NIGERIAN ARMY UNIVERSITY, BIU

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICAL
SCIENCES

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 MTH112 (CACULUS I)
Lecture Note
Course outline:
i ¿ Real Numbers: Real numbers and their properties, The number line, Intervals and their properties,
Absolute values and their properties, Solving inequalities using sign-chart.

ii ¿ Functions from Real number to real number: Functions, Domain and Range of a function,
monotonically increasing and monotonically decreasing functions, Inverse function and inverse
of a function, Composition ( or product ) of functions, Even and Odd functions, Periodic
functions
iii ¿ Limit and Continuity: Limit of a function, Left and Right hand limit, Evaluation of limits,
Continuity of a function.
iv ¿ Differentiation: Differentiability at a point and on an interval, Rules of differentiation,(Sum,
product, quotient, and chain rules.), Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions, Implicit
differentiation
v ¿ Integration: Fundamental theorem of calculus, Methods of integration ( Change of variables,
integration by parts, Trigonometric substitution ), Integration of rational algebraic functions
using partial fraction decomposition Method.

Reference books:
i) Calculus with analytic geometry (5th edition)
- Robert Ellis and Denny Gulick
ii) Brief Calculus and its applications (eighth edition)
- Larry J. Goldstein. David C. lay. David I. Schneider
iii) Advance Engineering Mathematics (ninth edition)
- Erwin Kreyszig
iv) Calculus (second edition)
- Robert T. Smith. Ronald B. Minton
v) Engineering Mathematics with addition (sixth edition)
- K. A. Stroud. Dexter J.

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 vi) Advance Engineering Mathematics
- H. K. Dass

Real Numbers:
Definition1: The Set of numbers denoted N= { 1, 2 , 3 ,. . . } is called natural numbers.
Note:
i ¿ The subsets of natural numbers include, Even numbers, Odd numbers, Prime numbers and
Composite numbers
ii ¿ Natural numbers are the first set of numbers, and are used for counting.
• The set of natural numbers has defect, since not all equation of the form a+ b=n
(where, a , b , n ε N ) have a solution in N .
e.g. 5+ x=5 has no solution in N

Definition2: The set formed by adding zero to the set of natural numbers denoted,
W ={ 0 , 1, 2 , .. . } is called whole numbers.
• Again it was discover that the set of whole numbers has defect since not all equations of the
form
a+ b=n ( where a , b , n ε W ) has a solution in W .
e.g. 5+ x=2 has no solution in W

To overcome this problem, the directed number system are invented such that for each a ε N ,
two directed numbers positive and negative( – a∧a )where associated with the number zero at
the Centre, the positive numbers are on the right of zero, and the negative numbers on the left
of zero.

Definition3: The Set of directed numbers denoted Z={ 0 , ±1 , ± 2, ± 3 .. . } is called an integer.

•In an attempt to find solution to the equation of the form ax=b where a , b , ε Z , it was also
discovered that not all such equations has solution in Z .
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e.g. 3 x=2 has no solution in Z , these defect is remedied by adding to the set of integers
numbers called common fractions.

Definition4: The set formed by adding common fractions to the set of integers is called rational
p
numbers, denoted Q={x : x= q ≠ 0 , p , q ɛ Z }.
q
Note: Decimal numbers can also be used to express rational numbers; rational numbers can
take any of the two forms of decimal numbers viz.
i ¿ Terminating decimal
e.g. 0.5, 0.13, 4.72, 3.825,
ii ¿ Non-terminating but repeating in blocks decimal
e.g. 0.27272727 . . . . . . . . , 2.54545454 . . . . . . . . . −0.6666666 . . . .. . . ..

• In an attempt to find solutions of equations such as x 2=3, it was discovered that there is no
solution in the set of rational numbers, therefore the need arise to enlarge the set of rational
numbers.

Definition5: The set of real numbers that are not rational are called Irrational denoted, Q I .

Note: In the same way, irrational numbers can be expressed as a non-terminating and non-
repeating in blocks decimal number.
e.g. i ¿ 1.73205214. . . . ii ¿ 0.328471250765. . . .

Properties of Irrational Numbers:

Let P and m be any positive prime numbers and n ε Q ,

i ¿ All numbers of the form n √ p , where n ≠ 0 are irrational numbers.

ii ¿ All numbers of the form (n+ √ p), are irrational numbers
iii ¿ All numbers of the form, √ m+ √ p , where m ≠ p ,are irrational numbers
iv ¿ Any number that is not a perfect square, the square root is an irrational number.

v ¿ The number ‘’ e ‘’ and ‘’ π ‘’ are also irrational

Definition6: The union of rational numbers and irrational numbers form a set called real
numbers i.e. R=Q∪ Q I

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Example1: Show that √ 3 is not a rational number.
Proof:
Suppose the equation x 2=3 has solution in Q ,
p p
let, x= , and that is reduced to its lowest terms,
q q

()
2 2
2 p p
then x =3 2
and x= = 2
q q

⇨ and p =3 q .
2
p
2
=3 2 2
q
It follows that p2 is a multiple of 3 which makes p also multiple of 3.
Since p is a multiple of we can then write
p=3 m for some m ε Z , then
⇨
2 2 2
p =( 3 m ) =9 m
⇨ 2
3 q =9 m
2
⇨ 2
q =3 m
2

It follows that q 2 is a multiple of 3 which makes q also multiple of 3.

p
Now p and q have been found multiple of 3 which contradict our assumption that was
q
expressed in its simplest form, Therefore x 2=3 cannot have solution in Q .
Hence √ 3 is not a rational number.

Exercise: Show that √ 5 is not a rational number

Some properties of real numbers:

i¿ All real numbers can be represented on the real line.
ii ¿ All real numbers are closed under the four basic operations, except division by zero.
iii ¿ All real numbers are commutative under the operation of addition and multiplication.
iv ¿ All real numbers are associative under the operation of addition and multiplication.
v ¿ Real numbers obey the cancellation law, i.e. if a+ b=q and a+ c=q ⇨ b=c
and if a∗b=r and a∗c=r ⇨ b=c ∀ a ,b , c ε R .
vi¿ There exist, 0 ε R , such that a+ 0=0+ a=a ∀ a ε R (existence of additive identity)
vii ¿ There exist, 1 ε R, such that a∗1=1∗a=a , ∀ a ε R (existence of multiplicative identity)
−1 −1
viii ¿ ∀ a ε R a ≠ 0 ,∋ a ε R , such that a∗a =1 (existence of multiplicative inverse)

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ix ¿ ∀ a ε R , a ≠ 0∃ (−a ) ε R , such that a+ (−a ) =(−a ) + a=0 (additive inverse)
x¿ Multiplication is distributive over addition i.e. a∗( b+ c )=( a∗b )+(a∗c ) .
1
Note: The multiplicative inverse element denoted a−1 or is called the reciprocal of a .
a

Real number line inequality:

An inequality is a statement that one expression is smaller than the other expression or greater
than the other expression. Hence the following expression defines inequality. If a , b and x are
real numbers, then
i ¿ a<b ⇨ a is less than b , and a> b ⇨ a is greater than b.
ii ¿ a ≤ b ⇨ a is less than or equal to b and a ≥ b ⇨ a is greater than or equal to b .
iii ¿ a< x< b ⇨ x is greater than a but less than b .
iv ¿ a ≤ x ≤ b ⇨ x is greater than or equal to a but less than or equal to b
Other properties of real numbers:
i ¿ ∀ a ,b ε R , One and only one of the following properties hold good.
Either a< b ,∨a=b ,∨a> b (Tracheotomy law)
ii ¿ ∀ a , b ε R, with a< b, then ∃ c ε R such that a< c< b (density law)

Principles of inequality:
i ¿ The sense of inequality remains unchanged if each side is increase or decrease by the same
real number.
ii ¿ The sense of inequality is unchanged if each side is multiplied by the same positive real number.
iii ¿ If a> 0, and b> 0, then a+ b>0 .
iv ¿ If a−b< 0, then a< b, and if a−b> 0, then a> b.
v ¿ If a< b, and b< a then a=b

Theorem (transitivity law): If a> b and b> c , then a> c

Proof:
Since a> b ⇨ a−b> 0
b> c ⇨ b−c >0
⇨ ( a−b )+(b−c )> 0 ⇨ a−b+ b−c> 0
⇨ a−c >0 ⇨ a> c
Hence the proof

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Theorem: The arithmetic mean of any two positive real numbers a and b is greater than or
equal to their geometric mean ( AM ≥ GM )
Proof:
a+b
AM = GM =√ a∗b
2
If AM ≥ GM , then AM −GM ≥ 0
So we have to show that AM −GM ≥ 0
a+ b
AM −GM= −√ a∗b
2
⇨ 2 AM −2 GM =a+b−2 √ a∗b
⇨ ¿ a−2 √ a √ b +b
⇨
2 2 2
¿( √ a) −2 √ a √ b+( √ b) =( √ a−√ b ) ≥0
⇨ AM −GM ≥ 0 Hence, AM ≥ GM

Example: Show that if a , b , c are positive real numbers, then ( a+ b ) ( b+c ) ( c +a ) ≥ 8 abc
Proof:
Since a , b , and c are positive real numbers

⇨ ≥ √ ab, ≥ √ bc ,
a+b b+c c+ a
≥ √ ca
2 2 2

⇨ ( a+2 b )( b+2 c )( c+2 a ) ≥ (√ ab) ( √ bc )( √ca )

⇨ ( a+ b ) ( b+c ) ( c +a ) ≥ 8 √ ( ab ) ( bc )( ca )
⇨ ( a+ b ) ( b+c ) ( c +a ) ≥ 8 √ a2 b2 c 2
⇨ ( a+ b ) ( b+c ) ( c +a ) ≥ 8 √ ( abc )
2

⇨ ( a+ b ) ( b+c ) ( c +a ) ≥ 8 abc
Hence the proof

Theorem: The sum of any positive real number and its reciprocal is greater than or equal to two
Proof:
Let a be any positive real number
⇨ a−1 ≥0
Squaring both side we have
( a−1 )2 ≥ 0

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⇨ 2
a −2 a+1 ≥0 ⇨ 2
a +1 ≥ 2 a

⇨ ⇨
2
a +1 1
≥2 a+ ≥ 2
a a
Hence the proof
Solving inequalities using sign chart:
Example1: Find the range of values of x for which
2 2 2
i ¿ x −7 x +12>0 ii ¿ 3 x −3 x ≥ 6−10 x iii ¿ x −2 x ≤ 16+ 4 x
Solution;
2
i ¿ x −7 x +12= ( x −3 ) ( x −4 )> 0
Hence this is true if both the factors are positive or both the factors are negative. This can be
clearly seen if we make the following table showing the sign of the factors.

* x <3 3< x < 4 x >4

( x−3 ) −¿ −¿ +¿
( x−4 ) −¿ +¿ +¿
( x−3 )( x−3 ) +¿ −¿ +¿

Thus the original inequality is true if x <3 or x >4

Note: 0 3 4
a ¿ The table showing the sign of the factors is called Sign Chart.

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ii ¿ 3 x +2 x ≥ 6−10 x ⇒ 3 x +7 x−6 ≥ 0
2
⇨ ( 3 x−2 ) ( x+3 ) ≥ 0
Hence this will be true if both the factors are either positive or both are negative, or at least
one of the factors is zero. This can be clearly seen if we represent it on the sign chart

* x ←3 2 2
−3< x < x>
3 3
( 3 x−2 ) −¿ −¿ +¿
( x +3 ) −¿ +¿ +¿
( 3 x−2 ) ( x+3 ) +¿ −¿ +¿

2
Thus the original inequality is true if x ≤−3 or x ≥
3

2
iii ¿ x −2 x ≤ 16+ 4 x ⇒ x −6 x−16 ≤ 0
2
⇨ ( x +2 ) ( x −8 ) ≤0

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Hence this will be true only if one of the factors is positive and the other negative, or at-least
one of the factors is zero. This can be clearly seen if we represent it on the sign chart
* x ←2 −2< x <8 x >8
( x +2 ) −¿ +¿ +¿
( x−8 ) −¿ −¿ +¿
( x +2 ) ( x −8 ) +¿ −¿ +¿

Thus the original inequality is true if −2< x <8

Example2: Find the range of values of x for which

2 x+1 1 2 x−1 2 x 3 3+ x
i¿ > ii ¿ < iii ¿ > iv ¿ <0
x+ 2 2 x +3 3 x+ 2 x−2 (1−2 x ) ( 2+ x )
Solution:
2 x+1 1
i¿ >
x+ 2 2
Multiply both side by 2 ( x+ 2 )2 and simplify we have
2
3 x +6x>0 ⇒ ( 3 x )( x +2 ) >0
This will be true if both the factors are positive or both factors are negative, and this can be
clearly seen on the sign chart below.
* x ←2 −2< x <0 x >0
3x −¿ −¿ +¿
( x +2 ) −¿ +¿ +¿
( 3 x )( x +2 ) +¿ −¿ +¿

Thus the original inequality is true if x ←2 or x >0

2 x−1 2
ii ¿ <
x +3 3
Multiply both side by 3 ( x+ 3 )2 and simplify we have
( x +3 ) ( 4 x−9 ) <0
This will be true if one of the factor is positive and the other factor is negative, and this can be
clearly seen on the sign chart below.
* x ←3 9 9
−3< x < x>
4 4

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 (x +3) −¿ +¿ +¿
( 4 x−9 ) −¿ −¿ +¿
( x +3 ) ( 4 x−9 ) +¿ −¿ +¿

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Thus the original inequality is true if −3< x <
4

x 3
iii ¿ >
x+ 2 x−2
Multiply both side by ( x +2 )2 ( x−2 )2 and simplify we have
( x−2 ) ( x+ 2 )( x−6 ) ( x +1 ) > 0
This will be true if all the factors are positive or all the factors are negative, or any of the two
factors are both positive or negative, and this can be clearly seen on the sign chart below.

* x ←2 −2< x <−1 −1< x <2 2< x <6 x >6

(x−2) −¿ −¿ −¿ +¿ +¿
( x +2 ) −¿ +¿ +¿ +¿ +¿
( x−6 ) −¿ −¿ −¿ −¿ +¿
( x +1 ) −¿ −¿ +¿ +¿ +¿
product +¿ −¿ +¿ −¿ +¿

Thus the original inequality is true if x ←2, −1< x <2 and x >6

3+ x
iv ¿ <0
(1−2 x ) ( 2+ x )
Multiply both side by ( 1+2 x )2 ( 2+ x )2 and simplify we have
( 1−2 x ) ( 2+ x ) ( 3+ x ) <0
This will be true if all the factors are positive or all the factors are negative, or any of the two
factors are both positive or negative, and this can be clearly seen on the sign chart below.
* x ←3 −3< x <−2 1 1
−2< x < x>
2 2
(1−2 x ) +¿ +¿ +¿ −¿
( 2+ x ) −¿ −¿ +¿ +¿
( 3+ x ) −¿ +¿ +¿ +¿
product +¿ −¿ +¿ −¿

1
Thus the original inequality is true if −3< x ←2 and x >
2

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Exercises; Find the range of values of x for which
2
1 3 2 x x +1 3 1 x −7 x +12
i¿ < ii ¿ < iii ¿ > − iv¿ ≥0
x +2 x−3 x −1 x+ 2 x−2 x−2 2 2
x −2 x−3
Solution: Do.

Theorem: If a 1, a 2, a 3, . . . a n and b 1, b 2, b 3, . . . b n are real numbers, then

( a 1 b 1+ a2 b2 +. .+ an bn ) ≤ ( a 21+ a22 ..+ a2n )( b 21+ b22 +. .+b2n )

2

Proof: For all real number λ , we have

2 2 2 2
( a 1 λ+ b1 ) + ( a 2 λ +b2 ) + ( a3 λ+b3 ) +. . .+ ( a n λ +bn ) ≥ 0
Expanding and collecting like terms we have

( a21 +a22 +. . .+a2n ) λ2 +2 ( a1 b1 +a2 b2 +. . .+an b n ) λ + (b 21+ b22 +. ..+ b2n ) ≥ 0

Now setting
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A =a1 + a 2 + a 3 + . . . + a n, B =b 1 + b 2 + b 3 + . . . + b n and
C=a 1 b1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3 b 3 + . . . + a n b n
We have
2 2 2
A λ +2 Cλ+B ≥ 0 . . . (1)

⇨
2 2
C =( a 1 b1 + a2 b 2+ a3 b3 +. .+a n b n )
Dividing both sides by A2, and completing the squares we have

( ) ( )
2
2 2C B
λ+ 2
λ+ 2 ≥ 0
A A

⇨ ( 2CA ) λ+( BA )+ CA − CA ≥0
2 2 2
2
λ+ 2 2 4 4

⇨ ( λ + AC ) + BA − CA ≥0
2 2 22

2 2 4 . . . (2)

⇨
2 2 2 2
B C B C
Equation (2) is true for all real λ if and only if 2
− 4 ≥0 2
≥ 4
A A A A

Multiplying through by A 4
⇨ 2
C ≤A B
2 2
. . .
(3)
Now substituting the values of A2 , B 2 and C 2 in eqn. (3) we have

( a 1 b 1+ a2 b2 +. .+ an bn ) ≤ ( a 21+ a22 +. .+ a2n )( b21 +b22 . .+b2n )

2

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Hence the proof

Intervals:
Definition: An interval is collection of the points defined by an inequality operation on the set of
real numbers.

Definition: An open interval is the collection of the points defined by an inequality operation
defined on the set of real numbers, where by the end points are excluded

Definition: A closed interval is the collection of the points defined by an inequality operation
defined on the set of real numbers, whereby the end points are Included.

Intervals in real numbers:

1. 𝜙 2. [ a , a ] 3.(a ,b) 4. [ a , b ] 5. ¿ 6. ¿] 7. ¿]
8. ¿) 9. ¿) 10. ¿) 11. ¿)

Note: We should note that ∞ ,and −∞ are not numbers but only symbols to denote that x
may take values as large as we pleased without any bound.

Properties of Intervals:
Let τ be the family of all intervals on the real line, we include in τ the null set and a singleton
set i.e. ϕ and [a, a], then the intervals satisfies the following properties.

1. The intersection of any two intervals is an interval. (i.e. If A ε τ , B ε τ ,then ( A ∩ B)ε τ ).

2. The union of any two non-disjoint intervals is an interval (i.e. if A ε τ , B ε τ , and
A ∩ B≠ ϕ, then ( A ∪ B)ε τ )
3. The relative complement of any two non-comparable interval is an
interval. (i.e. if A ε τ , B ε τ , and A ⊄ B, B⊄ A , then ( A ¿)ε τ )

Modulus (or absolute value): Geometrically, the modulus of x ,( x ε R ) is the distance between
the point x on the real line and the origin. Modulus of x is denoted │ x │ and is define as

{
x if x >0
|x|= 0if x =0
−x if x <0

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Note;
i ¿ The modulus of any real number is always non-negative
ii ¿ The distance between any two real numbers x and y is giving by │ x− y ∨¿∨ y −x∨¿.
iii ¿ We should also note that ‖x‖=|x|
iv ¿ There is also a single defining equation for modulus of x which involve square root denoted

|x|=√ x 2 ∀ x ε R (the principal square root).

Properties of modulus:
1. The modulus of the product is equal to the product of the modulus.
i.e. |x∗ y|=¿ x∨¿∨ y∨¿
2. The modulus of the sum is either less than or equal to the sum of the modulus.
i.e. ¿ x + y∨≤∨x∨+¿ y∨¿
3. The modulus of the difference is never less than the difference of the modulus of the
minuend and the subtrahend. i.e. ¿ x− y∨≥∨x∨−¿ y ∨¿
4. The modulus of the quotient is equal to the quotient of the modulus.

i.e. | xy|= ││ xy ││ provided that y ≠ 0

,

Theorem: Let a , d , ε R, and d >0 , then

i ¿∨x∨¿ d ⇨ −d < x <d
ii ¿ ¿ x∨¿ d ⇨ −d > x >d .
iii ¿∨x−a∨¿ d ⇨ −d < x−a<d so that a−d < x <a+ d .
iv ¿∨x−a∨¿ d ⇨ −d > x−a>d so that a−d > x >a+ d .

Example: Show that ¿ x− y∨≥∨¿ x∨−¿ y ∨¿

Proof:
Let x=( x− y )+ y
⇨ |x|=¿ ( x− y ) + y∨¿ But |( x− y )+ y|≤|x− y|+ ¿ y∨¿ (from property 2)

⇨ |x|≤| x− y|+¿ y∨¿

Rearranging we have
|x− y|≥|x|−¿ y∨¿ . . . (1)
Taking modulus on both sides we have
‖x− y‖ ≥¿ ⇨ |x− y|≥∨|x|−¿ y ∨¿
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Hence the proof

Functions from real number to another real number f : R → R

Introduction:
The area A of a square depends on the length of its sides ( x say), So the area is given by the
formula A=x 2. Similarly the distance S (in feet) that a freely falling object drops in t seconds is
describe by the formula s=16 t 2. These formulas illustrate the Mathematical notion of a
function.

Definition: Let A and B be any two non-empty sets, if there is any rule which assigned to every
element of set A one and only one element of set B, then the rule is called a function or
(mapping), denoted f : A → B . And read f is a mapping from A to B.

Note:
i ¿ Functions are also written as y=f (x ), and read y is a function of x .
ii ¿ Arrow diagrams are also used to represent functions.

Definition: Let f : A → B be a function, ifa ε A , then f ( a ) ε B , and f (a) is called the image of a
under f .

Definition: The set of all acceptable inputs of a function f is called the domain of f . In other
words, if f : A → B is a function, then set A is called the domain of f , and set B is called the co
domain of f .

Definition: The set of all outputs of a function f is called the range of f . In other words the set
of those elements which appear as an image is called the range of f .

Note: The range of a function is always a subset of the Co-domain.

Definition: The range of values of x for which y is defined as a function of x is called the interval
of definition (or the domain)

Types of functions:

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Definition: Let A be any non-empty set, let f : A → A be a function defined by f ( a )=a, then f is
called an identity function.

Definition: Let A and B be any two non-empty sets, and let f : A → B be a function, then f is
called a constant function if the same element b ε B appear as an image of every element in A,
denoted f ( a )=b .

Definition: Let A and B be any two non-empty sets, and let f : A → B be a function and
g : A → B be another function, then f and g are said to be equal if f ( a )=g ( a ) ∀ a ε A .

e.g. i ¿ f ( x )=x 2−2 x , g ( x ) =x ( 1+ x )−3 x

2
ii ¿ f ( x )=x , g ( x )=x ( 2+ x )−2 x.
Definition: Let A and B be any two non-empty sets, and let f : A → B be a function, if distinct
elements of set A are mapped into distinct elements of set B, then f is called an injective or
(one-one) function
i. e. if a , b , ε A and a ≠ b , then f (a)≠ f (b) or if a , b , ε A , and f ( a )=f (b) then a=b
e.g. f ( x )=2 x +7

Definition: Let A and B be any two non-empty sets, and f : A → B be a function. If every element
b ε B appear as the image of at least one element a ε A, then f is called a surjective (or onto)
function.

Definition: A function f : A → B is called bijective if f is one - one and onto.

Definition(Inverse of a function):Let A and B be any two non-empty sets, f : A → B be a

function, and let b ε B, then the inverse of b denoted f −1 (b) consist of those elements in A
which are mapped into b . i.e. those elements in A which have b as their image.

Definition (Inverse function): Let A and B be any two non-empty sets, if f : A → B is one-one
and onto, then for each b ε B , the inverse f −1 (b) will consist of a single element a ε A .
Accordingly, f −1 is a function from set B to set A , denoted f −1 : B → A .

Note: f −1 is a function if and only if f is bijective.

15
Definition: Let A , B , and C be any three non-empty sets, Also let f : A → B and g :B → C be two
functions, then the function go f : A → C is called the composition of f and g.

Even and odd functions:

Definition: Let y=f (x ) be a function, then y=f (x ) is called an even function if f (−x ) =f (x ).

Definition: Let y=f (x ) be a function, then y=f (x ) is called an odd function if f (−x ) =−f (x ).

Properties of even and odd functions:

1. The product of two even functions is an even function.
2. The product of two odd functions is an even function.
3. The product of one even one odd functions is an odd function.
4. The sum of two even functions is an even function.
5. The sum of two odd functions is an odd function.
6. The sum of one even one odd functions is neither even nor odd.

Definition: Any function which repeats itself regularly over a given interval of space or time is
called a periodic function. In other words, a function is called periodic if there exist a number τ
such that f ( x +nτ ) =f ( x), where n ε Z and τ is called the period.

Example1: Find the domain and the range of the following functions.

i ¿ y =√ 4 x−x 2 ii ¿ y= √24+ 10 x −x2

Solution:
i ¿ For y to be a real number 4 x−x 2 ≥ 0 ⇨ x (4−x )≥ 0
Solving the inequality using sign chart we have that the range of values of x are
x ≥ 0 and x ≤ 4
Hence the domain D= { 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 } and the range R={ 0 , √ 3 , 2 , }
ii ¿ For y to be a real number 24+ 10 x −x2 ≥ 0 ⇨ 2
x −10 x−24 ≤ 0
⇨ (x−12)(x +2)≤ 0
Solving the inequality using sign chart we have that the range of values of x are −2 ≤ x ≤12
Hence the domain D= {−2,−1 ,0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ,10 ,11, 12 } and the
Range R={ 0 , √ 13 , 2 √ 6 , √ 33 , . .. , }

16
Example2: Find the domain of the following functions.
1 2+ x
i ¿ y= ii ¿ y=
6√x 1−x
2

Solution:
i ¿ For y to be a real number 6 √ x> 0 ⇨ √ x> 0 ⇨ x >0

Hence the domain D= {1 , 2 ,3. 4 , . .. }, and the range R= { 1 1

, ,
1
6 6 √ 2 6 √3
, .. .
}
ii ¿ For y to be a real number (1−x 2 )≠ 0
⇨ (1−x )(1+ x)> 0 or (1−x )(1+ x)< 0
Solving these two inequalities using sign chart we have that y is a real number for all values of x
except at point x=± 1 hence the domain D= { 0 ,± 2 , ±3 , ± 4 ,. . . } and the corresponding values
of y is the range.
Example3: Classify the following functions as either even, odd or neither.
i ¿ f ( x )=3 x5 −2 x 3 + x ii ¿ f ( x ) =sin 3 x iii ¿ f ( x ) =cos 3 x
x −x 3
iv ¿ f ( x )=e + e v ¿ f ( x )=4 x +3 x vi ¿ f ( x )=( sin 2 x ) cos x
Solution:
5 3
i ¿ f ( x )=3 x −2 x + x
⇨ −f ( x )=−3 x +2 x −x , and ⇨
5 3 5
f (−x ) =−3 x +2 x −x
3

⇨ f (−x ) =−f (x )
Hence the function f ( x )=3 x 5−2 x 3 + x is an odd function.
ii ¿ f ( x )=sin 3 x
⇨ −f ( x )=−sin 3 x and ⇨ f (−x ) =sin 3(−x)=−sin 3 x
⇨ f (−x ) =−f (x )
Hence the function f ( x )=sin3 x is an odd function

Example4: Show that the composition of a function is associative.

Proof: Let f : A → B , g :B → C and h :C → D
Then we have to show that, ho ( gof )= ( hog ) of
Let a ε A , then f ( a ) ε B , say f ( a )=b where b ε B , Now b ε B , ⇨ g ( b ) ε C , say g ( b ) =c
where c ε C , also since c ε C , h ( c ) ε D, say h ( c )=d where d ε D d ε D,
Now, [ ho (gof ) ] a=hog ( f ( a ) )=hog ( b )=h ( g ( b ) )=h ( c )=d . . . (1)

17
And [( hog)of ] a=( hog ) f ( a ) =( hog ) b=h ( g ( b ) ) =h ( c )=d ` . . . (2)
From (1) and (2) we have that, [ ho (gof )] a = [ ( hog ) of ] a=d ∀ a ε A

Hence the proof

Example5: Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x )=3 x +1. Show that f is a bijective function.

Suppose x , y , ε R, such that x ≠ y ⇨

Proof:
f ( x )=3 x +1 and f ( y )=3 y+ 1
But since x ≠ y ⇨ 3 x≠3 y ⇨ f (x)≠ f ( y), therefore f is one-to-one.
Next we show that f is onto.

Let n ε R contain in the co-domain of f such that f ( m) =n

⇨ ⇨ ⇨ ( n−1 )=3 (
3 )
n−1 n−1
3 m+1=n m= f ( m) =f +1=n
3 3
Therefore f is onto
Hence f is a bijective function.

Example6: Show that the product of

i ¿ Two even functions is even. ii ¿ Two odd functions is even.
iii ¿ One even function and one odd function is odd.
Proof:
Let f ( x )=f 1 ( x )∗f 2 (x)
i ¿ If f 1 (x) and f 2 (x) are both even functions, then
f (−x ) =f 1 (−x )∗f 2 (−x )=f 1 ( x )∗f 2 ( x )=f ( x)
Hence the proof

ii ¿ If f 1 ( x) and f 2 ( x) are both odd functions, then

f (−x ) =f 1 (−x )∗f 2 (−x )=−f 1 ( x )∗−f 2 ( x )=f ( x )

iii ¿ Without any loss of generality, let f 1 (x) be even and f 2 (x) be odd.

Then, f (−x ) =f 1 (−x )∗f 2 (−x )=f 1 ( x )∗−f 2 ( x )=−( f 1 ( x )∗f 2 ( x ) )=−f (x )
Hence the proof

18
Example7: Let f : R → R and g : R → R be defined by f ( x )=3 x 2 and g ( x )=2 x3 +11.
Find the formula which defines the product function fog : R → R .
Solution:
fog ( x )=f ( g ( x ) ) =f ( 2 x 3+1 )=3(2 x 3 +1)2=12 x 6 +12 x 3 +3

x
Example8: let f (x) be a function over the set of real numbers be defined by f (x)= −3 ,
2
Find the inverse f −1 (x) , if it exist
Solution:

Let y=f (x ),⇨

x
y= −3 ,
2
Making x the subject we have
x=2( y+3), ⇨ x=f
−1
( y )=2( y +3) ⇨ f
−1
( y )=2( y +3)
Now, replacing y by x we have
f
−1
( x )=2(x+ 3).

Example 9: Let f : x → , be a function defined on the set of real numbers

x +1
x−2
excluding x=2.
Find f −1, and the largest domain of f −1,
Solution:

⇨
x +1 x +1
f ( x )= ( x ≠ 2) y=
x−2 x−2
Making x the subject we have

⇨
2 y+1 −1 2 y +1
x= f ( y )=
y−1 y−1
Now, replacing y by x we have
−1 2 x+ 1
f ( x )=
x−1
The largest domain of f −1 is D , where D=R excluding x=1.

Limit and Continuity:

19
Limits:
Introduction: Defining a Limit has never been an easy one, the earliest attempts was made by
the French Mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736 – 1813).However his reasoning was
shown to be faulty, further progress was made when the French Mathematician Augustine
Louis Cauchy (1789 –1837) and the Czech Priest Bern hard – Bolzano (1781- 1848)
independently gave definition of Limit and Continuity. Nevertheless they still had a degree of
vagueness which is no longer acceptable. The present day definitions were first published by
the German Mathematician Hein Rich Edward Hein in 1872.

The meaning of limit informally:

When we say that “ L is the Limit of a function f (x) as x approaches some
number a we mean roughly speaking that f (x) get closer and closer to L as x get closer
and closer to a . And we express this idea symbolically by the notation
lim f (x )=L
x →a

Example1: The following table gives some values of x and the corresponding values of f (x) as
3 x−5 x−2
x → 2 where f ( x )=
x−2
Case 1
x 1 1.2500 1.5000 1.7500 1.9000 1.9500 1.9950 1.9990 . . . . . . . . .
f (x) 4

It can be seen that as x get closer to the value 2, f (x) get closer to the value 7
Case 2
x 3 2.7500 2.5000 2.2500 2.1000 2.0100 2.0010 2.0001 . . . . . . .
f (x) 10

Here also we can see that as x get closer to the value 2, f (x) get closer to the value 7.

Note:
i ¿ In case1, we can see that x get closer to the value 2 from the left, and is therefore called
lim ¿
left-hand limit denoted x→ 2
−¿
2
3 x −5 x−2
=7 ¿
x−2

ii ¿ In case2, we can see that x get closer and closer to the value 2 from the right, and is

20
 therefore called
lim ¿
right- hand limit denoted x→ 2
+¿
2
3 x −5 x−2
=7 ¿
x−2

Example2: Now if f ( x )= √ 9−x 2 , forming a similar table we have that.

Case1
x 2 2.7500 2.9000 2.9500 2.9900 2.9950 2.9990 2.9999 ......
f (x)

We can observe that as x get closer to the value 3, f (x) get closer to the value 0

Case 2
x 4 3.5000 3.1000 3.0500 3. 0100 3.0050 3.0010 3.0001 ......
f (x) Im Im Im Im Im Im Im Im ......

Here we observe that as x get closer to 3 from the right, f (x) is not a real number.

Note:
i ¿ In case1 lim ¿. ii ¿ in case2 lim ¿.
x→ 3−¿ √9 −x 2=0 ¿ x→ 3+¿ √ 9−x 2=? ¿

Condition for existence of limit:

We say the Limit of a function f (x) exist if the left hand limit is equal to the right hand Limit
lim ¿
i.e. −¿
x→ a f (x)= lim ¿¿
+¿
x →a f (x)=L ¿

Limit formally:
Definition: Let f (x) be a function defined at each point in some open interval containing “a “,
then a number L is called the Limit of f (x) as x approaches “a “ if for every positive number
∈>0 there exist a positive number δ >0 such that |f ( x ) −L|<∈ whenever ¿ x−a∨¿ δ

Basic concepts of limits:

Given that lim f ( x )= A , lim g (x)=B , and C is any arbitrary constant, then the following
x →a x →a

postulates hold good.

1) lim Cf ( x)=C lim f (x)=C∗A

x →a x→a

2)lim [f ( x ) ± g(x )]=lim f (x)± lim g( x )= A ± B .

x →a x→a x→a

21
3) lim ¿
x→ a

lim f (x )
f (x) x →a A
4) lim = = , provided that lim g (x) ≠ 0.
x →a g(x ) lim g( x ) B x →a
x→a

5) lim
x →a
[ √n f (x )]=√n lim
x→ a
f (x )=√n A provided √n A is a real number.

6) lim ¿.
x→ a

Special limits:
Theorem: Prove that:
n
x −1 n Sinθ tanθ
i ¿ lim m = ii ¿ lim =1 and lim =1
x → 1 x −1 m θ →0 θ θ→0 θ
iii ¿ lim ¿ ¿ where 2<e <3
n→∞

Proof:
n
x −1
n
( x −1 ) ( x n−1 10+ x n−2 11+ x n−3 12 +. ..+ x n−n 1n−1 )
i ¿ lim ¿ lim
( x−1 ) ( x m−1 10 + x m−2 11+ x m −3 12 +. ..+ x m−m 1m−1 )
m n
x→1 x −1 x →1

( x n−1 + x n−2 + x n−3+ .. .+ x n−n )

¿ lim
x →1 ( x m−1 + x m−2 + x m−3+ .. .+ x m−m )
( x n−1 + x n−2+ x n−3 +. . .+1 )
¿ lim
x →1 ( x + x m−2 + x m−3+ .. .+1 )
m−1

1+1+1+. . .+1(n−factors) n
¿ =
1+ 1+1+ .. .+1(m−factors) m

Sinθ
ii ¿ lim
θ→0 θ B

Consider a circle of any radius

A
r
θ r T
O

From the circle we observe that

22
 BT
tanθ= ⇒ BT =OT tan θ=r tan θ ,∧OT =OA=r
OT
^ < Area of ∆ OBT
Areaof ∆ OAT < Area of sector OAT

⇒
1 2 θ 2 1
r sin θ< π r < r ( BT )
2 360
o
2

⇒
1 2 θ o 2 1
r sin θ< 180 r < r ( r ) tan θ
2 360
o
2

⇒ (Multiplying through by 2)
1 2 1 2 1 2
r sin θ< θ r < r tan θ
2 2 2
⇒ 2 2 2
r sin θ<θ r <r tan θ (Dividing through by r 2 )

⇒ sin θ<θ< tan θ . . . (1)

a ¿ Dividing eqn. (1) through by sin θ we have
θ tan θ θ 1
1< < ⇒ 1< <
sin θ sin θ sin θ cos θ
Take the reciprocal the sense of the inequality changes

⇒
sin θ
1> > cos θ
θ
Taking limits throughout we have
Sinθ Sinθ
lim 1> lim >lim cos θ ⇒ 1>lim >1
θ→0 θ→0 θ θ→0 θ→0 θ
Sinθ
⇒ lim =1
θ →0 θ
b ¿ Dividing eqn. (1) through by tanθ we have
sin θ θ 1 θ
< <1 ⇒ < <1
tan θ sinθ cos θ tan θ
Take the reciprocal the sense of the inequality changes

⇒
tnn θ
cos θ > >1
θ

Taking limits throughout we have

tanθ tanθ
lim cos θ> lim >lim 1⇒ 1> lim >1
θ→0 θ →0 θ θ→0 θ →0 θ
tanθ
⇒ lim =1
θ →0 θ
Hence the proof

23
 ( )
n
1
iii ¿ lim 1+
n→∞ n

¿ lim 1+ ( )+ ( ) ( ) ( ) + .. .+( )
n 1 n (n−1) 1 n(n−1)(n−2) 1 n ( n−1 ) ( n−2 ) (n−3) 1
2 3
1
4 n

!
+ !
+ ! !
n→∞ 1 n 2 n 3 n 4 n n

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(n−1) (n−1) (n−2) (n−1) (n−2) ( n−3 ) (n−1) ( n−2) ( n−3 ) ( n−4 )
1 n n n n n n n n n n 1
¿ lim 1+ ! + !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+. ..+ n
n→∞ 1 2 3 4 5 n

1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4
(1− ) (1− )(1− ) (1− )(1− )(1− ) (1− )(1− )(1− )( 1− )
1 n n n n n n n n n n 1
¿ lim 1+ ! + !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+. . .+ n
n→∞ 1 2 3 4 5 n
1 1 1 1 1
¿ 1+ ! + ! + ! + ! + ! . . . ¿ e
1 2 3 4 5

Example1: Verify that nlim ¿¿ where 2<e <3

→∞

Solution:
lim ¿1+ ( )+ () () () ()
n x n (n−1) x 2 n(n−1)(n −2 ) x 3 n(n−1)(n−2)(n−3) x 4 x
n

( )
n + + +. ..+ ¿
x 1 n
!
2
!
n 3
!
n 4
!
n n
lim 1+ = x →∞ ❑
n→∞ n
1 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 4
(n−1)x (n−1) (n−2)x (n−1) (n−2) ( n−3 ) x
()
n
x n n n n n n x
¿ lim 1+ ! + + + +. . .+
n→∞ 1 2
!
3
!
4
!
n
1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4
(1− ) x (1− )(1− )x (1− )(1− )(1− )x
()
n
x n n n n n n x
¿ lim 1+ ! + + + +. ..+
n→∞ 1 2
!
3
!
4
!
n
2 3 4 5
x x x x x
¿ 1+ ! + ! + ! + ! + ! . .. ¿ e x
1 2 3 4 5
Example1: Evaluate the following limits if it exist
3 2 4
lim x −1 lim x −1 lim x −1
x →1 x →1 x→ 1
i¿ ii ¿ iii ¿
x−1 x 3−1 x 3−1
Solution:
3 2
lim x −1 lim (x−1)(x + x+1)
=lim ( x + x +1 ) =3
x →1 x →1 2
i¿ =
x−1 x−1 x →1

24
 2
lim x −1 lim (x−1)(x +1) lim (x +1)
x→1 x→ 1 x→1 2
ii ¿ 3
= 2
= 2
=
x −1 ( x−1)(x + x +1) (x + x +1) 3

lim x 4 −1 lim (x−1)(x 3 + x 2 + x+ 1) lim (x 3 + x 2+ x +1)

x→ 1 x→ 1 x →1 4 1
iii ¿ 3
= 2
=i ¿ 2
= =1
x −1 (x−1)(x + x+1) (x + x +1) 3 3

Example2: Evaluate the following limits if it exist

lim √ 4+ x−2
2 3
lim (3+ x ) −9 lim x −27
x→ 0 x→ 3 x→ 0
i¿ ii ¿ 2
iii ¿
x x −9 x
Solution;
lim ( 3+ x ) −9 lim ( 3+ x ) −3 lim [ ( 3+ x )−3 ] [ ( 3+ x ) +3 ] lim x ( x +6 )
2 2 2

x→ 0 x→ 0 x →0 x→0 ¿ lim ( x+6 )=6

i¿ = = = x→ 0
x x x x

lim x 3−27 lim x3 −33 lim ( x−3 ) ( x 2+ 3 x + 9 ) lim ( x 2 +3 x+ 9 )

27 9 1
ii ¿ x → 3 2 = x →32 2 = x →3 = x→3 = = =4
x −9 x −3 ( x−3 ) ( x+3 ) ( x+3 ) 6 2 2

lim √ 4 + x−2
lim √ 4+ x−2 x→0
∗√ 4 + x +2 lim ( √ 4 + x−2 ) ( √ 4+ x+2 )
x→ 0 x
iii ¿ = = x→0
x √ 4+ x +2 x ( √ 4+ x +2 )
lim ( 4+ x )−4 lim x lim 1
x→0 x→ 0 x→ 0 1
¿ = = =
x ( √ 4+ x +2 ) x ( √ 4+ x +2 ) ( √ 4+ x+2 ) 4

Example3: Evaluate the following limits if it exist

lim x −1
3 2
lim x −7 x +10 lim ( x−1) √ 2−x
x →1 x→5 x→ 1
i¿ 2
ii ¿ 2
iii ¿
x −3 x+ 2 x −25 x2−1

Solution;
lim x3 −1 lim ( x−1 ) ( x2 + x +1 ) lim ( x 2 + x +1 )
x →1 3
i¿ = x →1 = x→ 1 = =−3
2
x −3 x+ 2 ( x−1 ) ( x−2 ) ( x−2 ) −1

2
lim x −7 x +10 lim ( x−5 )( x−2 ) lim ( x−2 )
x→5 x→5 x→ 5 3
ii ¿ 2
= = =
x −25 ( x−5 )( x +5 ) ( x+5 ) 10

25
 lim ( x−1) √ 2−x lim (x−1) √ 2−x lim √ 2−x
x→ 1 x→ 1 1
iii ¿ = = x→ 1 =
x −12
( x−1 )( x +1 ) ( x+1 ) 2

Exercise: Evaluate the following limits if it exist

3
lim 8 x −1
lim √ x−1−2
2
lim 2 x +5 x−7 x→
1
x →2 2 x →5
i¿ 2
ii ¿ 2
iii ¿
3 x −x−2 6 x −5 x+1 x−5
Example4: Evaluate the following limits if it exist
2
lim x −5 x +6 3
lim 3 x + 2 x −x
2
lim x (x−1)
x →2 x→ 1
i¿ 2 ii ¿
x→0
iii ¿ 2
x −12 x +20 5x 2(x −1)
Solution:
2
lim x −5 x +6 lim ( x−2 ) ( x −3 ) lim ( x−3 )
x →2 x →2 x→2 −1 1
i¿ 2 = = = =
x −12 x +20 ( x−2 ) ( x−10 ) ( x−10 ) −8 8

lim 3 x 3+ 2 x 2−x lim x ( 3 x 2 +2 x−1 ) lim ( 3 x 2 +2 x −1 )

x→0 x→0 −1 −1
ii ¿ = = x→0 = =
5x 5x 5 5 5

lim x (x−1) lim x (x−1) lim x

x→ 1 x→ 1 x→ 1 1
iii ¿ = = =
2(x −1)
2
2 ( x−1 )( x +1 ) 2 ( x +1 ) 4

Example5: Evaluate the following limits if it exist

lim √ x +a−√ x lim √ 1+ x 2−1 lim 2−√ x −3 lim √ x 2+1−1

i ¿ a→ 0 ii ¿ x → 0 iii ¿ x→ 7
iv ¿ x → 0 2
a x 2 2
x −49 √ x +16−4
Solution:
lim √ x +a−√ x
lim √ x +a−√ x
a→0
∗√ x +a+ √ x lim ( √ x+ a−√ x ) ( √ x+ a+ √ x )
a→ 0 a
i¿ = = a →0
a √ x + a+ √ x a ( √ x +a+ √ x )
lim [ ( x +a ) – x ] lim a lim 1
a→0 a→0 a →0 1
¿ ¿ = =
a ( √ x + a+ √ x ) a ( √ x+ a+ √ x ) ( √ x +a+ √ x ) 2 √ x

lim √ 1+ x 2−1
lim √ 1+ x 2−1
x→ 0
2
∗√ 1+ x 2+ 1 lim ( √ 1+ x2 −1 )( √ 1+ x2 +1 )
x→0 x x →0
ii ¿ = =
x 2
√1+ x 2
+1 x
2
( √1+ x 2 +1 )

26
 lim [ ( 1+ x ) – 1 ]
2 2
lim x lim 1
x→0 x→ 0 x→ 0 1
¿ = = =
x
2
( √1+ x 2 +1 ) x
2
( √1+ x 2 +1 ) ( √ 1+ x 2+1 ) 2

lim 2−√ x−3

lim 2−√ x−3
x →7
∗2+ √ x−3 lim ( 2−√ x−3 ) ( 2+ √ x−3 )
x→ 7 x 2−49 x →7
iii ¿ = =
2
x −49 2+ √ x−3 ( x−7 ) ( x+7 ) ( 2+ √ x−3 )
lim [ 4−( x−3 ) ] lim − ( x−7 ) lim −1
x →7 x→ 7 x→ 7 −1 −1
¿ = = = =
( x−7 ) ( x+7 ) ( 2+ √ x−3 ) ( x−7 ) ( x +7 ) ( 2+ √ x−3 ) ( x +7 ) ( 2+ √ x−3 ) 56 56

Example6: Evaluate the following limits if it exist

lim √5−x−2 lim √ x 2+ 1−1 lim √ x +1−(x+ 1)
x →1 x→ 0 x→ 0
i¿ ii ¿ iii ¿
√ 2−x−1 √x 2
+16−4 √ x+ 1−1
Solution:
lim √5−x−2
∗√ 5−x +2
x→ 1

√2−x−1 ∗√ 2−x +1 lim ( √5−x−2 ) ( √5−x +2 ) ( √2−x+ 1 )

lim √5−x−2
i¿
x →1
=
√ 2−x+ 1
=
x→ 1

√ 2−x−1 √ 5− x+2 ( √2−x−1 ) ( √ 2−x +1 )( √5−x+ 2 )

lim [ ( 5−x )−4 ] ( √ 2−x+1 ) lim ( 1−x ) ( √ 2−x+ 1 ) lim ( √ 2−x +1 )

x→ 1 1
¿ = x →1 = x →1 =
[ ( 2−x )−1 ] ( √ 5−x +2 ) ( 1−x ) ( √5−x +2 ) ( √ 5−x +2 ) 2

lim √ x 2+1−1
x→0
∗√ x 2 +1+1
√x 2
+16−4
∗√ x 2+ 16+4
lim √ x 2+1−1
ii ¿ x → 0 2 =
√ x 2 +16+ 4
√ x +16−4 √ x2 +1+1
lim ( √ x +1−1 )( √ x +1+1 )( √ x +16+ 4 ) lim [ ( x +1 ) −1 ] ( √ x +16+ 4 )
2 2 2 2 2

x→0 x→0
¿ =
( √ x +16 – 4 )( √ x +16 +4 )( √ x +1+1 )
2 2 2
[ ( x 2+ 16 )−16 ] ( √ x2 +1+1 )

lim x
2
( √ x 2 +16+ 4 ) lim ( √ x + 16+4 )
2

x→0 x →0 8
¿ = = =4
x 2
(√x 2
+1+1 ) ( √ x +1+1 )
2 2

27
 lim √ x +1−( x +1 )
x→ 0
∗√ x+ 1+ ( x+1 )
√ x +1−1 ∗√ x +1+1
lim √ x +1−( x +1 )
iii ¿
x→ 0
=
√ x+ 1+1
√ x +1−1 √ x +1+ ( x +1 )
lim ( √ x +1−( x +1 ) ) ( √ x+1+ ( x +1 ) ) ( √ x+ 1+ 1 ) lim [ ( x+ 1 )−( x +1 )2 ] ( √ x +1+1 )
x→0
¿ = x →0
( √ x +1−1 ) ( √ x+ 1+ 1 ) ( √ x +1+ ( x +1 ) ) [ ( x +1 ) −1 ] ( √ x +1+ ( x+ 1 ) )

lim −x ( x+1 ) ( √ x+ 1+ 1 ) −lim ( x +1 ) ( √ x +1+1 )

−1(2) −2
¿ x→0 = x →0 = = =−1
x ( √ x+ 1+(x +1) ) ( √ x +1+(x +1) ) 1+1 2

Example7: Use the theorem on special limits above to verify the following limits
Sinpθ tanqθ Sinpθ p
i ¿ lim = p ii¿ lim =q iii ¿ lim =
θ →0 θ θ →0 θ θ → 0 Sinqθ q
Solution:
Sinpθ
lim ∗p
Sinpθ θ →0 θ pSinpθ Sinpθ
i ¿ lim = =lim =p lim
θ →0 θ p θ→ 0 pθ θ →0 pθ
Now we set pθ=t ⇒ as θ → 0 , t → 0
Sinpθ Sint Sint
Therefore p lim = p lim =p ( Since lim =1 )
θ→0 pθ t→0 t t→0 t

tanqθ
lim ∗q
tanqθ θ →0 θ qtanqθ tanqθ
ii ¿ lim = =lim =q lim
θ→0 θ q θ→ 0 qθ θ→0 qθ
Now we set qθ= y ⇒ as θ → 0 , y → 0
tanqθ tany tany
Therefore q lim =q lim =q ( Since lim =1)
θ →0 qθ y →0 y y→ 0 y

[ ]
Sinpθ Sinpθ
lim ∗θ ∗θ
Sinpθ θ →0 Sinqθ θ
iii ¿ lim = =lim
θ →0 Sinqθ θ θ →0 Sinqθ

¿ lim
θ→0
Sinpθ
θ
∗lim
θ
θ → 0 Sinqθ
=p
1
q
=
p
q ()
Example8: Evaluate the following limits if it exist

28
 lim sin5 x lim sin 3 x lim 1−cos x
i¿
x→ 0
ii ¿
x→ 0 , iii ¿
x→ 0
2
x tan x x
Solution:
lim sin 5 x
x →0
lim sin5 x ∗5 lim sin5 x Let t=5 x ⇒ as x → 0 , t → 0
x→ 0 x x→ 0
i¿ = =5
x 5 5x

lim sin 5 x lim sint

⇒ 5
x→0
=5
t→0
=5
5x t

[ ]
sin 3 x
∗x lim sin 3 x
1 x→ 0
lim sin 3 x ∗1 ∗lim x
x→0 x x x →0
ii ¿ =lim = =3∗1=3
tan x x→0 tan x tan x

lim 1−cos x
x →0
lim 1−cos x 2
∗1+cos x lim (1−cos x ) ( 1+ cos x ) lim 1−cos x
2

x→ 0 x
iii ¿ = = x→ 0 = x →02
x
2
1+cos x 2
x ( 1+cos x ) x ( 1+cos x )

lim sin x
2 x →0
lim sin x ∗lim sin x
2 x →0
∗1 x x→0
lim sin x 2 ∗lim 1
x→ 0 x x x→ 0 1
¿ 2
= = =
x ( 1+cos x ) ( 1+cos x ) ( 1+cos x ) 2

Example9: Evaluate the following limits if it exist

√ 4 x 2−4 x+1 lim x−8 lim ( x +3)(3 x −1)

i ¿ lim , ii ¿
x→8
iii ¿ x→ 2
1 4 x 2−1 3
x→
2 √ x−2 2
x + x −6
Solution:

√ √ √
2
lim 4 x −4 x+1 lim ( 2 x−1 ) ( 2 x −1 ) lim ( 2 x−1 )

√
2 1 1 1
4 x −4 x+1 x→
2
x→
2
x→
2
i ¿ lim 2
= 2
= = =0
x→
1 4 x −1 4 x −1 ( 2 x−1 ) ( 2 x +1 ) ( 2 x +1 )
2

lim x−8 lim x−8

x→8 x →8
ii ¿ 3
= 1
√ x−2 3
x −2
Let y 3=x ⇒ as x → 8 , y → 2

29
⇒
3 3 3
lim x−8 lim y −8 lim y −2 lim ¿
( y−2) ( y +2 y+4 )
2
=lim ( y +2 y+ 4 )=12 ¿
2
x→8 y→ 2 y→2 y−2
1
= = = y→ 2
y→2 ❑
3
y−2 y−2
x −2

lim (x +3)(3 x−1) lim ( x +3)(3 x−1) lim (3 x −1)

x →−3 x→−3 x→−3 −7 7 2
iii ¿ = = = = =1
2
x + x−6 ( x+ 3 ) ( x −2 ) ( x−2 ) −5 5 5

Example10: Evaluate the following limits if it exist

lim √ x−2 lim √ x −1−2 lim √ x−8
i ¿ x→ 4 ii ¿ x →5 iii ¿ x→364
x−4 x−5 √ x−4
Solution:
lim √ x−2
x→4
∗√ x +2 lim ( √ x−2 ) ( √ x +2 ) lim ( x −4 ) lim 1
x−4 x →4 x→ 4 x →4 1
i¿ = = = =
√ x +2 ( x−4 ) ( √ x +2 ) ( x−4 ) ( √ x+2 ) ( √ x +2 ) 4
1
lim √ x−8 lim x 2 −8
x → 64 x →64
iii ¿ 3
= 1
√ x−4 3
x −4
Let y 6=x ⇒ as x → 64 , y → 2
1
lim x −8 2
lim y 3−8 lim ( y−2 ) ( y 2 +2 y +4 ) lim ( y 2+ 2 y + 4 )
x → 64 y→ 2 y→ 2 y →2 12
⇒ = = = =3
1
3
2
y −4 ( y−2)( y +2) ( y +2) 4
x −4

Exercises: Evaluate the following limits if it exist

lim √ x−1
3 3 2 3
lim ( x+ a ) −x lim sin ( x +a ) ❑−sin x lim sin 4 x
i¿
a→ 0
ii ¿
a→0
iii ¿
x →0 , iv ¿
x→ 1
2 4
a a x √ x−1

lim √ x−1 lim 3− √ 5+ x lim √ 1+ x− √ 1−x

2
lim sin x – sin a
x→ a x→ 1 x →4 x→ 0
v¿ vi¿ vii ¿ viii¿
x−a 4
√ x−1 1− √ 5−x x

ix ¿ lim x sin
x→ 0
1
x
lim sin πx
x ¿ x→ 0 xi ¿
lim sin
x →0
( x4 ) xii ¿ lim cos mx – cos nx
x→ 0
sin 3 πx x x

30
xiii ¿
lim cos x – cos a
x→ a
xiv ¿
lim √ x−1
x→1
n

xv ¿
lim sin2
x →0
( 4x ) xvi ¿
lim 1−cos x
x →0
2

x−a m
√ x −1 x
2 x sin2 x

lim cos x – sin a lim 2 axsin x lim cos 3 x – cos x

π
x→ x →0 x→ 0
xvii ¿
4 xviii ¿ ixx ¿ 2
cos 2 x 3x cos x−1

Infinite limit and Limit at infinity:

x a
We shall now look at the limit of the function of the form , and , when x approaches zero,
a x
and when x approaches infinity. Where a is any arbitrary constant.
Recall:
0
i ¿ Zero divided by any number is equals zero, =0 , and any number divided by zero is equals
a
a
infinity, =∞
0
∞
ii ¿ Infinity divided by any number is equals Infinity, =∞ , and any number divided by Infinity
a
a
is equals zero, =0
∞
lim x lim a lim x lim a
=0 , =∞, =∞ , =0 ,
x→ 0 x→0 x→∞ x→ 0
i¿ ii ¿ iii ¿ i¿
a x a x
f (x)
lim ¿ =a ¿
Definition: Any Limit of the form g (x)
❑ is called limit at Infinity. On the other hand any
x→ ∞

f (x)
lim ¿ =±∞ ¿
Limit of the form g (x)
❑ is called Infinite limit.
x→a

Example1: Evaluate the following limits if it exist

[ ]
2
lim 4 x−3 lim (1+ x)( 2+ x) lim (x +1) 1
i¿
x→∞ , ii ¿ x →∞ , iii ¿
x→∞ , iv ¿ lim 3 x + 2 ,
2
x +5 2
x +1 x 2+ 1 x→∞ x

Solution:

31
 i¿
lim 4 x−3
x→∞
=
lim x
x →∞ ( 4x − x3 )= lim ( 4x − x3 ) = 0 =0
2
2
x→ ∞
2

( x) ( x)
2
x +5 2 5 5 1
x 1− 1−
2 2

ii ¿
lim (1+ x)(2+ x)
x →∞
=
2
lim x +3 x +2
x →∞
=
x →∞
2
(3 2
lim x 1+ − 2
x x )= ( ) = 1=1
x →∞
3 2
lim 1+ − 2
x x

( x1 ) (1+ x1 )
2 2
x +1 x +1 2 1
x 1+ 2 2

Example2: Evaluate the following limits if it exist

[ ] [ ]
3 2
x
3 lim ( x−1 ) lim x −2 x 1
i ¿ lim 2 −x , ii ¿ x →∞ , iii ¿ x→∞ , iv ¿ lim 3 x− 2
x →∞ x +1 3
2 x +3 x−1
2
x −4 x+ 4 x→∞ x

Continuity:
Here we are going to learn about continuous functions and how to find the point of
discontinuity of functions without drawing the graph.

Definition: A function f (x) is said to be continuous at point x=a if the following conditions
are hold good.

1. f (a) be defined 2. lim f (x ) exist 3. lim f (x )=f (a).

x→ a x→ a

A function will therefore said to be discontinuous at point x=a if one or more of these
conditions fail at point x=a .

Example1: Examine the following functions for continuity

π
i ¿ f ( x )=x−2 at x=4 ii ¿ f ( x )=2 x −3 x+1 at x=2
2
iii ¿ f ( x ) =sin x at x=
2

Solution:
i ¿ f ( x )=x−2 at x=4

1. f ( 4 )=2 ⇒ f (4 ) is define

2. x → lim ¿ (x−2)=2 ¿ −¿
4 ¿
❑ and x→
lim ¿ ( x−2 )=2¿ + ¿
4 ¿
❑ ⇒ Limit of f(x) exist

32
 lim ¿ ( x−2) =f ( 4 ) =2 ¿
3. x→4 ❑ Hence f ( x )=x +2 is continuous at point x=4

2
ii ¿ f ( x )=2 x −3 x+ 1at x=2

1. f ( 2 )=3 ⇒ f (2) is define

2. lim ( 2 x 2−3 x +1 )=3 and lim ¿ ⇒ Limit of f(x) exist

+¿
x→ 2 (2 x −3 x+1)=3 ¿
2
x→ 2

3. lim ( 2 x −3 x+ 1 )=f ( 2 )=3

2

x→ 2

Hence f ( x )=2 x 2−3 x +1is continuous at point x=2

π
iii ¿ f ( x ) =sin x at x=
2

( π2 )=1 ⇒
π
1. f f ( ) is define
2

and ⇒
2. lim ¿ lim ¿
Limit of f (x) exist
() ()
−¿ +¿
π π
x→ sin x=1 ¿ x→ sin x=1 ¿
2 2

3. lim sin x=f

x→
π
2
( π2 )=1
π
Hence f ( x )=sin x is continuous at point x=
2

Example2: Examine the following functions for continuity

{
sin x
x=0 π
i ¿ f ( x )= x ii ¿ f ( x )=sin x at x=
2
0 x≠0
Solution:

1. f ( 0 ) =∞ ⇒ f (0) is not define

2.
x→
lim ¿
sin x
x
=1 ¿
0 ¿
−¿
❑ and
x→
lim ¿
sinx
x
=1¿
+¿
0 ¿
❑ ⇒ Limit of f(x) exist

sin x
lim ¿ ≠ f (0 ) ¿
x
3. x→ 0 ❑

33
 sin x
Hence f ( x )= is not continuous at point x=0
x

34
 (Section B)

Concept of derivatives from first principle:

∆y

∆x
x

Suppose y is a single-valued function of defined by the equation

y=f (x ) . . . (1)
An increase ∆ x in x will produce an increase ∆ x in y . Adding ∆ x to x and ∆ y to y
y + ∆ y=f (x+ ∆ x)
Making ∆ y the subject we have
∆ y =f ( x +∆ x )−f (x ) . . . (2)
Dividing both sides by ∆ x (where ∆ x ≠ 0) we have
∆ y f ( x+ ∆ x )−f ( x)
=
∆x ∆x
∆y
is the average rate of change of y with respect to x in the interval ∆ x and is called
∆x
difference quotient.
Taking limit as ∆ x →0 on both sides we have
f ( x+ ∆x ) −f ( x)
∆ y lim ¿ ∆x
¿
lim ¿ = ∆ x→0 ❑¿
∆x
∆x →0 ❑
f ( x +∆ x )−f (x )
As ∆ x →0 tends to a finite limit if f (x) is continuous. This limit is interpreted
∆x
as the rate of change of y with respect to x for the initial value of x , and it is called the
dy
differential coefficient or the derivative of y with respect to x , and is written as .
dx
∆ y dy
lim ¿ = ¿
Therefore ∆ x dx
❑
∆x →0

35
 f ( x+∆ x )−f ( x)
∆y lim ¿ ¿

Hence dy = ∆ x
∆x
lim ¿ = ❑¿
. . . (3)
∆ x→0

∆ x →0 ❑
dx
Basic concept of Differentiation:
1. Derivative of the sum of functions: The derivative of a function which contains two or more
dy du dv
terms is the sum of the individual terms. i.e. if y=u ( x ) + v (x), then = + .
dx dx dx
Proof:
Let y=u+ v
⇒ y + ∆ y=( u+∆ u )+ ( v +∆ v )
⇒ ∆ y =[ ( u+∆ u )+ ( v +∆ v ) ] −[ u+ v ]
⇒ ∆ y =∆ u+ ∆ v

⇒
∆ y ∆ u+∆ v
=
∆x ∆x

⇒
∆ y ∆u ∆ v
= +
∆x ∆x ∆x

⇒
∆v
lim ¿ ¿

∆ y lim ¿ [ ∆x + ∆ x ] =
∆u ∆x
lim ¿ + ❑¿
∆u ∆ v ∆x ∆x → 0
∆ x→0 ❑¿

dy lim ¿
∆x
= ∆ x→0
❑¿
= ∆x →0 ❑
dx

⇒
dy du dv
= +
dx dx dx
Hence the proof
2. Derivative of the difference of functions: The derivative of a difference of two or more terms
dy du dv
is the difference of the individual terms. i.e. If y=u ( x )−v ( x ), then = − .
dx dx dx
Proof:
Let y=u−v
⇒ y + ∆ y=( u+∆ u )−( v + ∆ v )
⇒ ∆ y =[ ( u+∆ u )−( v + ∆ v ) ] − [ u−v ]
⇒ ∆ y =∆ u−∆ v

⇒
∆ y ∆ u−∆ v
=
∆x ∆x

⇒
∆ y ∆u ∆v
= −
∆ x ∆ x ∆x

36
⇒
∆v
lim ¿ ¿

∆ y lim ¿ [ ∆x − ∆ x ] =
∆u ∆x
lim ¿ − ❑¿
∆u ∆v ∆x ∆ x →0
∆x → 0 ❑¿

dy lim ¿
∆x
= ∆x →0
❑¿
= ∆ x→ 0 ❑
dx

⇒
dy du dv
= −
dx dx dx
Hence the proof
3. Derivative of the Product functions:
dy du dv
If y=u ( x )∗v (x ), then =v + u .
dx dx dx
Proof:
Let y=u∗v
⇒ y + ∆ y=( u+∆ u )∗( v+ ∆ v )
⇒ y + ∆ y=uv +v ∆ u+u ∆ v +∆ u ∆ v
⇒ ∆ y =( uv +v ∆ u+u ∆ v +∆ u ∆ v )−uv
⇒ ∆ y =v ∆ u+u ∆ v +∆ u ∆ v

⇒
∆ y v ∆ u+u ∆ v +∆ u ∆ v ∆u ∆v ∆u∆ v
= =v +u +
∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x

⇒
∆u∆ v
lim ¿ ¿
∆v ∆x
lim ¿ u + ❑¿

∆ y lim ¿ [ v ∆ x + u ∆ x + ]
∆u ∆x ∆x → 0
∆u ∆ v ∆u ∆v lim ¿ v ∆ x + ∆ x→0
❑¿
= ∆ x→0❑¿

dy
∆x
lim ¿ = ∆ x→0
❑¿
∆x
= ∆x →0 ❑
dx

⇒
∆u ∆v
∆ v lim ¿ ∆ x ¿
∆u lim ¿ + ∆ x →0 ❑ ¿

dy
∆x
lim ¿ +u ∆ x→0 ❑¿
∆x
=v ∆ x →0 ❑
dx

⇒
dy du dv lim ¿
∆u∆v
¿
=v + u . (Neglecting ∆x
❑)
dx dx dx ∆ x →0

Hence the proof

4. Derivative of the Quotient functions:

du dv
u v −u
If y= where u and v are functions of x , then dy dx dx
v =
dx v
2

Proof:
u
Let y=
v

37
⇒ ⇒ ∆ y= ⇒
u+∆ u u+∆ u u
y + ∆ y= −
v +∆ v v +∆ v v
v ∆ u−u ∆ v v ∆ u−u ∆ v
∆ y= = 2
v ( v +∆ v ) v +v ∆ v
v ∆ u−u ∆ v
⇒
2
∗1 v ∆ u − u ∆ v v ∆ u −u ∆ v
∆y v +v ∆ v ∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x
= = 2 = 2
∆x ∆x v +v ∆ v v +v ∆ v

⇒ [ ]
∆u ∆v du dv
v −u v −u
∆x ∆x dx dx
dy lim ¿ 2
v +v ∆ v
=
v
2
¿
(Neglecting v ∆ v )
= ∆ x→ 0 ❑
dx

5. Derivative of the composite functions:

dy I I
If y=f ( g(x ) ) then, =f ( g ( x ) )∗g (x)
dx
Proof;
Let y=f ( g(x ) ) and Let u=g (x) . . . (1)

⇒ y=f (u)
⇒ y + ∆ y=f (u+∆ u)
⇒ ∆ y =f ( u+ ∆ u )−f (u)
Dividing both sides by ∆ u (where ∆ u ≠ 0) we have
∆ y f ( u+∆ u )−f (u)
=
∆u ∆u
f (u +∆ u)−f (u)
∆ y lim ¿ ∆u
¿
lim ¿ = ∆u →0 ❑¿
∆u
∆ u→ 0 ❑
f ( u+ ∆u)−f (u)
∆y lim ¿ ¿

Hence dy = ∆ u
∆u
lim ¿ = ❑¿
. . . (2)
∆u →0

∆ u →0 ❑
du
And from eqn. (1) we have
u=g (x)
u+ ∆ u=g(x + ∆ x )
∆ u=g ( x+ ∆ x )−g(x )
Dividing both sides by ∆ x (where ∆ x ≠ 0) we have
∆ u g ( x +∆ x )−g(x )
=
∆x ∆x
g (x +∆ x )−f ( x)
∆ u lim ¿ ∆x
¿
lim ¿ = ∆x →0 ❑¿
∆x
∆ x →0 ❑

38
 g ( x+∆ x )−f ( x)
∆u lim ¿ ¿

Hence, du =
∆x
lim ¿ = ❑¿
. . . (3)
∆ x→0
∆x
∆ x →0 ❑
dx
From (2) and (3) we have

⇒
dy g( x +∆ x ) −f( x )

∗du lim ¿ ∆ y ∗
lim ¿ ¿
f (u + ∆u) −f( u) ∆x
∆u lim ¿ ∗ ❑¿
lim ¿ = ∆u ∆x → 0
❑¿

dy du
∆x ∆ u→ 0

∆ u→ 0 ❑¿
= = ∆u ∆u→0 ❑
dx dx

⇒
dy I I
=f ( g ( x ) )∗g (x)
dx
Differentiation of polynomial algebraic functions x n:
n
y=x
⇒
n
y + ∆ y=( x+ ∆ x )
⇒
n n
∆ y =( x+ ∆ x ) −x

⇒
n n
∆ y ( x+ ∆ x ) −x
=
∆x ∆x

⇒
n n
( x+ ∆ x ) −x
∆y lim ¿ ¿

dy lim ¿ ∆ x =
∆x
∆x →0 ❑¿
= ∆ x →0 ❑
dx
n
( x+ ∆ x ) −x n lim ¿
( n n n−1
x + ! x ∆ x+
1
n (n−1) n−2
2!
2 n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) n−3
x ( ∆x ) +
3!
3 n
)
x ( ∆x ) + ...+ ∆x – x
n

dy
∆x
lim ¿ = ∆ x→0
❑¿
∆x
= ∆x →0 ❑
dx

⇒
n n n−1 n ( n−1) n−2 2 n ( n−1 ) ( n−2 ) n−3 3 n n
x+ !
x ∆x + !
x (∆ x ) + !
x ( ∆ x ) +.. .+∆ x – x
1 2 3
dy lim ¿
∆x
¿
= ∆x →0 ❑
dx

⇒
n n−1 n ( n−1 ) n−2 2 n ( n−1 ) ( n −2 ) n−3 3 n
!
x ∆ x+ !
x (∆x ) + !
x ( ∆ x ) +. ..+∆ x
1 2 3
dy lim ¿
∆x
¿
= ∆ x→ 0 ❑
dx

⇒
∆x
( n n−1 n( n−1) n−2
1!
x +
2!
x ∆x +
n ( n−1) ( n −2 ) n−3
3!
2
x ( ∆ x ) +. ..+∆ xn−1
)
dy lim ¿ ¿
= ∆x
∆ x→ 0 ❑
dx

⇒
n n−1 n ( n−1) n−2 n ( n−1) ( n−2 ) n−3 2 n−1
x ( ∆ x ) +.. .+∆ x ¿
dy lim ¿ 1 !
x +
2
!
x ∆x +
3
!

= ∆ x →0 ❑
dx

⇒
dy n−1
=n x
dx

Example1: Differentiate the following functions using first principle

i ¿ y =2 x +3 x−4 , ii ¿ y=√ x iii ¿ y =x −2 x +2 x−1
2 3 2

Solution;

39
 2
i ¿ y =2 x +3 x−4 ,
⇒ 2
y + ∆ y=2 ( x + ∆ x ) +3 ( x +∆ x )−4 ,
⇒ ∆ y =[ 2 ( x+ ∆ x ) +3 ( x +∆ x )−4 ]−[ 2 x +3 x−4 ]
2 2

⇒ ∆ y =[ 2 x 2 + 4 x ∆ x +2 ( ∆ x )2 +3 x+ 3 ∆ x−4 ]−[ 2 x 2+ 3 x −4 ]
⇒
2 2 2
∆ y =2 x + 4 x ∆ x +2 ( ∆ x ) +3 x+3 ∆ x−4−2 x −3 x+ 4
⇒
2
∆ y =4 x ∆ x +2 ( ∆ x ) + 3 ∆ x=∆ x ( 4 x +2 ∆ x +3 )

⇒
∆ y ∆ x ( 4 x+ 2 ∆ x+3 )
= =4 x +2 ∆ x +3
∆x ∆x

⇒
∆y lim ¿4 x+ 2∆ x+ 3=4 x +3 ¿
dy lim ¿ ∆ x = ∆ x→0 ❑¿
= ∆x →0 ❑
dx
ii ¿ y= √ x

⇒ ⇒ ⇒
∆ y √ x +∆ x− √ x
y + ∆ y=√ x+ ∆ x ∆ y =√ x + ∆ x−√ x =
∆x ∆x

⇒
√x+ ∆ x−√ x = 1 ¿
∆y lim ¿
2√ x
dy lim ¿ ∆ x =
∆x
∆x→ 0❑¿
= ∆ x→ 0 ❑
dx

3 2
iii ¿ y =x −2 x +2 x−1
Solution: Similar to i ¿

Differentiation of a constant function:

Let y=c, where c is any arbitrary constant

⇒ y + ∆ y=c

⇒ ∆ y =c−c=0

⇒ ⇒
∆y
∆y dy lim ¿ ∆ x =0 ¿
=0 = ∆ x→ 0❑
∆x dx

⇒ Derivatives of any constant is zero

Differentiation of basic trigonometric functions: (sine and cosine)

⇒
Let y=sin x where x is in radian
y + ∆ y=sin ( x+ ∆ x )
⇒ ∆ y =sin ( x+ ∆ x )−sin x

40
⇒
∆ y sin ( x + ∆ x )−sin x
=
∆x ∆x

⇒
sin ( x+ ∆x )−sin x
∆y lim ¿ ¿

dy lim ¿ ∆ x =
∆x
∆ x→ 0 ❑¿
= ∆ x→ 0 ❑
dx

⇒
2cos ( 2 x+2∆x )sin( ∆2x ) = lim ¿
2cos
(
2x +∆ x
2 ) ( )
sin
∆x
2
¿

sin ( x+∆ x ) −sin x lim ¿

∆x
❑¿

dy
∆ x→0
∆x
lim ¿ = ∆ x→ 0 ❑¿
∆x
= ∆ x→ 0 ❑
dx
(
2 cos x+
∆x
) ( )
sin
∆x
1 lim ¿ ( 2 ) ( 2 ) =
∆x ∆x ( x+ ∆2x )∗sin( ∆2 x ) ¿

⇒
cos x+ sin lim ¿ cos
2 2 ∆x

∗ ❑¿
2
∆ x→0
∆x
∆x 2 2
lim ¿ = ∆ x→0 ❑¿
1
dy
= 2
∆x →0 ❑
dx
( )
⇒
∆x
sin
2
lim ¿ ¿
∆x

dy
=
lim ¿cos x+
2(
∆x
∗ ) 2
∆ x→0 ❑¿
❑
∆x →0
dx

⇒
∆x
Let =t as ∆ x →0 t →0
2

⇒
sin t
dy lim ¿cos ( x+t )∗ lim ¿
t
=cos x¿
❑¿
= t →0
t →0 ❑
dx

⇒
dy
=cos x
dx

ii ¿ Let y=cos x where x is in radian

⇒ y + ∆ y=cos ( x +∆ x )
⇒ ∆ y =cos ( x +∆ x )−cos x

⇒
∆ y cos ( x+ ∆ x )−cos x
=
∆x ∆x

⇒
cos ( x+∆ x )−cosin x
∆y lim ¿ ¿

dy lim ¿ ∆ x =
∆x
∆ x→ 0 ❑¿
= ∆ x→ 0 ❑
dx

⇒
−2sin ( 2 x+2∆x )sin ( ∆x2 )= lim ¿
−2sin
2x + ∆x
( 2 ) ( )
sin
∆x
2
¿

cos ( x+ ∆ x )− cos x lim ¿

∆x
❑¿

dy
∆x → 0
∆x
lim ¿ = ∆x →0 ❑¿
∆x
= ∆ x →0 ❑
dx
−2sin x+ ( ∆x
sin ) ( )
∆x
1 lim ¿ ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ¿
∆x ∆x

⇒
−sin x+ sin
2 2
∗ ∆x
∆x 2 2
lim ¿ = ∆ x→0❑ ¿
1
dy
= 2
∆x →0 ❑
dx

lim ¿sin
( x+ ∆2x )∗sin ( ∆2x ) ¿
∆x
2
¿− ∆ x →0 ❑

41
 ( ∆2x ) ¿
⇒
sin
lim ¿

lim ¿ sin ( x+ )
∆x
∆x
dy
2
∗ ∆ x→0 ❑¿
2
=− ∆ x →0 ❑
dx

⇒
∆x
Let =t as ∆ x →0 t →0
2

⇒
sin t
dy lim ¿ sin ( x+t ) ∗
lim ¿
t
=sin x¿
❑¿
=− t →0
t→0 ❑
dx

⇒
dy
=−sin x
dx
Differentiation of natural exponential functions:
x
Let y=e
⇒ y + ∆ y=e
( x+∆ x )

⇒ ∆ y =e ( x+∆ x )−e x =e x e ∆ x −e x =e x ( e∆ x −1 )

⇒
∆ y e ( e −1 )
x ∆x
=
∆x ∆x

⇒
lim ¿
(e ∆x −1 )¿
x ∆x lim ¿e x ∗ ∆x ❑¿
e ∗( e −1 )
e (e −1) lim ¿
x ∆x ∆ x→0
= ❑¿

∆ y lim ¿
∆x ∆ x→0
= ❑¿

dy
∆ x →0
∆x
lim ¿ = ∆x →0 ❑¿
∆x
= ∆ x →0 ❑
dx
( e∆ x −1)
lim ¿ ¿
x ∆x
¿e ∗ ∆ x →0 ❑
But from example 1, under limits we have that
2 3 4 5
x x x x x x
e =1+ !
+ ! + ! + ! + ! ...
1 2 3 4 5

⇒
2 3 4 5
∆x ∆ x (∆ x ) (∆ x ) (∆ x ) (∆ x )
e =1+ ! + ! + ! + ! + ! . ..
1 2 3 4 5

⇒
2 3 4 5
∆x ∆ x (∆ x ) ( ∆ x ) ( ∆ x ) (∆ x )
e −1= ! + ! + ! + ! + ! . . .
1 2 3 4 5

⇒
2 3 4 5
e ∆ x −1 1 ∆ x ( ∆ x ) ( ∆ x ) ( ∆ x ) ( ∆ x )
= !+ ! + ! + ! + ! + . ..
∆x 1 2 3 4 5 6

⇒
[ ]
2 3 4 5
1 ∆x ( ∆x ) ( ∆x ) ( ∆x ) ( ∆ x )
(e ∆x −1 ) lim ¿ !+
1 2
! +
3
! +
4
! +
5
! +
6
... = 1 ¿
lim ¿ = ∆ x→0 ❑¿
∆x
∆ x →0 ❑
Therefore
( e∆ x −1)
dy x lim ¿
x x
=e ∗1=e ¿
∆x
=e ∗ ∆ x→ 0 ❑
dx

42
Differentiation of logarithmic functions:
Let y=log a x

⇒ y + ∆ y=log a ( x +∆ x )
⇒ ∆ y =log a ( x +∆ x )−log a x

⇒ [ ] [ ]
x+ ∆ x ∆x
∆ y =log a =log a 1+
x x

⇒ [ ]
∆x
∆ y =log a 1+
x
x
⇒
∗1
∆y x
=
∆ x ∆x
log a 1+
∆x
x [ ]
1
⇒
∗x
∆y x
=
∆x ∆x
log a 1+
∆x
x [ ]
⇒
[ ]
x
∆y 1 ∆x ∆x
= ∗log a 1+
∆x x x
[ ]
⇒
x

[
lim ¿ log 1 +
]
∆x ∆x
¿

[ ] ]=
a x

[
x 1
1 ∆x ∆x
lim ¿ ∗
x ∆ x→ 0
❑¿

∆ y lim ¿ ∗log a 1+ ❑¿
∆ x →0

dy
x x
lim ¿ = ∆x →0
❑¿
∆x
= ∆ x →0 ❑
dx

⇒
1
dy lim ¿ x ∗log ¿¿ a
= ∆ x →0❑
dx

⇒
dy 1
= ∗log a ¿
dx x

=n, ⇒
x ∆x 1
Now let = , as ∆ x →0 ,n → ∞
∆x x n

⇒ ⇒
dy 1 dy 1
= ∗log a ¿ = ∗log a e
dx x dx x

Example1: Given that, f ( x )=4−5 x+ 2 x 3−2 x 5 , Show that f I ( 2 )=f I (−2)

Solution:

f ( x )=4−5 x+ 2 x 3−2 x 5

⇒ I 2
f ( x )=−5+6 x −10 x
4

⇒
I 2 4
f ( 2 )=−5+ 6 ( 2 ) −10 ( 2 ) =−141

43
 I 2 4
f (−2 )=−5+ 6 (−2 ) −10 (−2 ) =−141

Hence f I ( 2 )=f I (−2 )

Example2: Find the derivative of the following functions

ii ¿ y=( x 2−2 x +1 ) 2x
4 x 3
i ¿ y =x e iii ¿ y =x log 5 x
Solution:
4
i ¿ y =x e
x
ii ¿ y=( x 2−2 x +1 ) 2x

⇒ ⇒
dy dy
=2 ( x −1 ) 2 + 2 ln 2 ( x −2 x +1 )
3 x 4 x x x 2
=4 x e + x e
dx dx

⇒ ⇒
dy dy
=( 2 ( x−1 ) +ln 2 ( x −2 x+1 ) ) 2
3 x 2 x
=x ( 4+ x ) e
dx dx

3
iii ¿ y =x log 5 x

⇒
dy 2 3 1
=3 x log 5 x+ x log 5 e
dx x

⇒
dy 2 2
=3 x log 5 x+ x log 5 e
dx

⇒
dy 2
=x ( 3 log 5 x +log 5 e )
dx

Example3: Find the derivative of the following functions

x x 3
i ¿ y =e sin x ii ¿ y=2 ln x iii ¿ y =x tan x
Solution:
x x
i ¿ y =e sin x ii ¿ y=2 ln x

⇒ ⇒
dy x x dy x 1 x
=e sin x + e cos x =2 ln 2 ln x+ 2
dx dx x

⇒ ⇒ ( )
dy x dy 1
=( sin x+ cos x ) e = ln 2 ln x + 2 x
dx dx x

⇒
dy
=( 2 ( x−1 ) +ln 2 ( x −2 x+1 ) ) 2
2 x
dx
3
iii ¿ y =x tan x

⇒
dy 2 3 2
=3 x tan x + x sec x
dx
dy
=x ( 3 tan x+ x sec x )
2 2
⇒
dx

44
Exercise: Find the derivative of the following functions
x
i ¿ y =7 ( x −4 x + 2 x−3 ) e ii ¿ y=2 csc x iii ¿ y =x sin x log 5 x
x 5 3 x

Example5: Find the derivative of the following functions

x
e 2
x
ln x
i ¿ y= 3 ii ¿ y= iii ¿ y = 2
x ln x 1+ x
Solution:
x x
e 2
i ¿ y= 3 ii ¿ y=
x ln x

⇒ ⇒
2 x x
dy x e −3 x e x ( x−3 ) e ( x−3 ) e
3 x 2 x
= 2
= =
dx ( x3) x6 x4
x
x 2
2 ln2 ln x− x
dy x 2 ( x ln 2 ln x−1 )
= 2
= 2
dx ln x x ln x
ln x
iii ¿ y = 2
1+ x
1
⇒
(1+ x ¿¿ 2)−2 x ln x
dy x
= ¿
dx 2
( 1+ x 3 )

Exercise: Find the derivative of the following functions

x x
x−1 1−e 1−10
i ¿ y= ii ¿ y= iii ¿ y =
log 2 x 1+e
x
1+10
x

Example7: Find the derivative of the following functions

( 1−x )
3
5 x
i ¿ y =( x + 4 ) ii ¿ y = iii ¿ y =√ 1−x 2
2

Solution:
5
i ¿ y =( x + 4 ) Let t=x 2+ 4
2

⇒ y= ( t ) ⇒
dt
5
=2 x
dx

⇒
dy 4
=5 t =5 ( x + 4 )
4 2
dt

45
⇒
dy
∗dt
dy dt 4
= =5 ( x 2+ 4 ) ∗2 x
dx dx

⇒
dy 4
=10 x ( x +4 )
2
dx

( )
3
x x
ii ¿ y= Let t=
1−x 1−x

⇒ y= ( t ) ⇒
dt ( 1−x )+ x 1
3
= =
dx ( 1−x ) 2
( 1−x )2

⇒ ( )
2
dy 2 x
=3 t =3
dt 1−x

( 1−x )
2
x
⇒
dy
∗dt ∗1
dy dt
= =3
dx dx ( 1−x )2

( )
2
x
⇒
∗1
dy 1−x
=3
dx ( 1−x )2

iii ¿ y =√ 1−x 2

Let t=1−x 2
1
⇒ y =( 1−x )
2 2

⇒
1 dt
⇒ y =( t )
2 =−2 x
dx

⇒
−1
dy 1 2 1 1 1 dt
= t = 1= = =−2 x
dt 2 2 √ t 2 √ 1−x 2 dx
2t2
dy
⇒
∗dt
dy dt 1
= = ∗(−2 x )
dx dx 2 √1−x
2

Example8: Find the derivative of the following functions

( )
4

( )
1
x 2 1
i ¿ y =5 2
x +2
ii ¿ y= x + −5 x
x
3
√
5 2 3
iii ¿ y = ( 3 x +4 x−5 )

Solution:

46
 ( )
4
x x
i ¿ y =5 2 Let t= 2
x +2 x +2
⇒ ⇒
4
y=5 ( t )
2 2
dt (x +2)−2 x x 2 +2−2 x 2
= 2
= 2
dx ( x 2+2 ) ( x 2 +2 )

⇒ ⇒
dt ( 2−x )
( )
3 2
dy 3 x
=20 t =20 2 =
dt x +2 dx ( x 2 +2 )2

( x +2 )
3
x
⇒
dy ∗( 2−x )
2
∗dt 2
dy dt
= =20 2
dx dx ( x 2+2 )

( )
3
x
⇒
∗( 2−x )
2
2
dy x +2
=20 2
dx ( x 2 +2 )

( )
1
2 1 2 1
ii ¿ y= x + −5 x 3
Let t=x + −5 x
x x

⇒ ⇒
1
3
y= ( t )
dt 1
=2 x− 2 −5
dx x

⇒ ⇒
−2

( )
−2
dy 1 3 1 2 1 dt 1
= ( t ) = x + −5 x 3 =2 x− 2 −5
dt 3 3 x dx x
dy
⇒
∗dt
( ) ∗(2 x− x1 −5)
−2
dy dt 1 1
= = x 2+ −5 x 3
dx dx 3 x 2

⇒ ( ) ∗( 2 x− x1 −5)
−2
dy 1 2 1
= x + −5 x 3
2
dx 3 x

√
5
iii ¿ y = ( 3 x +4 x−5 ) =( 3 x + 4 x−5 )
2 3 2 5 Let t=3 x 2+ 4 x−5

⇒ ⇒
3
5
y= ( t )
dt
=6 x+ 4
dx

47
⇒
−2 −2
dy 3 5 3
= ( t ) = ( 3 x + 4 x−5 )
2 5
dt 5 5

⇒
dy
∗dt −2
dy dt 3
= = ( 3 x +4 x−5 ) 5 ∗( 6 x + 4 )
2
dx dx 5

⇒
−2
dy 3
= ( 3 x 2+ 4 x−5 ) 5 ∗( 6 x +4 )
dx 5

Example9: Find the derivative of the following functions

i ¿ y =ln ( sin x ) ii ¿ y=sin ( 2 x 3 ) iii ¿ y =ln

( x1 )
2

Solution:
i ¿ y =ln ( sin x ) Let t=sin x

⇒ y=ln t ⇒
dt
=cos x
dx

⇒
dy 1 1
= =
dt t sin x

⇒
dy
∗dt
dy dt 1 cos x
= = ∗cos x= =cot x
dx dx sin x sin x

⇒
dy
=cot x
dx

ii ¿ y=sin ( 2 x 3 ) Let t=2 x

3

⇒ y=sint ⇒
dt 2
=6 x
dx

⇒ ⇒
dy dt
=cos t=cos ( 2 x )
3 2
=6 x
dt dx

⇒
dy
∗dt
dy dt
= =cos ( 2 x 3 )∗6 x 2
dx dx

iii ¿ y =ln
( x1 )
2 Let t=
1
x
2

⇒ y=ln t ⇒
dt −2
=
dx x 3

48
⇒
dy 1 2
= =x
dt t
dy
⇒
∗dt
dy dt
dx
=
dx
−2 −2
=x 2∗ 3 =
x x ( )
Example10: Find the derivative of the following functions

√
i ¿ y =3
1
1+ x 2
ii ¿ y=
√ 1−x
1+ x
iii ¿ y =sec 2 ( 4 x3 −1 )

Solution:

√ ( )
1
31 1 1
i ¿ y= 2
= 3
Let t= 2
1+ x 1+ x 2 1+ x

⇒ y=t 3 ⇒
1 dt −2 x
=
dx ( 1+ x 2 )2

⇒ ⇒
−2

( )
dy 1 3 1 1 −2
dt −2 x
= t = 3 =
dt 3 3 1+ x 2 dx ( 1+ x 2 )2

dy
⇒
∗dt
( ) ( (1+ x ) )
−2
dy dt 1 1 −2 x
= = 3
∗
dx dx 3 1+ x 2 2 2

⇒ ( ) ∗( (1+−2xx) )
−2
dy 1 1
= 3
dx 3 1+ x 2 2 2

√ ( )
1
1−x 1−x 1−x
ii ¿ y= = 2 Let t=
1+ x 1+ x 1+ x

⇒ y=t 2 ⇒
1 dt −2
=
dx ( 1+ x )2

⇒
−1

( )
−1
dy 1 2 1 1−x
= t = 2
dt 2 2 1+ x
dy
⇒
∗dt
( ) ( ) ( ) (( ) )
−1 −1
dy dt 1 1−x −2 1−x −1
= = 2
∗ = 2
∗
dx dx 2 1+ x ( 1+ x ) 2
1+ x 1+ x
2

⇒ ( ) ∗( ( 1+−1x ) )
−1
dy 1−x
= 2
2
dx 1+ x

49
 2
iii ¿ y =sec 2 ( 4 x3 −1 )=( sec ( 4 x3 −1 ) ) Let t=sec ( 4 x −1 ) and u=4 x 3−1
3

⇒ y=t
2
⇒ t=secu ⇒ 3
u=4 x −1

⇒ ⇒ ⇒
dy dt du
=2 t=2 ( secu )=2 sec ( 4 x −1 )
3 2
=secu tan u =12 x
dt du dx

⇒ ⇒
dy dt
=2 sec ( 4 x −1 ) =sec ( 4 x −1 ) tan ( 4 x −1 )
3 3 3
dt du

dy
∗dt
⇒
dt
∗du
dy du
= =2 sec ( 4 x 3−1 )∗sec ( 4 x 3−1 ) tan ( 4 x 3−1 )∗12 x 2
dx dx

¿ 24 x 2 sec ( 4 x3 −1 )∗sec ( 4 x 3−1 ) tan ( 4 x 3−1 )

Exercises: Find the derivative of the following functions

ii ¿ y=ln ( √ 1−x ) iii ¿ y =√1+ sin2 x iv ¿

−cos 3 x 2
i ¿ y =e
1 5
iv ¿ y= v ¿ y=ln 4 ( sin x ) vi¿ y= ( 1+ ln ( sin x ) )
1+cos 4 x

vii ¿ y=cos ( ln 2 x ) viii¿ y =e √ 1− x

1+ x

Differentiation of Implicit functions:

Often a function f (x , y ) is specified by an equation in x and y , and that y is not the subject of
the equation. If such situation exists we say that y is an implicit function; by using the rules of
dy
differentiation the differential coefficients may be found without making y the subject of
dx
dy
the equation. Differentiate both sides with respect to x and make the subject of the
dx
equation.

Example1: Find the derivative of the following functions

3 3 2 2 3 3 3 2
i ¿ x + y =3 xy ii ¿ x + y =x+ y+ 8 iii ¿ x + y =x y −1

Solution:

50
 3 3
i ¿ x + y =3 xy
Differentiating with respect to x we have
2 2 dy dy
3 x +3 y =3 y+3 x
dx dx
dy
Making the subject we have
dx

dy 3 ( y −x ) ( y −x )
2 2
= =
dx 3 ( y 2 −x ) 3 ( y 2−x )

2 2
ii ¿ x + y =x+ y+ 8
Differentiating with respect to x we have
dy dy
2 x+ 2 y =1+
dx dx
dy
Making the subject we have
dx
dy ( 1−2 x )
=
dx (2 y−1 )

3 3 3 2
iii ¿ x + y =x y −1
Differentiating with respect to x , we have
2 2 dy 2 2 3 dy
3 x +3 y =3 x y + x 2 y
dx dx
dy
Making the subject we have
dx
2 2
dy 3 x y −3 x
2
3 x 2 ( y 2−1 )
= 2 =
dx 3 y −2 x 3 y y ( 3 y −2 x 3 )

Example2: Find the derivative of the following functions

x y x+ y y x x
i ¿2 + 2 =2 ii ¿ x = y iii ¿ y =x
Solution:
x y x+ y x y x y
i ¿2 + 2 =2 ⇒2 +2 =2 2
Differentiating with respect to x we have

(
2 x ln 2+ 2 y ln 2
dy
dx ) (
=( 2x ln 2 ) 2 y +2x 2 y ln 2
dy
dx )
51
 dy
Making the subject we have
dx

dy 2 ln2 ( 2 −1 ) 2 ( 2 −1 )
x y x y
= y =
dx 2 ln 2 ( 1−2 x ) 2 y ( 1−2x )

y x
ii ¿ x = y
Taking natural logarithm on both sides we have
y
ln x =ln y
x
⇒ y ln x=x ln y
Differentiating with respect to x we have

( ln x )
dy y
+ =ln y +
dx x
x dy
y dx ()
dy
Making the subject we have
dx

dy
=
( ln y− )
y
x
dx
( ln x− xy )
x
iii ¿ y =x

Taking natural logarithm on both sides we have

ln y =ln x
x
⇒ ln y =x ln x
Differentiating with respect to x we have

=ln x+ 1 ⇒
1 dy dy
= y (1+ ln x )
y dx dx

⇒
dy x
=x (1+ ln x )
dx

Example3: Find the derivative of the following functions

sin x cos x ln x
i ¿ y =3 ii ¿ y=( sin x ) iii ¿ y =x
Solution:
sin x
i ¿ y =3
Taking natural logarithm on both sides we have
ln y =ln 3
sin x
⇒ ln y =sin x ln 3
Differentiating with respect to x we have

52
 1
∗dy
y
=cos x ln3
dx
dy
Making the subject we have
dx

⇒
dy dy sin x
= y ( cos x ln3 ) =3 ( cos x ln 3 )
dx dx
cos x
ii ¿ y=( sin x )
Taking natural logarithm on both sides we have
ln y =ln ( sin x )
cos x
⇒ ln y =cos x ln ( sin x )
Differentiating with respect to x we have
1
∗dy
y
dx
=−sin x ln ( sin x ) +cos x
cos x
sin x ( )
dy
Making the subject we have
dx
dy
dx (
= y −sin x ln ( sin x )+ cos x
cos x
sin x ( ))
= y ( −sin x ln ( sin x ) +cos x cot x )

⇒
dy cos x
=( sin x ) ( −sin x ln ( sin x ) +cos x cot x )
dx

ln x
iii ¿ y =x
Taking natural logarithm on both sides we have
ln y =ln x
ln x
⇒ ln y =ln x ( ln x )=ln x
2

Differentiating with respect to x we have

1
∗dy
y 2
= ln x
dx x
dy
Making the subject we have
dx

( ) ⇒ ( )
dy 2 dy ln x 2
= y ln x =x ln x
dx x dx x

Example4: Find the derivative of the following functions

2 2
x
i ¿ y =( x+ 1 )
x ii ¿ y=( ln x ) iii ¿ y =x x

53
Solution:
2
x
i ¿ y =( x+ 1 )
Taking natural logarithm on both sides we have

⇒
2 2
ln y =ln ( x+1 )
x ln y = ln ( x +1 )
x
Differentiating with respect to x we have
1
∗dy
y
dx
−2
= 2 ln ( x+1 ) +
x
2 1
x x +1 ( )
dy
Making the subject we have
dx

( ( )) ⇒ ( ( ))
2
dy −2 2 1 dy x −2 2 1
= y 2 ln ( x +1 ) + =( x+ 1 ) ln ( x +1 ) +
dx x x x+1 dx x
2
x x+1
x
ii ¿ y=( ln x )
Taking natural logarithm on both sides we have
x
ln y =ln ( ln x )
⇒ ln y =x ln ( ln x )
Differentiating with respect to x we have
1
∗dy
y
dx
=ln ( ln x )+ x
1
x ln x ( )
=ln ( ln x ) +
1
ln x
dy
Making the subject we have
dx

⇒ ( ) ⇒ ( )
dy 1 dy 1
= y ln ( ln x ) + =( ln x )x ln ( ln x ) +
dx ln x dx ln x
2

iii ¿ y =x x
Taking natural logarithm on both sides we have
⇒
2
2
ln y =ln x x ln y =x ln x
Differentiating with respect to x we have
1 dy
=2 x ln x+ x=x ( 2 ln x +1 )
y dx
dy
Making the subject we have
dx

54
 ⇒
dy dy x 2

= y ( 2 x ln x+ x ) =x ( 2 x ln x+ x )
dx dx
Exercises:
1. Find the derivative of the following functions
sin x x

i ¿ y =( x + 1 )
2 sin3 x
ii ¿ y=a iii ¿ y =x x
1
v ¿ y=
n 2

iv ¿ y=e x x vi¿ y=10 1−sin 3 x

3
1 2

viii ¿ y=5 e− x
2 x
vii ¿ y=( x )
x ix ¿ y=x 2

Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions:

i ¿ Given that
y=arc sin x
⇒ sin y=x ⇒ 2
sin y=x
2

Differentiating with respect to x we have

⇒
dy
cos y =1
dx

⇒ since sin2 y +cos 2 y=1 ⇒

dy 1 1
= =
dx cos y √ 1−sin2 y cosy =√ 1−sin2 y

⇒
dy 1
=
dx √ 1−x 2

ii ¿ Given that
y=arc cos x
⇒ cos y=x ⇒ 2
cos y =x
2

Differentiating with respect to x we have

⇒
dy
−sin y =1
dx

⇒ since sin2 y +cos 2 y=1 ⇒

dy −1 1
= =
dx sin y √ 1−cos 2 y siny=√ 1−cos2 y

⇒
dy −1
=
dx √ 1−x 2
iii ¿ Given that

55
 y=arc tan x
⇒ tan y=x ⇒ 2
tan y =x
2

Differentiating with respect to x we have

⇒
2 dy
sec y =1
dx

⇒
dy 1 1
= 2 = since, 1+ tan 2 y =sec 2 y
dx sec y 1+ tan2 y

⇒
dy 1
=
dx 1+ x 2

Example1: Find the derivative of the following inverse trigonometric

functions

i ¿ y =arcsin ⁡ ( 2x ) ii ¿ y=arc cos ( 1x ) iii ¿ y =arc tan ( ln x )

Solution:

i ¿ y =arc sin ( x2 )
⇒ ⇒ ()
2 2
x 2 x x
sin y= sin y= =
2 2 4
Differentiating with respect to x we have

⇒
dy 1
cos y =
dx 2

⇒ ⇒
dy 1 1
= =
dx 2 cos y 2 √ 1−sin2 y since sin2 y +cos 2 y=1 cosy =√ 1−sin2 y

⇒
dy 1 1 1 1
= = = =

√ √ √ 4−x √ 4−x 2
dx 2
x 4−x
2 2
2 1− 2 2
4 4 2

ii ¿ y=arc cos ( 1x )
⇒ ⇒
1 2 1
cos y= cos y = 2
x x
Differentiating with respect to x we have

⇒
dy −1
−sin y =
dx x 2

56
⇒ since sin2 y +cos 2 y=1 ⇒
dy −1 −1
= = siny=√ 1−cos y
2
dx x 2 sin y x 2 √1−cos2 y
dy −1 −1 −1
⇒
= = =

√ √ x −1 x √ x 2−1
dx 2 1 2
2
x 1− 2
x
x x

iii ¿ y =arc tan ( ln x )

⇒ tan y=ln x ⇒ 2
tan y =ln x
2

Differentiating with respect to x we have

⇒
2 dy 1
sec y =
dx x

⇒
dy 1 1
= = since sec 2 y =1+ tan2 y
dx x sec 2 y x (1+ tan2 y)

⇒
dy 1
=
dx x ( 1+ln 2 x )

Example2: Find the derivative of the following inverse trigonometric

functions

( ) ( x−1
x +1 ) ( 1−x )
2
x −1 2x
i ¿ y =arcsin ⁡ 2
ii ¿ y=arc cos iii ¿ y =arc tan 2
x
Solution:

( )
2
x −1
i ¿ y =arc sin 2
x

⇒ ⇒
( )
2 2 2 4 2
x −1 2 x −1 x −2 x +1
sin y= 2
sin y= 2
= 4
x x x
Differentiating with respect to x we have

⇒
dy 2
cos y =
dx x 3

⇒
dx x cos y x √ 1−sin2 y since sin y +cos y=1 ⇒
dy 2 2
= 3 = 3 cosy =√ 1−sin y
2 2 2

dy 2 2 2 2
⇒
= = = =

√ √ √2 x −1 x √ 2 x 2−1
dx 3 x 4 −2 x2 +1 3 2 x2 −1 3
2

x 1− 4
x 4
x 2
x x x

57
ii ¿ y=arc cos ( x−1
x +1 )

⇒ ⇒
x−1 2 ( x−1 )2
cos y= cos y = 2
x+1 ( x +1 )
Differentiating with respect to x we have

⇒
dy 2
−sin y =
dx ( x +1 )2
−2 −2
⇒
∗1 ∗1
siny=√ 1−cos2 y
2
dy ( x +1 ) ( x +1 )2 , since
= =
dx sin y √ 1−cos y 2

−2 −2 −2
∗1 ∗1 ∗( x +1 )
⇒
dy ( x +1 )2 ( x+ 1 )2 ( x+1 )2 −1
= = = =

√ √
dx ( x−1 )
2
4x 2 √x ( x+1 ) √ x
1−
( x +1 )
2 ( x+ 1 )2

iii ¿ y =arc tan

( 2x
1−x
2 )
⇒ ⇒
2
2x 2 4x
tan y= 2
tan y = 2
1−x ( 1−x 2)
Differentiating with respect to x we have
2 ( 1+ x 2) 2 ( 1+ x2 )
⇒ ⇒
dy 2 ( 1−x ) ∗1 ∗1
2
sec 2 y = dy ( 1−x )
2 2
( 1−x 2 )
2
dx ( 1−x 2 )2 = =
2 2
dx sec y (1+ tan y)
since sec 2 y =1+ tan 2 y

2 ( 1+ x 2 ) 2 ( 1+ x 2 ) 2
∗( 1−x )
2
∗1
⇒
2 2 2 2
dy ( 1−x ) ( 1−x ) 2 ( 1+ x 2) 2 ( 1+ x 2)
= = = =

( )
2 2 2 4
dx 4x
2
( 1−x 2 ) + 4 x 2 ( 1−x 2 ) + 4 x 2 1+2 x + x
1+ 2
( 1−x 2 )
2 ( 1+ x 2) 2
¿ =
( 1+ x ) ( 1+ x )
2 2
( 1+ x 2)
Example3: Find the derivative of the following inverse trigonometric
functions

i ¿ y =arcsin ⁡
( √ ) ii ¿ y=arc cos (2 x −1)
x
1−x 2
2
iii ¿ y =arc tan ( x−1
x )

58
Solution:

i ¿ y =arc sin
( x
√1−x 2 )
⇒ ⇒
x x
2
sin y= 2
sin y=
√ 1−x 2 1−x
2

Differentiating with respect to x we have

⇒
dy −x
cos y =
dx √ 1−x 2

⇒
dy −x −x
= =
dx √ 1−x 2 cos y √ 1−x 2 √ 1−sin 2 y since cosy =√ 1−sin2 y

dy −x −x −x −x
⇒
= = = =

√ √ √ √ 1−2 x 2
dx x2
1−2 x 2 2
√1−x 2
1− 2
√1−x2
2
( 1−x ) 1−2 x2
2

1−x 1−x 1−x

ii ¿ y=arc cos ( 2 x 2−1 )

⇒ ⇒
2
cos y =( 2 x −1 )
2 2 2
cos y=2 x −1
Differentiating with respect to x we have

⇒
dy
−sin y =4 x
dx

⇒
dy −4 x −4 x
= =
dx sin y √ 1−cos2 y , since siny=√ 1−cos2 y

⇒
dy −4 x −4 x −4 x −2
= = = = 2
dx 1−( 2 x −1 ) √ 4 x ( x +1 ) 2 x √ x +1 √ x +1
√ 2 2 2 2 2

iii ¿ y =arc tan ( x−1

x )

⇒ ⇒
x −1 ( x−1 )2
tan y= tan2 y =
x x2
Differentiating with respect to x we have

⇒
2 dy 1
sec y =
dx x 2
1 1
⇒
2
∗1 2
∗1
dy x x since sec 2 y =1+ tan2 y
= =
dx sec 2 y (1+ tan2 y )

59
 1 1 2
∗1 ∗x
⇒
2 2
dy x x 1
= = 2 = 2

( )
dx ( x−1 )
2
2 x −2 x+1 2 x −2 x +1
1+ 2
x

Exercises:
1 ¿Find the derivative of the following inverse trigonometric functions

( )
arcsin ⁡( 4 x ) 1
3
1+ arc tan x
i ¿ y= ii ¿ y=arc cos iii ¿ y =
1−4 x x +1 √ 1+ x 2

60
 SECTION C
Integration: Fundamental theorem of calculus, Methods of integration: Change of
variables, integration by parts, Trigonometric substitution, Integration of rational algebraic
functions using partial fraction, Numerical Integration ( Mid-point rule, Trapezoidal rule,
Simpson rule ).
Integration as inverse of differentiation:
Introduction: If the derivative of a function is given, can we found the function having this
derivative? Most of the time, the answer is yes. We know that the derivative of 3 x is 3. If we
wish to find the function whose derivative is 3, 3 x is a correct answer. But we immediately
realize that 3 is also the derivative of 3 x+ 2, 3 x+ 5, and in fact 3 x+ C where C is any arbitrary
constant. It is clear then that if we wish to find the function whose derivative is 3, 3 x+ C is the
most general answer, where C will be determine, if we are given further information
The process of obtaining a function whose derivative is a given expression is called integration.
Thus, integration is the reverse of differentiation.

Example
1. Find a function F ( x ) , such that its derivative is:

i ¿2 x 4
ii ¿ 5 x iii ¿ 3 x
2

Solution:
2
i ¿ F ( x ) =x +C , where C is a constant of integration
5
ii ¿ F ( x )=x +C , where C is a constant of Integration
3
iii ¿ F ( x ) =x +C , were C is a constant of Integration

Primitive functions:
dy 1
When we studied how to differentiate, you used symbols such as ∨ y ( x) , to represent the
dx
derivative of y with respect to x . In integration, we shall use ∫ ydx to indicate the integral of y
with respect to x . Using this sign of integration, we observe that we have accepted that

∫ 3 dx =3 x + c, that is the function whose derivative with respect to x equals 3 is 3 x+ c were c

is any constant.

61
In general ∫ f ( x ) dx=F ( x )+ c means that F (x)+c is a function whose derivation with respect
to x is f (x). For any particular value of that c , c 1 for instance, F ( x ) +c 1is called a primitive
function for f (x) and c is called constants of integration. The symbol is called the integral sign
or sign of integration f (x) is called the integrand and the process of finding F (x) is called the
integration.
The symbols ∫ f (x )dx is the integral of f (x)with respect to x

Example:
In each of the following write the integrand and primitive function for the integrand
i ¿∫ ( 3 x 2 +2 ) dx ii ¿∫ ( 4 x+ x 2 ) dx iii ¿ ∫ ( 10+ x ) dx

( )
1
1 2
iv ¿ ∫ 4 x dx v ¿∫ vi¿ ∫ 10 x dx
4 −2
x dx
2
Solution:
The integrand is 3 x 2+ 2 and the primitive function for the integral is x 3 +2 x +c

Properties of primitive functions:

From the above examples we observed two things; first, integration involves establishing the
function whose derivative is given. Secondly, the results can be checked by differentiation.

1. If two functions of x had the same derivation in an interval a< x< b , then their difference is a
constant in that interval.Conversely, if the difference of two function is conversely, then they
have the same derivative provided that the derivative exist.

Proof:
Suppose G1 ( x ) and G2 ( x ) are two functions that have the same derivative in the internal
d d
a ≤ x ≤ b , Then
dx
[ G 1 (x) ]= [ G2( x) ] or G1 ( x ) =G2 (x)
dx
Let h ( x )=G1 ( x )−G2 (x)
We need to show that G(x ) is a constant.
From differentiation we have
I 1 1 1 1
h ( x ) =G1 (x)−G2 (x )But G1 ( x ) =G2 ( x )=f ( x ) say
1 1 1
Thenh ( x )=G1 ( x ) −G 2 ( x )=f ( x ) −f ( x )=0

62
i.e. h ( x )=0 Since the derivative of h( x) with respect to x is zero, it follows that h( x) is a
constant.
The Indefinite integrals:
We have mentioned that integration is the reverse of differentiation. In other words, given
dy 1
=f (x ) . . . (1)
dx
We are to find the function F (x) such that when we differentiate f (x), we obtain f (x). If we
can find such F (x), then it is called an indefinite integral of f (x). F (x) is also called an anti-
derivative of f ( x ) . because it is obtained by reversing the process of differentiation.
We observe that eqn.(1) can be used to obtain y .

⇒
dy
∫ dx dx=∫ f I (x )dx y=∫ f ( x)dx=F ( x ) +c
I
. . . (2)

Observe that in eqn.(2) we have added a constant of integration as there are many functions
whose derivative equals f (x). Again F ( x ) +c is called indefinite integral of f (x). The word
indefinite is used because c can take any value.

Properties of indefinite integrals

Theorem1: suppose that f 1 ( x) and f 2 ( x) have anti-derivatives. Then for any constant a and b

∫ [ a f 1 ( x )+ b f 2 (x )] dx=a∫ f 1(x )dx+ b∫ f 2 (x ) dx

Proof:
d d
We have that
dx
∫ f 1(x ) dx=f 1( x) and
dx
∫ f 2( x) dx=f 2 (x) it then follows that
d
dx
[ a∫ f 1 (x)dx +b ∫ f 2 (x)dx ]=a f 1 ( x )+ b f 2 (x )
Note: These results are usually applied when integrating a function by breaking the function up
into the sum of parts whose integral can easily be obtained
By reversing any derivative formulae, we get corresponding integration formulae. The following
table contains a number of important formulas. The proofs of these are left as straight forward,
yet important exercise.

A brief Table of Integration

S/No f (x) ∫ f (x )dx S/No f (x) ∫ f (x )dx
63
 1 n
x n≠−1 x
n+1
12 1 −1
sin x +c
+c
n+1 √1−x 2
2 1 ln x +c 13 −1 −1
cos x +c
x √1−x 2
3 e
x x
e +c 14 1 −1
tan x + c
2
1+ x
4 −x
e
−x
−e + c 15 ln x x ln x −x+ c

5 sin x −cos x +c 16 sin x

2
1 1
x+ sin x cos x +c
2 2

6 cos x sin x +c 17 cos x

2
1 1
x+ sin x cos x +c
2 2

7 tan x −ln|cos x|+c 18 tan x

2
tan x− x+ c

8 csc x ln |csc x−cot x|+ c 19 csc x

2
−cot x +c

9 sec x ln |sec x+ tan x|+c 20 sec x

2
tan x +c

10 cot x −ln|sin x|+ c 21 cot x

2

11 csc x cot x −csc x +c 22 csc x cot x sec x +c

Techniques of integration:
a ¿ Direct integration :
Example1: Evaluate the following integrals

1 1
i ¿∫ x dx
5
ii ¿∫ dx iii ¿ ∫ √ x dx iv ¿ ∫ 3 dx
x
3
√x
Solution;
5+1 6
x x 1 6
i ¿∫ x dx=
5
+ c= +c= x +c
5+1 6 6
−3+1 −2
1 x x −1
ii ¿∫ dx=∫ x dx=
−3
+c= + c= 2 + c
x
3
−3+ 1 −2 2x
1 3
1 +1 3
x2 x2 2
iii ¿ ∫ √ x dx=∫ x dx= 2
+c= +c= x 2 +c
1 3 3
+1
2 2

64
 −1 2
−1 +1 2
1 x3 x3 3
iv ¿ ∫ 3 dx =∫ x 3 dx= +c= +c= x 3 +c
√x −1 2 2
+1
3 3

Example2: Evaluate the following integrals

i ¿∫ (3 cos x +4 x ¿¿ 5) dx ¿ ii ¿∫ (3 e −2 sec ¿ ¿ 2 x)dx ¿ iii ¿ ∫ (4 x−3 e¿¿ x )dx ¿
x

Solution:
i ¿∫ (3 cos x +4 x ¿¿ 5) dx=∫ 3 cos x dx+∫ 4 x dx ¿
5

¿ 3∫ cos x dx+ 4 ∫ x dx
5

2 6
¿(3sin x + x )+ c
3

ii ¿∫ (3 e −2 sec ¿ ¿ 2 x) dx=∫ 3 e dx−∫ 2 sec x dx ¿

x x 2

¿ 3∫ e dx−2∫ sec x dx
x 2

x
¿( 3 e −tan x )+ c

iii ¿ ∫ (4 x−3 e¿¿ x )dx =∫ 4 xdx−∫ 3 e dx ¿

x

¿ 4 ∫ xdx−3∫ e dx=(2 x + 3 e )+c

x 2 x

b ¿ Simple Substitution :
1
Theorem2: If, ∫ f (x )dx =F ( x )+ c , then for any constant a ≠ 0 ∫ f (ax)dx= F ( ax ) +c
a
Proof:
Since, ∫ f (x )dx =F ( x )+ c , it follows that F I ( x )=f (x). By chain rule, we have that

d 1
dx a[F (ax) =
]
1 d
a dx
1
[ F( ax)]= a F I ( ax )=F I ( ax )=f ( ax)
a
Hence the proof:

Example3: Evaluate the following integrals

i ¿∫ sin 3 x dx ii ¿∫ 5 e dx iii ¿ ∫ 8 sec 5 x dx

4x 2

Solution:
i ¿∫ sin 3 x dx Let t=3 x

65
 dt 1
⇒ =3 ⇒ dt=3 dx ⇒ dt=dx
dx 3

⇒
1 1
∫ sin 3 x dx=∫ sin t 3 dt= 3 ∫ sint dt
¿ ( −13 cos t )+c=( −13 cos 3 x )+ c
ii ¿∫ 5 e dx=5 ∫ e dx
4x 4x
Let t=4 x

⇒
dt 1
=4 ⇒ dt=4 dx ⇒ dt =dx
dx 4

⇒
1 5 5 t 5 4x
5∫ e dx=5 ∫ e dt ¿ ∫ e dt ¿ [ e ] +c= [ e ]+ c
4x t t
4 4 4 4

iii ¿ ∫ 8 sec 5 x dx=8 ∫ sec 5 x dx

2 2
Let t=5 x
dt 1
⇒ =5 ⇒ dt=5 dx ⇒ dt=dx
dx 5

⇒
2 1 8
8 ∫ sec 5 x dx=8∫ sec t dt ¿ ∫ sec dt
2 2
5 5

8 8
¿ [ tant ] +c= [ tan5 x ] +c
5 5

Example4: Evaluate the following integrals

4x
i ¿∫ 2
dx ii ¿∫ ( 2 cos x− √ e x ) dx iii ¿ ∫ 5 sin 2 x dx
x +4

Solution:
4x x
i ¿∫ 2
dx=4 ∫ 2 dx Let t=x 2+ 4
x +4 x +4

⇒
dt 1
=2 x ⇒ dt=2 xdx ⇒ dt=xdx
dx 2
1
⇒ x
∫ t ∗1 1
¿ 2∫ dt =2 ln|t|+ c=2 ln |x + 4|+c
2
4 ∫ 2 dx=4 dt t
x +4 2

x
ii ¿∫ ( 2 cos x− √ e ) dx=∫ 2cos x dx−∫ √ e dx ¿ 2∫ cos x dx−∫ e 2 dx
x x

2∫ cos x dx=2 sin x . . . (1)

66
 x x
∫ e 2 dx Let t=
2

⇒
dt 1
= ⇒ 2 dt=dx
dx 2

⇒ . . . (2)
x x

∫e 2
dx=∫ e 2 dt ¿ 2∫ e dt =2 e =2 e
t t t 2

From eqn. (1) & (2) we have

( )
x x
2∫ cos x dx−∫ e 2 dx=2 sin x+ e 2 + c

iii ¿ ∫ 5 sin 2 x dx=5 ∫ sin 2 x dx Let t=2 x

⇒
dt
=2 ⇒ dt=2dx
dx
1
⇒ dt=dx
2

⇒
1 5
5∫ sin 2 x dx=5 ∫ sin t dt ¿ ∫ sin t dt
2 2

5
¿− cos t=
2
−5
2 (
cos 2 x +c )
Example5: Evaluate the following integrals
e√x x +1 sin x ( √ x +2 )
3
i ¿∫ dx ii ¿∫ 2
dx iii ¿ ∫ dx vi¿ ∫ dx
√x ( x 2 +2 x−1 ) √ cos x √x
Solution:
e√x x +1
i ¿∫ dx Let t=√ x ii ¿∫ 2
dx Let t=x 2+ 2 x−1
√x ( x 2 +2 x−1 )

⇒ ⇒
dt 1 dx dt
= ⇒ 2 dt= =2 x +2
dx 2 √ x √x dx

⇒
1
dt=( x+1)dx
2

⇒ ∫
e√x x+1 1 1 1 −2
dx=∫ et 2 dt ⇒∫ dx= ∫ 2 dt = ∫ t dt
√x ( x + 2 x−1 )
2 2
2 t 2
2

( )
−1
1 t −1 ( 2 −1
¿ 2∫ e dt=2 e + c x +2 x−1 ) + c
t t
¿ + c=
2 −1 2

67
 ¿ 2 e√x+ c
3
iii ¿ ∫
sin x ( √ x +2 )
dx Let t=cos x vi¿ ∫ dx Let t=√ x+ 2
√ cos x √x
⇒ ⇒
dt dt 1
=−sin x =
dx dx 2 √ x
⇒−dt =sin x dx ⇒
dx
2 dt =
√x
⇒ ∫
3
sin x 1
dx=∫ (−dt ) ( √ x+2 )
⇒∫ dx=∫ t 3 2 dt
√ cos x √t √x
−1
¿ 2∫ t dt
3
¿−∫ t 2
dt =−2 √ t+ c

( )
4
t 1 4
¿−2 √ cos x + c ¿2 +c= ( √ x +2 ) + c
4 2

Example6: Evaluate the following integrals

i ¿∫ x ( x −3 ) dx ii ¿∫ x 3 √ x 4 +3 dx iii ¿ ∫ cos x √ sin x+1 dx vi ¿∫ 2 x e x dx

2 4 2

Solution:

i ¿∫ x ( x −3 ) dx ii ¿∫ x 3 √ x 4 +3 dx
2 4
Let t=x 2−3 Let t=x 3 +3

⇒ ⇒
dt dt 2
=2 x =3 x
dx dx

⇒
1
⇒ dt=xdx
2
1 2
dt=x dx
3

⇒
1 4
∫ x ( x 2−3 )
4
dx=
2
∫ t dt ⇒∫ x
3
√ x 4 +3 dx= 12 ∫ √t dt

()
5 1
1 t 1 2
¿
2 5
+c ¿
2
∫ t dt
3
1 2 5 1
¿ ( x −3 ) + c ¿ ( x 3 +3 ) 2 +c
10 3

iii ¿ ∫ cos x √ sin x+1 dx Let t=sin x +1 vi¿ ∫ 2 x e x dx

2

Let t=x 2

⇒ ⇒
dt dt
=cos x =2 x
dx dx

68
 ⇒ dt=cos x dx ⇒
dt=2 xdx
⇒ ∫ cos x √ sin x+ 1dx =∫ √t dt ⇒ ∫ 2 x e x dx=∫ et dt
2

1 3
2
¿ ∫ t 2 dt= t 2 + c
2

¿ e t +c =e x + c
3
3
2 2
¿ ( sin x +1 ) + c
3

Exercise: Evaluate the following integrals

x x
e e +3
i ¿∫ x
dx ii ¿∫ x
dx iii ¿ ∫ 3 sec 3 xdx
2

e +3 e
iv ¿ ∫ x 3 √ x 4 +3 dx v ¿ ∫ ( 2 x+1 ) ( x + x ) dx vi¿ ∫ cos x e
2 3 sin x
dx

vii ¿∫ tan x dx viii ¿ ∫ ( 3 sin x+ 4 ) cos x dx ix ¿∫ x cos x dx

5 2

4 x +8
xi ¿∫ 2
dx xii ¿∫ x ( x −2 ) dx
2 3 14

x + 4 x +4

c ¿ Integration by parts :
Theorem2: if f (x) and g(x ) are differentiable functions, then

∫ f ( x ) g I ( x ) dx=f ( x ) g ( x )−∫ g(x) f I (x )dx

Proof:
Recall: The product rule of differentiation
d
[ f (x) g (x) ] =f I ( x ) g ( x ) + f (x )g I (x) . . . (1)
dx
If we integrate both sides of eqn.(1) we have

∫ [ d
dx ]
[ f (x )g( x )] dx=∫ [ f I ( x ) g ( x ) +f ( x)g I (x )] dx

Of course, the integral on the left hand side is reduced to simply f ( x ) g ( x)

⇒ ∫ f (x ) g I (x)dx=f ( x ) g ( x )−∫ f I ( x )g( x) dx . . . (2)

Note: It is usually convenient to write eqn.(2) using the notation

69
u=f (x ) and v=g(x ), so that du=f I (x )dx and dv =g I (x )dx
And so equation (2) reduces to

⇒ ∫ u dv =uv−∫ v du . . . (3)

Example: Evaluate the following integrals

i ¿∫ x sin x dx ii ¿∫ ln x dx iii ¿ ∫ e sin 4 x dx

x

Solution:

i ¿∫ x sin x dx Let u=x and dv =sin x dx

du
⇒ =1 ⇒ ∫ dv =∫ sin x dx
dx
⇒ du=dx , ⇒ v=−cos x
⇒ ∫ x sin x dx =−x cos x −∫ −cos x dx
¿−x cos x +∫ cos x dx
¿−x cos x +sin x= ( sin x−x cos x ) +c

ii ¿∫ ln x dx Let u=ln x and dv =dx

du 1
⇒ = ⇒ ∫ dv =∫ dx
dx x

1
⇒ du= dx , ⇒ v=x
x

⇒
1
∫ ln x dx=x ln x−∫ x x dx
¿ x ln x −∫ dx ¿ x ln x −x=x ( ln x−1 )+ c

iii ¿ ∫ e sin 4 x dx
x x
Let u=sin 4 x and dv =e dx
du
⇒ ∫ dv =∫ e dx
x
⇒ =4 cos 4 x
dx
⇒ du=4 cos 4 x dx , ⇒ v=e
x

⇒ ∫ e x sin 4 x dx=e x sin 4 x−4 ∫ e x cos 4 x dx

x
Again Let u=cos 4 x and dv =e dx
du
⇒ ∫ dv =∫ e dx
x
⇒ =−4 sin 4 x
dx

70
 ⇒ du=−4 sin 4 x dx , ⇒ v=e
x

⇒ ∫ e x sin 4 x dx=e x sin 4 x−4 [ e x cos 4 x−∫ −4 e x sin 4 x dx ]

⇒ ∫ e x sin 4 x dx=e x sin 4 x−4 [ e x cos 4 x+ 4 ∫ e x sin 4 x dx ]
⇒ ∫ e x sin 4 x dx=e x sin 4 x−4 e x cos 4 x−16∫ e x sin 4 x dx
⇒ 17 ∫ e sin 4 x dx=(sin 4 x−4 cos 4 x )e
x x

⇒
1
∫ e x sin 4 x dx= 17 ( sin 4 x−4 cos 4 x ) e x + c
Note:
When using integration by parts, keep in mind that you are splitting up the
integrand into two pieces. One of these pieces, corresponding to u, will be
differentiated and the other, corresponding to dv , will be integrated. Since
we can differentiate virtually every function we run across, we should think
in terms of a dv for which we know an anti-derivative, as well as a choice of
both that will result in an easier integral. Unfortunately, it’s not always so
easy to see the problem through from beginning to end. You will learn what
works best by working through lots of problems. Even if we don’t see how
the problem is going to end up, try something (at least you’ll learn what
doesn’t work).

Example5: Evaluate the following integrals

ln x
i ¿∫ dx ii ¿∫ x sin x dx
2
iii ¿ ∫ e sin x dx
2x
x
Solution:
ln x 1
i ¿∫ dx Let u=ln x and dv = dx
x x
du 1 1
⇒ = ⇒ ∫ dv =∫ dx
dx x x
1
⇒ du= dx , ⇒ v=ln x
x

⇒
ln x ln x
∫ x
dx=ln x −∫
2
x
dx

71
⇒
ln x
2∫
2
dx=ln x
x

⇒
ln x 1 2
∫ x
dx= ( ln x ) + c
2

ii ¿∫ x sin x dx
2
Let u=x2 dv =sin x dx
du
⇒ =2 x ⇒ ∫ dv =∫ sin x dx
dx
⇒ du=2 xdx , ⇒ v=−cos x
⇒ ∫ x 2 sin x dx=−x 2 cos x−∫−cos x∗2 x dx
⇒ ∫ x 2 sin x dx=−x 2 cos x +2∫ x cos x dx
Again let u=x and dv =cos x dx
du
⇒ =1 ⇒ ∫ dv =∫ cos x dx
dx
⇒ du=dx , ⇒ v=sin x

⇒ ∫ x 2 sin x dx=−x 2 cos x +2 [ x sin x−∫ sin x dx ]

⇒ ∫ x 2 sin x dx=(−x 2 cos x+2 x sin x +2 cos x )+ c
iii ¿ ∫ e sin x dx
2x
Let u=e2 x and dv =sin x dx
du
⇒ ∫ dv =∫ sin x dx
2x
⇒ =2 e
dx
⇒ du=2 e dx,
2x
⇒ v=−cos x
⇒ ∫ e2 x sin x dx =−e 2 x cos x−∫ −2 e2 x cos x dx=−e2 x cos x +2∫ e2 x cos x dx
⇒ ∫ e2 x sin x dx =−e 2 x cos x+2 ∫ e 2 x cos x dx
Again let u=e2 x and dv =cos x dx
du
⇒ ∫ dv =∫ cos x dx
2x
⇒ =2 e
dx
2x
⇒ du=2 e dx, and ⇒ v=sin x

⇒ ∫ e2 x sin x dx =−e 2 x cos x+2 [ e2 x sin x−∫ 2 e2 x sin x dx ]

⇒ ∫ e2 x sin x dx =−e 2 x cos x+2 e 2 x sin x −4 ∫ e2 x sin x dx
⇒ 5∫ e sin x dx=(−cos x +2 sin x ) e
2x 2x

72
⇒
1
∫ e2 x sin x dx = 5 ( 2sin x−cos x ) e 2 x +c

Exercises:
1.Evaluate the following integrals
i ¿∫ x ln x dx ii ¿∫ x e dx iii ¿ ∫ e cos x dx
4 x 2x

iv ¿ ∫ x 2 e x dx v ¿ ∫ e sin 4 x dx vi¿ ∫ x sin 3 x dx

3
x 2

vii ¿∫ cos x cos 2 x dx viii ¿ ∫ cos x ln ( sin x ) dx ix ¿∫ ln x dx

2

x ¿∫ x ln x dx xi ¿∫ x e xii ¿∫ x e dx
2 2 −3 x 4 x
dx

d ¿ Trigonometric Substitution :
If an integral contains a term of the form √ a2−x 2 , √ a2 + x 2 , or √ x 2−a2 , for some a> 0, we
can often evaluate the integral by making a substitution involving a trigonometric function
(hence, the name trigonometric substitution)

First, suppose that an integrand contains a term of the form √ a2−x 2, for some a> 0,
−π π
If we let x=a sin θ where ≤θ ≤ , then we can eliminate the square root as follows.
2 2

√ a2−x 2= √ a2−( a sin θ)2=√ a2−a2 sin 2 θ=a √ 1−sin2 θ=a √ cos2 θ=a cos θ
−π π
Since for ≤θ ≤ , cos θ ≥ 0
2 2

Note: We should always first consider whether an integral can be done directly with a simple
substitution or by parts. If none of these methods are helpful, we consider trigonometric
substitution. Always keep in mind that the immediate objective here is to eliminate the square
root term, so we make a substitution that will accomplish this.

Example1: Evaluate the following integrals

1 1
i ¿∫ dx ii ¿∫ dx
x 2
√ 4−x 2
x 2
√ 9−x 2
Solution:

73
 ⇒
1 1
i ¿∫ dx =∫ dx a=2
x 2
√ 4−x 2
x 2
√22−x 2
π π dx
Let x=2 sin θ− ≤ θ ≤ ⇒ =2cos θ
2 2 dθ
⇒
1 2 cos θ cos θ cos θ
∫ dx =∫ dθ=∫ dθ=∫ dθ
√ 4−x 4 sin θ √ 4−( 2sin θ ) 2 sin θ √ 4−4 sin θ 4 sin θ √ 1−sin2 θ
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x
cos θ cos θ 1 1 1 −1
¿∫ dθ=∫ dθ= ∫ 2 dθ= ∫ csc θ dθ=
2
cot θ+c
4 sin θ √ c os θ 4 4 4
2 2 2
4 sin θ cos θ sin θ

⇒ ( )
1 −1 −1 cos θ
∫ dx = cot θ+c= +c . . . (1)
x √ 4−x
2 2 4 4 sinθ

The next thing is to write the anti-derivative back to the original variable x

() ()
2 2 2
x 2 x 2 x 4−x
Since 2 sin θ=x ⇒ sin θ= ⇒ sin θ= ⇒ cos θ=1− =
2 2 2 4

⇒ cos θ= √
4−x 2
2
Substituting for sin θ and cos θ in eqn. (1) we have

⇒ ( )
∫
1
dx =
−1 √ 4−x 2 +c
x 2 √ 4−x 2 4 x

⇒
1 1
ii ¿∫ dx=∫ dx a=3
x 2
√ 9−x 2
x 2
√ 32−x 2
π π dx
Let x=3 sin θ− ≤ θ ≤ ⇒ =3 cos θ
2 2 dθ
⇒
1 3 cos θ 3 cos θ 3 cos θ
∫ dx=∫ dθ=∫ dθ=∫ dθ
√ 9−x 9 sin θ √ 9−( 3 sin θ ) 9 sin θ √ 9−9 sin θ 9 sin θ 3 √ 1−sin 2 θ
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x
cos θ cos θ 1 1 −1
¿∫ dθ=∫ dθ=∫ dθ= ∫ csc θ dθ=
2
cot θ+ c
9 sin θ √ c os θ 9 9
2 2 2 2
9 sin θ cos θ 9 sin θ

⇒ ( )
1 −1 −1 cos θ
∫ dx= cot θ+c = +c . . . (2)
x √ 9−x
2 2 9 9 sin θ

The next thing is to write the anti-derivative back to the original variable x

() ()
2 2 2
x 2 x 2 x 9−x
Since x=3 sin θ ⇒ sin θ= ⇒ sin θ= ⇒ cos θ=1− =
3 3 3 9

74
⇒ cos θ= √
9−x 2
3
Substituting for sin θ and cos θ in eqn. (2) we have

⇒ ( )
∫ 2
1
dx=
−1 √ 9−x2 +c
x √ 9−x2 9 x

Exercise: Evaluate the following integrals

i ¿∫ √
16−x 2 dx xdx
dx ii ¿∫ iii ¿ ∫
x2 x 2
√16−x 2
√ 4−x 2
Next suppose that an integrand contains a term of the form √ a2 + x 2, for some a> 0, if we let
−π π
x=a tan θ where ≤θ ≤ , then we can eliminate the square root as follows.
2 2

√ a2 + x 2=√ a2 +(a tanθ)2= √a 2+ a2 tan2 θ=a √1+ tan2 θ=a √ sec2 θ=a secθ
−π π
Since for ≤θ ≤ , sec θ ≥ 0
2 2

Example1: Evaluate the following integrals

1 xdx
i ¿∫ dx ii ¿∫
√ 9+ x 2
√ 4+ x 2
Solution:

⇒ a=3
1 1
i ¿∫ dx=∫ 2 2 dx
√ 9+ x 2
√3 + x
π π dx 2 2
Let x=3 tanθ− ≤θ ≤ ⇒ =3 sec θ ⇒ dx =3 sec θ dθ
2 2 dθ

⇒∫
2 2 2
1 3 sec θ 3 sec θ 3 sec θ
dx=∫ dθ=∫ dθ=∫ dθ
√ 9+ x 2
√ 9+( 3 tan θ ) 2
√ 9+9 tan θ
2
3 √ 1+ tan2 θ
2 2
sec θ sec θ
¿∫ dθ=∫ dθ=∫ sec θ dθ=ln|sec θ+ tanθ|+c
√ sec θ
2
sec θ

⇒
1
∫ dx=ln|sec θ+ tan θ|+c . . . (3)
√ 9+ x 2
The next thing is to write the anti-derivative back to the original variable x
2 2
x x x
Since x=3 tnnθ ⇒ tan θ= 2
⇒ tan θ=
2
⇒ sec θ=1+
3 9 9

⇒ sec θ= √ 9+ x 2
3

75
Substituting for sec θ and tanθ in eqn. (3) we have

⇒ | | | |
∫ 1
dx=ln √9+ x 2 + x +c=ln √ 9+ x 2 + x + c
√ 9+ x 2 3 3 3

⇒
xdx 1
ii ¿∫ =∫ dx a=2
√ 4+ x 2
√ 2 + x2
2

π π 2 2
Let x=2 tan θ− ≤θ ≤ ⇒ x =4 tan θ
2 2
dx 2
⇒ =2 sec θ ⇒ dx=2 sec 2 θ dθ
dθ

⇒
2 2
∫ 1 2 dx=∫ 2 tanθ 2 2 sec2 θ dθ=∫ 4 tan θ sec2 θ dθ ¿ 2∫ tan θ sec2 θ dθ
√4 +x √ 4+ 4 tan θ 2 √ 1+ tan θ √ sec θ
2
tan θ sec θ
¿ 2∫ dθ
sec θ

⇒
1
∫ dx=2∫ tan θ sec θ dθ=2 sec θ+ c . . . (3)
√ 4 + x2
The next thing is to write the anti-derivative back to the original variable x
x2 √ 4−x 2
⇒ sec θ= √
2
x x 4+ x2
Since 2 tnn θ=x ⇒ tan θ= ⇒ tan2 θ= ⇒ sec 2 θ=1+ =
2 4 4 2 2
Substituting for sec θ and tanθ in eqn. (3) we have

⇒ dx= √
1 4+ x 2
∫ +c
√4 +x 2 2

Exercise: Evaluate the following integrals

2 2
x dx x dx
i ¿∫ √ x 2+ 16 dx ii ¿∫ iii ¿ ∫
√1+ 4 x 2 √ 1+16 x 2

Finally, suppose that an integrand contains a term of the form √ x 2−a2 , for some a> 0, if we let
x=a sec θ where θ ε ¿ ∪ ¿, then we can eliminate the square root as follows.

√ x 2−a2= √(a secθ)2−a2=√ a2 sec 2 θ−a2=a √ sec2 θ−1=a √ tan2 θ=a|tan θ|

Notice that the absolute value is needed, as tanθ can be both positive and negative on ¿ ∪ ¿.

Example1: Evaluate the following integrals

i ¿∫ √ x2 −25
dx , for x >5 ii ¿∫ 2
2 dx
x √ x −4

76
Solution:

i ¿∫ √ x2 −25
dx , for x >5
x

Let x=5 secθ , for θ ε 0 , [ ) π

2
, Notice that we choose the first half of the domain ¿ ∪ ¿, so that we

would have x=5 secθ> 5. (if we had x ←5, we would have chosen θ ε ¿).
Let x=5 secθ , 2
x =25 sec θ
2

⇒
dx
=5 sec θ tanθ ⇒ dx=5 sec θ tanθ dθ
dθ

∫ √ x x−25 dx =∫ √ 255secsecθθ−25 5 sec θ tanθ dθ=∫ √ 25 sec1 θ−25 tan θ dθ

2 2 2

¿ ∫ √ 25(sec 2 θ−1)tanθ dθ=∫ √ 25 tan 2 θ tanθ dθ

¿ 5∫ tan θ dθ=5∫ ( sec θ−1)dθ=5 ( tan θ−θ ) +c

2 2

√
( ) .
x 2−25
∫ x dx=( tan θ−θ ) +c

. . (4)

[ ) , ⇒ ⇒ ( x5 )
π x
Since x=5 secθ , for θ ε 0 , sec θ= , θ=sec −1
2 5

⇒ ⇒ ⇒ tanθ= √
2 2 2
2 x 2 x x −25 x 2−25
sec θ= tan θ= −1=
25 25 25 5
Substituting for tanθ in eqn. (4) we have

∫ √ x2 −25
x
dx =5
√ x 2−25
(
−sec
−1
5 ( 5x ))+c
2 dx
ii ¿∫
√ x 2−4
Let x=2 sec θ , x 2=4 sec 2 θ

⇒
dx
=2 sec θ tanθ ⇒ dx=2 sec θ tan θ dθ
dθ
2 dx 4 sec θ tanθ dθ 4 secθ tan θ dθ sec θ tan θ dθ sec θ tan θ dθ
∫ =∫ =∫ =2∫ =2 ∫
√ x −42
√ 4 sec θ−4 2
2 √ sec θ−1
2
√ tan 2
θ tan θ

¿ 2∫ sec θ dθ=ln |sec x + tan x|+ c

77
⇒
2 dx
∫ =ln |sec x + tan x|+ c
√ x2 −4
[ ) , ⇒ sec θ= , ⇒ ⇒
2 2 2
π x 2 x 2 x x −4
x=2 sec θ , for θ ε 0 , sec θ= , tan θ= −1= ,
2 2 4 4 4

⇒ tanθ= √
x 2−4
,
2

⇒ | | | |
2 dx x √ x 2−4 x + √ x 2−4
∫ =ln + +c=ln +c
√ x2 −4 2 2 2

d ¿ Integration of rational functions(∂ fraction decomposition Technique) :

Recall: ∂ fraction decomposition

1. G1 When the degree of the dividend is higher than or equal to the degree of divisor
E xample1: Evaluate the following
3 2
x + x+ 2 x +1
i ¿∫ 2 dx ii ¿∫ 2 dx
x + 2 x−8 x −5 x−6
Solution:
Here we employ the process of long division as follows:
3
x + x+ 2
i ¿∫ 2
dx
x + 2 x−8
x−2
(x +2 x−8) √ x + 0 x 2 + x−8 .
2 3

3 2
x +2 x −8 x
2
−2 x + 9 x +2
2
−2 x −4 x +16
13 x−14
⇨
3
x + x +2 ( 13 x−14
2
= x−2 )+ 2 .
x +2 x−8 x +2 x −8

Therefore
3
x + x +2 ( 13 x−14 13 x −14 A B 11 2
= x−2 )+ , but = + = +
2
x +2 x−8 ( x +4 ) ( x−2 ) ( x+ 4 )( x−2 ) x+ 4 x−2 x + 4 x −2

⇨
3
x + x +2 ( 11 2
= x−2 )+ +
2
x +2 x−8 x +4 x−2

78
⇨ dx=∫ ( x−2 ) dx +∫ (
x + 4 x−2 )
3
∫ xx2++2x+
x−8
2 11
+
2
dx

11 2
¿ ∫ ( x−2 ) dx +∫ dx+∫ dx
(x + 4) ( x−2 )

[ ]
2
x
¿ −2 x +11ln |x +4|+2 ln |x−2| +c
2

2
3 x −6
ii ¿∫ 2
dx
x −x−2
3
(x −x−2) √ 3 x 2+ 0 x−6 .
2

2
3 x −3 x−6
3x
⇨
2
3 x −6 3x
2
=3+ 2 .
x −x−2 x −x −2
Therefore

⇨ , but
2
3 x −6 3x 3x A B 1 2
=3+ = + = +
2
x −x−2 ( x+1 ) ( x−2 ) ( x+1 )( x−2 ) x+1 x−2 x +1 x−2

⇨
2
3 x −6 1 2
=3+ +
2
x −x−2 x+1 x −2
2
x −6
∫ x32−x−2 =∫ 3 dx +∫
1
( x +1 )
dx+∫
2
( x−2 )
dx

¿ [ 3 x+ ln |x+ 1|+2 ln |x−2|] +c

Exercises: Evaluate the following
2 3 2
2 x +2 x−1 x +x +4 x
i ¿∫ 2
dx ii ¿∫ 2 dx
x + x−2 x + x−2

G2 When the divisor can be factored in linear factors all different

Example1: Evaluate the following

2
x−19 6x 3 x −7 x −2
i ¿∫ dx ii ¿∫ dx iii ¿ ∫ dx
2
x −3 x−10 ( )
x +2 (x−1) 3
x −x
Solution:
i ¿ Decomposing the function into partial fraction we have

79
 x−19 x−19 A B 3 2
= = + = +
x −3 x −10 ( x +2 ) ( x−5 )
2
x+2 x−5 x +2 x −5

⇨
x−19 3 2
= +
x −3 x −10 x +2 x−5
2

⇨ ( )
x−19 3 2 1 1
∫ 2
dx=∫
x+ 2
+
x−5
dx=3∫
x+ 2
dx +2∫
x−5
dx=3 ln|x +2|+2 ln|x −5|+c
x −3 x−10
ii ¿ Decomposing the function into partial fraction we have
6x A B 4 2
= + = +
( x+2 )( x−1 ) x+ 2 x−1 x +2 x−1

⇨
6x 4 2
= +
( x+2 )( x−1 ) x+ 2 x−1

⇨ ∫ ( x +26) (xx−1 ) dx=∫ ( x 4+2 + x−1 ) dx=∫ x 4+2 dx+∫ x−1

2 2
dx=4 ln |x+ 2|+2 ln |x−1|+c

iii ¿ Decomposing the function into partial fraction we have

2 2
3 x −7 x−2 3 x −7 x−2 A B C 2 3 4
= = + + = − +
3
x −x x ( x−1 )( x +1 ) x x−1 x +1 x x−1 x +1

⇨
2
3 x −7 x−2 2 3 4
= − +
3
x −x x x −1 x+ 1

⇨ ( )
2
∫ 3 x x−7
3
x−2
−x
2
dx =∫ −
3
+
4
x x−1 x +1
1
dx=2∫ dx−3 ∫
x
1
x −1
dx +4 ∫
1
x +1
dx

¿ 2 ln |x|−3 ln|x −1|+4 ln |x+ 1|+c

G3 When the divisor can be factored in linear factors with some repeating
E xample1: Evaluate the following
2
5 x +20 x +6 x−1 2x
i ¿∫ 2
dx ii ¿∫ 3 2
dx iii ¿ ∫ 2 dx
x ( x +1 ) x +4 x +4 x x −6 x +9
Solution:
i ¿ Decomposing the function into partial fraction we have
2
5 x +20 x+ 6 A B C 6 1 9
= + + = − +
x ( x+1 )
2
x x +1 ( x +1 ) x x +1 ( x +1 )2
2

⇨
2
5 x +20 x+ 6 6 1 9
= − +
x ( x+1 )
2
x x +1 ( x+ 1 )2

80
⇨ ( )
2
6 1 9
∫ 5 xx +20 x +6
( x +1 )2
dx=∫
6
−
1
+
9
x x+1 ( x +1 ) 2
dx ¿ ∫ dx−∫
x x +1
dx+∫
( x +1 )2
dx

1 1 1
¿ 6 ∫ dx−∫ dx+ 9∫ dx
x x+1 ( x +1 )2
9
¿ 6 ln|x|−ln |x +1|− +c
x +1

ii ¿ Decomposing the function into partial fraction we have

x−1 A B C −1 1 3
= + + = + +
3 2
x +4 x +4 x x x +2 ( x +2 ) 2
4 x 4 (x+2) 2 ( x+ 2 )2

⇨
x−1 −1 1 3
= + +
x + 4 x + 4 x 4 x 4 (x +2) 2 ( x +2 )
3 2 2

⇨ ( )
x−1 −1 1 3
∫ x 3+ 4 x 2 +4 x dx=∫ + +
4 x 4( x+2) 2 ( x+ 2 )2
dx

1 1 1 1 3 1
¿− ∫
4 x
dx + ∫
4 4 (x+ 2)
dx+ ∫
2 ( x +2 )2
dx

1 1 3
¿− ln |x|+ ln |x +2|− +c
4 4 2(x +2)
iii ¿ Decomposing the function into partial fraction we have
2x 2x A B 2 6
= = + = +
2
x −6 x+ 9 ( x−3 )
2
x−3 ( x−3 ) 2
x−3 ( x−3 )2

⇨
2x 2 6
= +
x −6 x+ 9 x−3 ( x−3 )
2 2

⇨ ( )
2x 2 6 1 1
∫ x 2−6 x +9 dx=∫ +
(x −3) ( x−3 ) 2
dx=2∫
(x−3)
dx +6 ∫
( x−3 )2
dx

6
¿ 2 ln |x−3|− +c
(x−3)

G4 When the divisor can be factored in linear and non-reducible quadratic factors all different
E xample1: Evaluate the following

1 x−1
i ¿∫ dx ii ¿ ∫ 2 dx
( x+ 1 ) ( x +1 )
2
( x +2 ) ( x+1)
Solution:
i ¿ Decomposing the function into partial fraction we have

81
 1 A Bx+ C 1 x+1 1 x
= + 2 = − = −
( x+1 ) ( x +1 )
2 x +1 x +1 2(x +1) 2(x + 1) 2 ( x +1 ) 2(x ¿¿ 2+1)+
2
1
¿
2(x ¿¿ 2+1)¿

⇨
1 1 x
= −
( x+1 ) ( x +1 ) 2 ( x +1 ) 2(x¿ ¿2+1)+
2 1
¿
2(x ¿¿ 2+ 1) ¿

⇨
1
∫( dx=∫ ¿ ¿
x +1 ) ( x 2 +1 )
1 1 1 x 1 1
¿ ∫
2 x +1
dx− ∫
2 (x¿ ¿ 2+1)
dx+ ∫ 2 dx ¿
2 x +1
1 1 1
¿ ln |x +1|− ln| x +1|+ tan x+ c
2 −1
2 2 2

ii ¿ Decomposing the function into partial fraction we have

x−1 Ax +B C 2 x−1
= + =
( x +2 ) (x+ 1)
2
x +1 x+ 1 3( x¿¿ 2+1)−
2
2
=
2x
−
1
¿
3(x +1) 3 ( x 2+ 2 ) 2
3 (x ¿¿ 2+ 2)− ¿
3 ( x +1 )
x−1 2x 1
⇨
= −
( x +2 ) (x+ 1) 3 ( x +2 ) 3(x ¿¿ 2+2)−
2 2 2
¿
3 ( x+1 )

⇨
x−1
∫( dx=∫ ¿ ¿
x + 2 ) (x +1)
2

2 x 1 1 2 1
¿ ∫
3 x +2
2
dx− ∫
3 (x ¿¿ 2+2)
dx− ∫
3 x+1
dx ¿

1 1 −1 x 2
¿ ln |x +1|− tan ( )− ln |x+ 1|+c
2
3 6 2 3

82