ultra-high strength steel has been presented. The thermal simulated
samples were used to investigate the effect of welding cooling time t8/5 on microstructure and mechanical properties of heat
affected zone (HAZ) for a Weldox 1300 ultra-high strength steel. In the frame of these investigation the microstructure was
studied by light and transmission electron microscopies. Mechanical properties of parent material were analysed by tensile,
impact and hardness tests. In details the influence of cooling time in the range of 2,5 ÷ 300 sec. on hardness, impact toughness
and microstructure of simulated HAZ was studied by using welding thermal simulation test. The microstructure of ultra-high
strength steel is mainly composed of tempered martensite. The results show that the impact toughness and hardness decrease
with increase of t8/5 under condition of a single thermal cycle in simulated HAZ. The increase of cooling time to 300 s causes
that the microstructure consists of ferrite and bainite mixture. Lower hardness, for t8/5 ≥ 60 s indicated that low risk of cold
cracking in HAZ for longer cooling time, exists.
Keywords: ultra-high strength steel, Weldox 1300 steel, weldability, physical simulation

1. Introduction conditions under which welds are to be made, most particularly

the degree of restraint, but also the net heat input [11]. A good
Structures of high dimensions like drilling-rig platforms, example is heat-treated, quenched and tempered steel, such as
bridges, containers, hulls, cranes [1] and others, operating in Weldox 1300 structural steel.
changing load conditions and at low temperatures, require the To evaluating the weldability of steel many methods can
application of new kinds of steel with a high yield strength, be used [12-14]. No single test can be expected to measure
the lowest possible ductility transition temperature (Tt) to all of the aspects of so complex property. Direct test (e.g.
the brittle state, a good technological weldability as well as underbead-cracking tests, restrain-cracking tests, external-
reasonable costs. These properties are characteristic for the load cracking test, sample-joint tests) for weldability can be
more and more generally used micro-alloyed structural steels carry out as those tests which specify welding as an essential
containing up to 0,25% wt. carbon, about 1,5% wt. manganese features of the test specimen. If such tests are to be useful in
and microadditions of Nb, V, Ti and B, known as high strength connection with fabrication, they must be designed to measure
low alloy (HSLA) or high strengthening steels (HSS) [1]. The the susceptibility of the weld metal and heat effected zone
kinds of steels with a high yield strength are also useful for (HAZ) to such defects as cracks, porosity or inclusions under
automotive industry [2-9]. realistic and properly controlled conditions of welding. Ideally
According to the definition developed by the Prof. they should be sensitive to the effects of welding on steel,
Pilarczyk [10] “weldability is the capacity to fabricate the reproducible, simple to prepare and to test, and productive
welded joints of required physical properties, which are able of information which can be related to the requirements of
to carry the load designed for the structure made of specific satisfactory fabrication [12].
steel”. Base on this definition, some base metals or alloys Although many practical test can be used to judge the
may exhibit good weldability under some conditions, but poor weldability of metals, the physical simulation techniques are
weldability under other conditions. popular and useful.
While weldability depends on the process, operating Under thermal effect of welding, evident change of
parameters (especially net linear heat input), procedures, microstructure and property occurs in the base metal adjacent
degree of restraint and environment (especially presence of to the weld metal. Sometimes the change of the microstructure
hydrogen from any form of water or hydrocarbon), the most may lead to local brittles in the heat affected zone (HAZ).
important factor is base metal composition. Composition In addition defects, stress concentrations and higher residual
can determine inherent weldability, with some alloys being stresses are easy to coexist in the welded joint. Thus, fracture
essentially unweldable. For those materials that are inherently failure of weldment cannot be completely prevented till now.
difficult to weld, special attention and care must be given to the HAZ of welded joints is very narrow in width, and the HAZ

*  Institute of Welding, Testing of Materials Weldability and Welded Constructions Department, 16-18 Bł.Czesława Str., 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
**  SSAB Poland Sp. z o.o., Kolejowa Str. 15, 55-020 Żórawina, Poland
#
  Corresponding author: [email protected]
2

consists of many fine regions having different structures. When During the welding thermal cycles, a part of the HAZ material
the fracture toughness is measured using true weldment, the at first expands on heating and during this is compressed
results may represent a global property of HAZ. The measured being restrained crosswise by the cold portions of the parent
results cannot be used to describe the property of the fine material, while in the second portion of this cycle the faster
region of HAZ. Thus it is very difficult to analyse the effect cooling down portions of thermal gradient zones once again
of a characteristic microstructure on fracture toughness using compress it. In this second part of the thermal cycle also tensile
the true weldment. Since the thermal simulation technique has strains appear, in particular in the main direction of the heat
generated the research on the relation between microstructure flow, and these may assist embrittlement due to generation of
and property for the welded joints the analysis become easy dislocations and interaction of these with interstitials, or even
[15]. initiate intergranular cracking. The magnitude of crosswise
The width of mean temperature zone in thermo simulation deformation due to thermal gradient, which in the case of a stiff
sample often is larger than that of the real zone in practical real component may result in substantial residual stresses. The
HAZ. The austenitic grain in the mean temperature zone of simulator is composed of: an AC electric resistance heating
the simulated sample grew up easily and was not affected by system, servo-hydraulic mechanical deformation system, the
the temperature gradient. Therefore, the impact toughness of computer control plus data acquisition and processing.
simulated HAZ can be lower than that of the corresponding Square specimens (10 mm × 10 mm × 55 mm) with V
regions in practical HAZ. Beside of this, the thermo-simulation notched were prepared and subjected to thermal cycles. The
technique still has an important significance in indicating the maximum temperature, holding time and cooling rate of the
tendency in microstructure, toughness and fracture morphology thermal cycle (Fig. 1b) parameters were selected according to
in real zone of the practical welding HAZ [16]. possible conditions during arc welding.
The new kind of steel of the 1300 MPa type is the highest Transverse sections of the base metal were prepared
strength grade steel used in welding structures in recent years. by a standard metallographic procedure and etching in 3%
However there is no information about the welding research alcoholic nitric acid solution (acc. to EN 1321:2000 [20]).
on 1300 steel in the open literatures. The latest investigations The microstructural examinations were carried out by a light
were focused on determine the proper preheating temperature microscope LEICA MEF4M. The microstructure of base metal
[17] as well as cooling transformation diagram [18]. Therefore was also examined by transmission electron microscope TEM
in the presented work the effect of weld thermal cycles on - JEM200CX.
mechanical properties and microstructure by using the thermal
stress welding simulator was examined. An effort was made to
study the influence of cooling time t8/5 on the microstructure of
simulated HAZ of Weldox 1300 steel using light microscopy
and mechanical properties (hardness and impact energy).

2. Experimental procedure

Investigations were carried out on ultra-high strength Fig. 1. a) thermal stress cycle simulator – view of copper jaws, b)
microalloy structural Weldox steel, type 1300, smelted at the time - temperature curve during simulation process in the HAZ zone
commercial scale in the Swedish firm SSAB. The chemical
composition of the investigated steels is presented in Table 1. The Vickers hardness measurement across the simulated
HAZ and the base metal was carried out on metallographic
TablE 1 specimens at a load of 10 kg. During hardness testing the
Chemical composition of Weldox 1300 steel [%] indentations were randomly made on the matrix without
marking the specific phases. Hardness measurement of the
Chemical composition in mass [%] steel was performed using the Brickers 220 hardness tester
C Mn Si P S Cr Ni Mo Cu (acc. to EN ISO 9015 [21] and EN ISO 6507 [22]).
0,21 0,85 0,21 0,008 0,002 0,47 1,26 0,39 0,02 The tensile tests of the base metal (acc. to EN ISO 6892-1
Cu Al V Ti B Nb Zr N [23]) was performed on a mechanical universal testing machine
0,02 0,006 0,021 0,003 0,001 0,015 0,002 0,0038
(INSTRON 4120) by using two specimens. The tensile tests
were performed at room temperature.
The thermomechanical simulation was conducted in The influence temperature on toughness was determined
a thermal stress cycle simulator designed and build at the basing on impact tests with Charpy’s method, applying standard
Instytut Spawalnictwa (Fig. 1a). The main concept of the samples (10 mm × 10 mm × 55 mm) and notched samples type
thermal-mechanical simulator is simple, the electric current V (acc. to EN ISO 148-1[24]). The impact test was carried
flows through the specimen and the Joule heat generates the out on of Charpy pendulum machine type Amsler RPK 300,
heat flow from the centre of specimen towards cold copper using a container for freezing the samples in denaturant. Lower
jaws, producing real temperature gradients [19]. freezing temperatures were achieved in a mixture of liquid
The single thermal cycles at the peak temperature of 1250 °C, nitrogen with denatured alcohol. The same procedure was used
and at the cooling time in the range of 2,5 ÷ 300 s were carry out. for determine the influence of cooling time t8/5 on toughness
(after welding thermal cycles).
 3

3. Results and discussion 1333,4 1498,6

Re [MPa] 1294,2 1356,6
1255,0 1214,5
The microstructure of the investigated Weldox 1300 steel in 11,9 10,8
its delivery state after thermo-mechanical treatment (quenching A5 [%] 11,8 10,8
11,7 10,8
and tempering) are presented on photographs of microstructures Hardness on the cross section: 498÷507: HVmean=501 HV10
(Figs. 2 and 3). Observations of the structure of Weldox 1300
proved that a martensitic structure occurred in the cross-section
of the steel sheet with a hardness of about 501 HV10.
Figure 2b shows the TEM microstructure of base metal
which is composed of lath tempered martensite. Inside the
laths the minor precipitations were observed (Figs. 3a and 3b).
Based on solve the diffraction the carbidenitrides of vanadium
– V(CN) and molybdenum carbide Mo2C were detected.
Taking into account that the chemical composition of Weldox
1300 steel comprised also niobium (0,015 %) and titanium
(0,003 %), generally it should be mentioned about MX phases
where M means V, Nb or Ti and X means C and N.

Fig. 4. Impact energy KV of Weldox 1300 steel. KVL – impact energy

longitudinal of orientation to rolling direction of KVT – impact
energy transverse of orientation to rolling direction

Under the simulation test conditions, t8/5 has obvious

effect on the impact toughness in the simulated HAZ of
Weldox 1300 steel (the results are presented in Figure 5).
Effected by the single thermal cycle, the impact toughness
Fig. 2. Martensitic structure of Weldox 1300 steel in the delivered and hardness tended to decrease with the increase of t8/5 from
state, a) light microscope, b) TEM 2,5 s to 300 s. The change of impact toughness and hardness has
close relationship with microstructure in the simulated HAZ.
Cooling time t8/5 directly affects the austenitic homogeneity,
solution of carbide and transfer of microstructure during
cooling. The microstructure of the simulated HAZ at the
cooling time of 2,5 s to 300 s are given in Table 3.The test
results indicated that t8/5 should be controlled shorter than 20 s.
Because the larger the weld heat input easier the deterioration
of impact toughness in the HAZ.
Fig. 3. Microstructure of Weldox 1300 steel, tempered martensite
with precipitations

The results of mechanical investigations of Weldox 1300

steel are gathered in Table 2. It has been found that Weldox
1300 displays a high strength Rm in the range of 1539,6 ÷ 1573,5
MPa with a satisfactory plasticity (A about 10%) and hardness
(about 501 HV10). The results of the investigations on the
impact strength of Weldox steel at temperatures in the range of
-120°C ÷ 20°C are shown in Figure 4. It has been found that
the investigated kind of Weldox steel is characterized by high
values of impact strength both at room and lower temperatures.
Fig. 5. Impact energy KV and hardness HV of simulated HAZ of
TablE 2 Weldox 1300 steel, temperature of the impact test 20°C
Mechanical properties of Weldox 1300 steel
It is clear that with increasing cooling time t8/5, caused
Orientation to rolling direction
by the increase of holding time at higher temperature, the size
longitudinal transverse of the austenite grain increases. At the same time the volume
Mechanical
properties Mean Mean fraction of martensite decreases and the volume fraction of
Value Value
value value bainitic-ferrite increases, with the increasing cooling time t8/5.
[MPa] [MPa]
[MPa] [MPa] If the cooling time is longer than 100 s, the allotriomorphic
1570,1 1573,5 ferrite starts to appear [11].
Rm [MPa] 1554,9 1572,9
1539,6 1572,2 It should be mentioned that the austenite grain size of the
4

coarsened grain HAZ for the real welded joints will be slightly mechanical properties and the following results were obtained:
larger than that for the simulated HAZ. The main reason may • the microstructure of the Weldox 1300 steel is composed
be related to the peak temperature of 1250 ◦C selected in the of the tempered martensite with a hardness of about 501
thermal weld simulation experiments. The peak temperature HV10,
used in the simulation was slightly lower than that in real HAZ. • Weldox 1300 steel is characterized by high values of
From the results above, it is indicated that at the impact strength both at room temperature and lower
cooling time in the range of 2,5 to 120 s the microstructure temperatures,
mainly is composed of martensite and bainite characterised • under the condition of single thermal cycle, when the
by the hardness in the range of 488 HV10 to 358 HV10. cooling time increases from 2,5 s to 300 s, the impact
The increase of cooling time to 300 s causes that the toughness and hardness decrease correspondingly,
microstructure consists of ferrite and bainite mixture (274 • the weldability of Weldox 1300 steel is good but to avoid
HV10). Lower hardness (lower than 380 HV10), for t8/5 ≥ cold cracking the preheating procedure or medium net
120 s, indicated that there is low risk of cold cracking in linear heat input should be use.
HAZ for longer cooling time.

TablE 3 Acknowledgements
Influence of cooling time t8/5 on microstructure of simulated heat
affected zone The authors would like to thank The Polish Ministry of
Science and Higher Education for financing the research. The
research was performed within the framework of the statutory
activity of the Instytut Spawalnictwa.

References

[1] W. Ozgowicz, E. Kalinowska-Ozgowicz, Investigations on the

impact strength of constructional high-strength Weldox steel
Cooling time t8/5 2,5 s Cooling time t8/5 8 s at lowered temperaturę, Archives of Materials Science and
Martensitic-bainitic structure Martensitic-bainitic structure Engineering 32, 89-94 (2008).
488,6 HV10 463,1 HV10 [2] M.St. Węglowski, K. Krasnowski, K. Kwieciński, R. Jachym,
The characteristics of Nd:YAG laser welded joints of dual
phase steel, Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering 9,
85-97 (2009).
[3] A. Grajcar, M. Rozanski, M. Kaminska, et al., Study on
non-metallic inclusions in laser-welded TRIP-aided Nb-
microalloyed steel, Archives of Metallurgy and Materials 59,
1163-1169 (2014).
[4] A. Grajcar, M. Rozanski, S. Stano, et al., Microstructure
Cooling time t8/5 24 s Cooling time t8/5 60 s characterization of laser-welded Nb-microalloyed silicon-
Martensitic-bainitic structure Martensitic-bainitic structure aluminum TRIP steel, Journal of Materials Engineering and
462,2 HV10 406,9 HV10 Performance 23, 3400-3406 (2014).
[5] A. Grajcar, M. Rozanski, S. Stano, et al., Effect of heat input
on microstructure and hardness distribution of laser welded
Si-Al TRIP-type steel, Advances in Materials Science and
Engineering, Article Number: 658947 (2014).
[6] T. Wegrzyn, S.Wieszala, Significant alloy elements in welded
steel structures of car body, Archives of Metallurgy and
Materials  57, 45-52 (2012).
[7] A. Grajcar, P. Skrzypczyk, D. Wozniak, Thermomechanically
rolled medium-Mn steels containing retained austenite,
Cooling time t8/5 120 s Cooling time t8/5 300 s Archives of Metallurgy and Materials 59, 1691-1697 (2014)
Martensitic-bainitic plus small Martensitic-bainitic structure [8] A. Grajcar, A. Kilarski, K. Radwanski, et al., Microstructural
amount of ferrite structure 358,8 plus ferrite 274,0 HV10 features of strain-induced martensitic transformation in
HV10
medium-Mn steels with metastable retained austenite,
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characterization of Nd:YAG laser welded joint of dual phase
The characteristics of Weldox 1300 steel and simulated steel, Archives of Metallurgy and Materials 55, 211-220
HAZ were investigated in respects of microstructure, hardness, (2010).
[10] J. Pilarczyk, Welding metal science. Warsaw University of
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Technology, Warsaw 1977. (in Polish). (2004).

[11] R.W. Messler, Principles of welding. John Wiley and Sons, [17] M.St. Weglowski, M. Zeman, Prevention of cold cracking in
New York, 1999. ultra-high strength steel Weldox 1300, Archives of Civil and
[12] R.D. Stout, W.D. Doty, Weldability of steels. Welding Research Mechanical Engineering 14, 417-424 (2014).
Council, New York 1971. [18] M.St. Weglowski, M. Zeman, M. Lomozik, Physical Simulation
[13] M. Lomozik, New methodology of testing phase of Weldability of Weldox 1300 Steel, Materials Science Forum
transformations in structural steels in welding thermal cycle 762, 551-555 (2013).
conditions, Kovove Materialy-Metallic Materials  50, 97-105 [19] S. Mandziej, Physical simulation of metallurgical processes,
(2012) Materials and technology 44, 105–119 (2010).
[14] J. Slania, Influence of phase transformations in the temperature [20] EN 1321:1996 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials
rangers of 1250-1000 C and 650-350 C on the ferrite content in - Macroscopic and microscopic examination of welds.
austenitic welds made with T 23 12 LRM3 tubular electrode, [21] EN ISO 9015-1:2011 Destructive tests on welds in metallic
Archives of Metallurgy and Materials 50, 757-767 (2005) materials - Hardness testing - Part 1: Hardness test on arc
[15] Y. Shi, Z. Han, Effect of weld thermal cycle on microstructure welded joints.
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a 800 MPa grade high strength low alloy steel, Journal of test - Part 1: Test method.
Materials Processing Technology 207, 30-39 (2008). [23] EN ISO 6892-1: 2010 Metallic materials - Tensile testing -
[16] B. Liu, J.X. Qu, W.J. Sun, Effects of Thermal Cycle on Part 1: Method of test at room temperature.
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Received: 20 January 2015.

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ScienceDirect
JOURNAL OF IRON AND STEEL RESEARCH, INTERNATIONAL. 2012, 19(2): 43-49

High Temperature Rapid Tempering Process of SS400 Steel With

Thermomechanical Simulation Tester
XING Shu-qing", CHEN Zheng-zong", MA Yong-Iin'>"; LI Hui-qin'
(1. School of Material and Metallurgy, Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology, Baotou 014010,
Inner Mongolia, China; 2. The State Key Laboratory of Rolling and Automation, Northeastern University,
Shenyang 110004, Liaoning, China)

Abstract: The effect of refined precipitations and dispersed phases on the toughness of SS400 steel was investigated
by rapid tempering with thermomechanical simulation tester, and the electromagnetic induction rapid tempering
process was simulated. The conventional tempering and rapid tempering process were proceeded respectively, and
both samples were quenched in 10 % of agitated iced brine. The tempering temperatures were designed as 560, 620
and 680 ·c, respectively. Rapid tempering specimens were heated at a heating rate of 20 ·c/ s , and all samples of
these three tempering temperatures were maintained 30, 40 and 50 s with the Gleeblel500-D tester, respectively.
The impact test at -40 'C were carried out on a Charpy impact machine (CBD-300) with a maximum measurement
range of 300 J and the microstructures were analyzed in detail using optical microscope (OM) and scanning electron
microscope (SEM). The experiment results show that the upper bainite, martensite and small amount of austenite
were obtained in the rapidly quenched samples. In comparison to the conventional process, the matrix microstructure
was changed from the larger size and bulk ferrite to the refined banding structure, and the cementites were obviously
refined and precipitated inside the grains and along the grain boundaries. The cryogenic impact test implies that the
maximum values of impact toughness with holding time of 30 or 50 s are achieved at tempering temperature of 620 ·C.
Furthermore, a favorite value of impact toughness with holding time of 40 s is available.
Key words: SS400 steel; rapid tempering process; thermomechanical simulation tester; precipitation; cryogenic im-
pact toughness

It is no exaggeration to say that steel plates play to control the cementites refinement and dispersion.
a critical role as industrial basic materials which It has been reported that rapid heating contributes to
serve the industrial and social infrastructure, begin- the cementite refinement and consequently the im-
ning with shipbuilding, building construction, provement in toughness. The effects of tempering
bridges and various types of industrial machinery-U, temperatures on cementites in an induction quench-
But their relatively low toughness limits them to be ing and tempering process have been observed by
used in a wider range. The requirement of providing Soon Tae Ahn et al[?]. The cementite particles be-
a better combination of high strength and excellent gan to change their shape from a needle type to a
toughness is becoming increasingly sophisticated. fine spheroidal type at the tempering temperature of
To meet the requirement, several improving tough- 600 'C with tempering time of 40 s in the induction-
ness methods have been employed to improve steel tempered steels (C O. 21, Cr 1. 08, Mo O. 19 in mass
performances. They consist of grain refinement, percent). Influences of applying magnetic field on
quenching and tempering process, development of phase transformation and cementites have been a
advanced ultra-low carbon bainitic steel[2-3] , and the subject of much interest in steel[S-9]. ZHANG Yu-
HOP (Heat treatment On-line Process)[4-6]. Among dong et aleS] found that a magnetic field of 14 T can
these methods, heat-treatment on-line process is able effectively prevent the directional growth of cement-

Foundation Item-Item Sponsored by Natural Science Foundation of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China (Grant No. 2009MS081l)
Biography: XING Shu-qing(l971-), Female, Master, Associate Professor; E-mail: [email protected];
Received Date: January 30, 2011
 44 • Journal of Iron and Steel Research, International Vol. 19

ite along martensite plate boundaries and twin and then put into 10 % of agitated iced brine to cool
boundaries by increasing both the cementite/ferrite them rapidly to the ambient temperature. This
interfacial energy and the magnetostrictive strain en- process could ensure microstructural homogeneity
ergy and has no obvious effect on the nucleation sites and supply the samples for the subsequent rapid
or on the total amount of cementites. Therefore, the tempering test. And then, the specimens were di-
particle-like cementite was obtained. A model of vided into two groups. The first group was for the
precipitate growth at the precoarsening stages has conventional tempering test, and the samples were
been developed by ZOU Hei-long et al[lO], based on heated up to 560, 620 and 680 'C in the resistance
thermodynamics and kinetics to predict the precipi- furnace and held for 60 min, respectively. The sec-
tation behavior of carbonitrides , and they proposed ond group was the rapid tempering group, and the
that the growth of the precipitates is very rapid and samples were heated up to 560, 620 and 680 'C at a
lasts less than 30 s to become ripening. Although heating rate of 20 'C / s with Gleeble 1500-D thermal
the uniform distributed precipitations of low alloy simulation tester and held for 30, 40 and 50 s , re-
steel in rapid heating was well described in the early spectively. All the two groups of samples were
literature[4-7], what would happen in the rapid high cooled in the air after the tempering process. It is
tempering when using direct resistance heating, for worthy to point out that the tempering temperatures
example, thermomechanical simulation tester? The and holding times were chosen to obtain fine car-
effect of current energy on the phase transformation bides distributing dispersedly in matrix based on
or cementites has not been reported elsewhere in the Ref. [4J and Ref. [10]. The rapidly tempered speci-
open scientific literature according to the knowledge mens for Gleeble 1500-D thermolmechanical simula-
of the authors. tion tester were schematically illustrated in Fig. 1.
Since there is a limited number of researches,
the present study was conducted to investigate how
the refined precipitations of 55400 steel were formed
within the matrix or at the grain boundaries by rapid
tempering employing thermomechanical simulation
tester (Gleeble 1500-D), and the electromagnetic in-
duction rapid tempering process were simulated.
Fig. 1 Rapidly tempered specimens for Gleeble 1500-D
The main motivation is to examine whether this
thermomechanical simulation tester
process could improve the cryogenic impact tough-
ness in comparison with the conventional quenching
After the above heat treatment, the specimens
and tempering process.
were cut out for impact toughness test at - 40 ·C.
1 Experimental The size of non-standard Charpy impact V-notch
specimens is 55 mmX 10 mmX 7.5 mm , as shown in
An industrial 55400 steel in the as-hot rolled
Fig. 2. Charpy V-notch specimens were machined
condition has been employed in the present study.
from the tempered specimens. The notch of the
The chemical composition is presented in Table 1.
specimen was perpendicular to the rolling-plane di-
They were off-line reheated and quenched with the
rection. And Charpy impact tests were carried out
aim of subsequent tempering test.
on a Charpy impact machine (CBD-300) with a max-
imum measurement range of 300 J. The impact data
Table 1 Chemical composition of experimental steel
(mass percent, %)
reported here were the average value of 3 samples at
a certain temperature each time.
C Si Mn p S Alt Als Ca

O. 18 0.037 0.43 0.016 0.002 0.022 0.022 0.0017

55 ± 0.60

The specimens were 90 mmX 10 mmX 10 mm ,

and were cut from the hot-rolled plate in their trans- 27.5 ± 0.30
verse direction perpendicular to the hot rolling direc-
tion. They were off-line heated up to 950 'C and
held for 20 min in a conventional resistance furnace Fig. 2 Illustration of Charpy impact specimens
Issue 2 High Temperature Rapid Tempering Process of SS400 Steel With Thermomechanical Simulation Tester • 45 •

For detailed understanding of the precipitations

during the heat treatment, the scanning electron mi-
croscope (SEM) was employed in an FEI QUAN-
T A400 to analyze the specimens tempered at various
conditions.

2 Results and Discussion

2. 1 Microstructures
The microstructures of the SS400 steel after
heat treatment were observed by optical microscope
(OM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM).
The microstructure of the SS400 steel in the as-hot
rolled condition is composed of ferrite and pearlite,
and the Widmanstatten structure can also be ob-
F-Ferrite; P-Pearlite; w- Widmanstatten structure.
served, as seen in Fig. 3. Here, the light regions are Fig. 3 Optical micrographs of 88400 steel samples
ferrite (F) and dark ones are pearlite. Widmanstat- etched by 3. 5 % of Nital after hot rolling
ten structure is plate shaped crystals which grow into
the interior of pearlite from the ferrite grain boundaries. tending in one direction and generally contain high
The microstructure of the as-quenched speci- density of dislocations. The upper bainite consists of
men, as displayed in Fig. 4, are composed of domi- ferrite with carbide precipitation between these plates.
nant lath martensite, upper bainite and less retained A number of ferrite plates, essentially parallel to each
austenite films between martensite laths. The lath other, form a packet, as Ref. [llJ described. This hap-
martensite crystals are in the form of thin plates ex- pens in iced water-quenching process of the steel.

B-Bainite; M-Martensite; RA-Retained austenite.

Fig.4 Optical micrographs (a)and 8EM morphology (b) of as-quenched specimen obtained by
10% of agitated iced brine from 950 "C

The micros!ructure of the as-tempered speci- type at 560 'C after holding for 60 min [Fig. 5 (d)].
men in Fig. 5 shows the distribution and morphol- It indicates that the properties of the conventionally
ogy of tempered carbides formed at 560 'C with tempered specimens would be better than those of
the variation of time. For the rapidly tempered the rapidly tempered samples because of the uniform
specimen at 560 'C, as seen in Fig. 5 (a), (b) and distribution and spheroidal type of the cementites at
(c), many cementites formed are located along ma- 560 ·C.
trix boundaries and within the matrix. The mor- Up to the tempering temperature of 620 'C, as
phology of the carbide is the particle-like [Fig. 5 (a) shown in Fig. 6, the amount of cementite formed
and (b) J and the strip-like type [Fig. 5 (b) and (c) J with the shape of particle-like or rod-like increases
and the length of cementite increases with increasing with increasing tempering time in rapid tempering
tempering time in rapid tempering, while the ce- process. The cementite formed along the boundaries
mentite particles change their shape to a spheroidal is less coarse than that within the matrix in the rapid
• 46 • Journal of Iron and Steel Research. International Vol. 19

(a) 30 s; (b) 40 s; (c) 50 s; (d) Conventional tempering 60 min.

Fig. 5 SEM micrographs showing morphology and distribution of tempered carbides at 560 'c after various holding time

(a) 30 s; (b) 40 s; (c) 50 s; (d) Conventional tempering 60 min.

Fig. 6 SEM micrographs showing morphology and distribution of tempered carbides at 620 "C after various holding time

tempering process. At the same time, whereas the conventional tempering process, is much more coarse
cementite, with rod-like along the boundaries in the than that in the rapid tempering process. It can be
Issue 2 High Temperature Rapid Tempering Process of 55400 Steel With Thermomechanical Simulation Tester 47 •

induced that the incubation, nucleation sites or some new cementites are gradually formed while
growth of cementites of the two cases are at differ- others are growing. It is clear that, in Fig. 7 (b)
ent conditions. But at this tempering temperature, and (C), the shapes of the cementite are different,
the total amounts of cementite formed in rapid tem- particle-like within the matrix and rod-like at the
pering process [Fig. 6 (b) and (c) J are much more boundaries. At this high tempering temperature,
than those in the conventional tempering. the longer preservation time can induce the similar
When tempered at 680 'C for rapid tempering influence to the increment of tempering temperature
and conventional tempering, the distribution and as the temperature and time are interdependent vari-
morphology of the cementites are displayed in ations in tempering. Thus, the cementites formed at
Fig. 7. In the rapid tempering process, the cement- the boundaries are growing quickly after nucleation
ites formed at the boundaries coarsen dramatically and the cementites formed within the matrix gradu-
with increasing tempering time from 30 to 50 s , and ally turn up with increasing preservation time.

(a) 30 s; (b) 40 s; (c) 50 s; (d) Conventional tempering 60 min.

Fig. 7 SEM micrographs showing morphology and distribution of tempered carbides at 680 "C after various holding time

SEM micrographs in Fig. 8 show the distribu- nucleation sites and growth in conventional tempe-
tion and morphology of tempered cementites formed ring process. The presence of cementite is coarse-
at different tempering temperatures with holding ning at the grain boundaries, as shown in Fig. 5
time of 40 s. Most cementites were spheroidized and (d), Fig. 6 (d) and Fig. 7 (d). When the heating
randomly distributed within the parent microstruc- rate is 3 'C / s or above, as HAYASHI Kenji et al[6]
ture with the increasing tempering temperature. reported, the cementite tends to be refined and dis-
And there was no cementite formed in the proeutec- persed. During the rapid heating process, the obser-
toid ferrite because of no enough carbon concentra- vations of the cementite precipitation behavior, from
tion to form the cementite. The similar phenomena Ref. [4J, revealed that cementite begins to precipi-
was described in the previous section. tate at the lath boundaries at about 500 'C and with-
The cementite transformation in steels, similar to in the laths at about 600 ·C. Rapid heating in the
any solid phase transformation existing in Ref. [11 J, tempering process using thermomechanical simula-
occurs by a process of nucleation and growth. The tion tester, at a heating rate of 20 'C / s , can make
grain boundaries have a strong tendency to act as the the temperature climb to higher levels so rapidly that
 • 48 • Journal of Iron and Steel Research. International Vol. 19

(a) 560 'C; (b) 620 'C; (0) 680 ·C.

Fig. 8 SEM micrographs showing morphology and distribution for 40 s of tempered carbides after
tempering at different temperatures

there is insufficient time for cementite precipitates to

grow up along the boundaries, and there is no enough
= =====;:------l
180 F,..

time to continue the recovery of dislocations and the 160

diffusion of the carbon elements. In this case, the C'140

dislocation inside the grains, which has been formed '0
in quenching process, or the inclusions'P! , or ::3
':>.
120
boundaries can have the advantage for the nucleation '"
100 • 30s ....
sites of homogeneous fine cementites, so the ce-
• 40s
mentite randomly distributes within the matrix or '" 50s
.... 60 min
the boundaries. It has been shown earliePJ that the
560 CJOO 640 680
magnetic field has no significant effect on the nuclea- Temperature! 't
tion sites or on the total amount of cementite. So the
Fig.9 Variation of impact values with tempering
similar phenomena was investigated using induction temperature in different tempering processes
heating by Soon Tae Ahn et al[7J. It indicates that
the pronounced difference exists in the rapid tempe- thermore , the impact values of the rapid tempering
ring and conventional tempering process. R C for 40 s are approximately linearly increased with in-
Thomson and M K Miller[13J investigated that, using creasing tempering temperature. This change of im-
atom probe field-ion microscope, the cementite nu- pact values is closely related to the microstructure
cleation and growth are controlled by para-equilibri- and cementite distributed at grain boundaries or
um carbon diffusion during early stages of tempe- within the parent microstructure, as discussed in the
ring, but at higher temperatures, it is controlled by previous section.
a local-equilibrium mode.
3 Conclusions
2. 2 Impact property 1) In rapid tempering process, at the tempering
The results of Charpy impact test, performed at temperature of 560 and 620 'C, the total amount of
- 40 'C in a controlled mixture of liquid nitrogen cementite is gradually increased as the new cement-
and alcohol to evaluate toughness of the tempered ites dispersed are nucleated with the increasing pres-
steels, are schematically shown in Fig. 9. ervation time. As the tempering temperature and the
It is of great interest to note that the minimum holding time increased, the cementite precipitates
Charpy impact toughness values of tempering tem- are coarsened.
perature of 560 and 620 'C are obtained at preserva- 2) The trend is that the values of impact tough-
tion time of 50 s for the rapid tempering and the ness with holding time of 40 s are approximately linear
maximum value is obtained at holding time of 60 min increment with increasing tempering temperature. And
for conventionally tempered steel. It can also be seen the maximum values with holding time of 30 or 50 s
that the maximum impact values of tempering tem- are obtained at tempering temperature of 620 'C.
perature of 680 'C are the preservation time of 40 s in References:
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