# Program1.

#Write a MATLAB program to compute entropy and mutual

information for noise free and noisy channel
% Define the probabilities of each symbol in the input message
p = [0.2, 0.3, 0.1, 0.4]; % Example probabilities, you can change them as needed

% Calculate entropy
H = -sum(p .* log2(p));

% Define the channel transition matrix (probabilities of each output symbol given
an input symbol)
channel_matrix = [0.7, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1; % Probability of output given input A
0.2, 0.6, 0.1, 0.1; % Probability of output given input B
0.1, 0.1, 0.8, 0.0; % Probability of output given input C
0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.7]; % Probability of output given input D

% Calculate the joint probabilities of input-output pairs

joint_probs = p' * channel_matrix;

% Calculate the conditional entropy

H_conditional = -sum(sum(joint_probs .* log2(joint_probs)));

% Calculate mutual information

I = H - H_conditional;
disp(['Entropy (H): ', num2str(H)]);
disp(['Conditional Entropy (H(X|Y)): ', num2str(H_conditional)]);
disp(['Mutual Information (I): ', num2str(I)]);
# Program 2
#.Write a MATLAB program to compute entropy and mutual
information for error free and binary symmetric
% Define the probabilities of each symbol in the input message
p = [0.5, 0.5]; % For a binary input, equal probabilities for 0 and 1

% Calculate entropy for error-free channel

H_error_free = -sum(p .* log2(p));

% Define the crossover probability for the binary symmetric channel

p_crossover = 0.1; % Example crossover probability, you can change it as needed

% Calculate probabilities for the binary symmetric channel

p_channel = [1-p_crossover, p_crossover; p_crossover, 1-p_crossover];

% Calculate entropy for binary symmetric channel

H_binary_symmetric = -sum(p .* sum(p_channel .* log2(p_channel), 2));

% Calculate mutual information for error-free channel

I_error_free = H_error_free;

% Calculate joint probabilities for binary symmetric channel

joint_probs_binary_symmetric = [p .* (1-p_crossover), p .* p_crossover; p .*
p_crossover, p .* (1-p_crossover)];
% Calculate conditional entropy for binary symmetric channel
H_conditional_binary_symmetric = -sum(sum(joint_probs_binary_symmetric .*
log2(joint_probs_binary_symmetric)));

% Calculate mutual information for binary symmetric channel

I_binary_symmetric = H_error_free - H_conditional_binary_symmetric;

disp('For the error-free channel:');

disp(['Entropy (H): ', num2str(H_error_free)]);
disp(['Mutual Information (I): ', num2str(I_error_free)]);

disp(' ');

disp('For the binary symmetric channel:');

disp(['Entropy (H): ', num2str(H_binary_symmetric)]);
disp(['Conditional Entropy (H(X|Y)): ',
num2str(H_conditional_binary_symmetric)]);
disp(['Mutual Information (I): ', num2str(I_binary_symmetric)]);

#This program calculates the entropy and mutual information for both an error-free
channel and a binary symmetric channel. You can adjust the probabilities and the
crossover probability for the binary symmetric channel according to your specific
scenario.
# Program3.
#Write a MATLAB program to implement algorithm for generation
and evaluation of Shannan Fano coding and decoding. compute
entropy, average length and coding efficiency.
% Define the probabilities of each symbol in the input message
p = [0.2, 0.3, 0.15, 0.15, 0.1, 0.1]; % Example probabilities, you can change them
as needed

% Sort probabilities in descending order

[sorted_p, idx] = sort(p, 'descend');

% Calculate cumulative probabilities

cumulative_p = cumsum(sorted_p);

% Function to generate Shannon-Fano code recursively

function [codes, lengths] = generate_code(probabilities, prefix)
% Base case: if there's only one symbol left, assign code and return
if length(probabilities) == 1
codes{1} = prefix;
lengths(1) = length(prefix);
else
% Find the split point
total_prob = sum(probabilities);
half_prob = total_prob / 2;
 split_idx = find(cumulative_p <= half_prob, 1, 'last');

% Generate codes for the left and right partitions recursively

[left_codes, left_lengths] = generate_code(probabilities(1:split_idx),
strcat(prefix, '0'));
[right_codes, right_lengths] = generate_code(probabilities(split_idx+1:end),
strcat(prefix, '1'));

% Combine the codes

codes = [left_codes, right_codes];
lengths = [left_lengths, right_lengths];
end
end

% Generate Shannon-Fano code

[codes, lengths] = generate_code(sorted_p, '');

% Sort the codes based on the original probabilities order

codes = codes(idx);
lengths = lengths(idx);

% Display codes and lengths

disp('Symbol | Probability | Code | Length');
for i = 1:length(p)
fprintf('%d\t%f\t%s\t%d\n', i, p(i), codes{i}, lengths(i));
end

% Calculate entropy
H = -sum(p .* log2(p));

% Calculate average code length

L_avg = sum(p .* lengths);

% Calculate coding efficiency

efficiency = H / L_avg;

% Display results
disp(['Entropy (H): ', num2str(H)]);
disp(['Average Code Length (L_avg): ', num2str(L_avg)]);
disp(['Coding Efficiency: ', num2str(efficiency)]);
This program generates the Shannon-Fano codes for a given set of probabilities,
computes entropy, average code length, and coding efficiency.
#Program 4
#Write a matlab program to implement algorithm for generation and
evaluation of Huffman coding and decoding. Compute entropy
average length and coding efficiency.
% Define the probabilities of each symbol in the input message
p = [0.2, 0.3, 0.15, 0.15, 0.1, 0.1]; % Example probabilities, you can change them
as needed

% Function to generate Huffman code

function [codes, lengths] = huffman_coding(probabilities)
% Initialize symbol nodes
symbols = cell(length(probabilities), 1);
for i = 1:length(probabilities)
symbols{i} = struct('symbol', i, 'probability', probabilities(i), 'code', '');
end

% Build Huffman tree

while length(symbols) > 1
[probabilities, indices] = sort(probabilities);
symbols = symbols(indices);

% Merge two symbols with the lowest probabilities

new_symbol = struct('symbol', [symbols{1}.symbol, symbols{2}.symbol], ...
'probability', symbols{1}.probability + symbols{2}.probability, ...
'code', '');
 symbols{1} = new_symbol;
symbols(2) = [];

% Update codes
symbols{1}.code = strcat(symbols{1}.code, '0');
symbols{2}.code = strcat(symbols{2}.code, '1');
end

% Extract codes and lengths

codes = cell(length(probabilities), 1);
lengths = zeros(length(probabilities), 1);
for i = 1:length(probabilities)
codes{i} = symbols{i}.code;
lengths(i) = length(symbols{i}.code);
end
end

% Generate Huffman code

[codes, lengths] = huffman_coding(p);

% Display codes and lengths

disp('Symbol | Probability | Code | Length');
for i = 1:length(p)
fprintf('%d\t%f\t%s\t%d\n', i, p(i), codes{i}, lengths(i));
end

% Calculate entropy
H = -sum(p .* log2(p));

% Calculate average code length

L_avg = sum(p .* lengths);

% Calculate coding efficiency

efficiency = H / L_avg;

% Display results
disp(['Entropy (H): ', num2str(H)]);
disp(['Average Code Length (L_avg): ', num2str(L_avg)]);
disp(['Coding Efficiency: ', num2str(efficiency)]);
This program generates the Huffman codes for a given set of probabilities,
computes entropy, average code length, and coding efficiency.
#Program5
#Write a MATLAB program to implement algorithm for generation
and evaluation of Lempel Ziv dictionary method. Compute entropy
average length and coding efficiency.
% Define the input data
input_data = 'abcbabcbabaaaa';

% Function to perform LZ77 compression

function [compressed_data, dictionary] = lz77_compress(input_data)
compressed_data = [];
dictionary = {};
i = 1;
while i <= length(input_data)
% Search for the longest match in the dictionary
longest_match_length = 0;
longest_match_index = 0;
for j = 1:min(length(dictionary), i-1)
if strcmp(input_data(i:i+longest_match_length-1), dictionary{j})
longest_match_length = longest_match_length + 1;
longest_match_index = j;
else
break;
end
end
 % Append the match to the compressed data
if longest_match_length > 0
compressed_data = [compressed_data, [longest_match_index-1,
longest_match_length, input_data(i+longest_match_length)]];
dictionary{end+1} = input_data(i:i+longest_match_length);
i = i + longest_match_length + 1;
else
compressed_data = [compressed_data, [0, 0, input_data(i)]];
dictionary{end+1} = input_data(i);
i = i + 1;
end
end
end

% Perform LZ77 compression

[compressed_data, dictionary] = lz77_compress(input_data);

% Display the compressed data

disp('Compressed Data:');
disp(compressed_data);

% Function to calculate entropy

function H = calculate_entropy(data)
unique_symbols = unique(data);
p = zeros(1, length(unique_symbols));
 for i = 1:length(unique_symbols)
p(i) = sum(data == unique_symbols(i)) / length(data);
end
H = -sum(p .* log2(p));
end

% Calculate entropy of the input data

entropy_input = calculate_entropy(input_data);

% Calculate entropy of the compressed data

compressed_symbols = unique(compressed_data(:, 1:2));
compressed_lengths = compressed_data(:, 2);
compressed_entropy = calculate_entropy([compressed_symbols(:)',
compressed_lengths(:)']);

% Calculate average length of the compressed data

average_length = mean(sum(compressed_data(:, 1:2), 2) + 1);

% Calculate coding efficiency

coding_efficiency = entropy_input / average_length;

% Display results
disp(['Entropy of Input Data: ', num2str(entropy_input)]);
disp(['Entropy of Compressed Data: ', num2str(compressed_entropy)]);
disp(['Average Length of Compressed Data: ', num2str(average_length)]);
disp(['Coding Efficiency: ', num2str(coding_efficiency)]);
This program performs LZ77 compression on the input data, calculates its
entropy, average length, and coding efficiency.
#Program6
#Write a MATLAB program to implement algorithm for encoding and
decoding of linear block code.
#Implementing a linear block code encoder and decoder involves
defining a generator matrix for encoding and a parity check matrix for
decoding. Here's a MATLAB program that implements a simple (7, 4)
Hamming code, which encodes 4-bit messages into 7-bit codewords
and decodes them back:
% Define generator matrix for (7, 4) Hamming code
G=[
1 0 0 0 1 1 1;
0 1 0 0 1 0 1;
0 0 1 0 0 1 1;
0001110
];

% Define parity check matrix

H=[
1 1 0 1 1 0 0;
0 1 1 1 0 1 0;
1011001
];

% Function to encode a 4-bit message into a 7-bit codeword

function codeword = encode(message, G)
 codeword = mod(message * G, 2);
end

% Function to decode a received codeword using syndrome decoding

function decoded_message = decode(received_codeword, H)
syndrome = mod(received_codeword * H', 2);
% Syndrome table for error correction
syndrome_table = [
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1;
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0;
10110110
];
error_index = find(ismember(syndrome_table, syndrome, 'rows'));
if ~isempty(error_index)
received_codeword(error_index) = mod(received_codeword(error_index) +
1, 2); % Flip the erroneous bit
end
decoded_message = received_codeword(1:4);
end

% Example usage:
message = [1 0 1 1]; % Example 4-bit message
codeword = encode(message, G); % Encode the message
disp(['Encoded Codeword: ', num2str(codeword)]);
received_codeword = codeword;
% Introduce an error in the received codeword
received_codeword(3) = mod(received_codeword(3) + 1, 2);
decoded_message = decode(received_codeword, H); % Decode the received
codeword
disp(['Decoded Message: ', num2str(decoded_message)]);
This program defines the generator matrix G and parity check matrix H for a (7, 4)
Hamming code. It includes functions to encode a 4-bit message into a 7-bit
codeword using matrix multiplication and to decode a received codeword using
syndrome decoding.
#Program7
#Write a MATLAB program to implement algorithm for encoding and
decoding of cyclic block code.
#Implementing a cyclic block code encoder and decoder involves defining a
generator polynomial for encoding and a syndrome polynomial for decoding.
Here's a MATLAB program that implements a simple (7, 4) cyclic code, which
encodes 4-bit messages into 7-bit codewords and decodes them back:
% Define generator polynomial for (7, 4) cyclic code (example: x^3 + x^2 + 1)
gen_poly = [1 1 0 1];

% Function to encode a 4-bit message into a 7-bit codeword

function codeword = encode(message, gen_poly)
n = length(gen_poly) - 1; % Length of generator polynomial
m = length(message); % Length of message
padded_message = [message, zeros(1, n - m)]; % Pad message with zeros
remainder = [padded_message, zeros(1, n)]; % Initialize remainder
for i = 1:m
if remainder(1) == 1
remainder = mod(remainder + gen_poly, 2);
end
remainder = [remainder(2:end), padded_message(i)];
end
codeword = [message, mod(padded_message + remainder(end-n+1:end), 2)];
end
% Function to decode a received codeword using syndrome decoding
function decoded_message = decode(received_codeword, gen_poly)
n = length(gen_poly) - 1; % Length of generator polynomial
m = length(received_codeword) - n; % Length of message
syndrome = mod(conv(received_codeword, fliplr(gen_poly)), 2);
error_pos = find(syndrome, 1);
if isempty(error_pos)
decoded_message = received_codeword(1:m);
else
error_vector = zeros(1, length(received_codeword));
error_vector(end-error_pos+1) = 1;
corrected_codeword = mod(received_codeword + error_vector, 2);
decoded_message = corrected_codeword(1:m);
end
end

% Example usage:
message = [1 0 1 1]; % Example 4-bit message
codeword = encode(message, gen_poly); % Encode the message
disp(['Encoded Codeword: ', num2str(codeword)]);
received_codeword = codeword;
% Introduce an error in the received codeword
received_codeword(3) = mod(received_codeword(3) + 1, 2);
decoded_message = decode(received_codeword, gen_poly); % Decode the
received codeword
disp(['Decoded Message: ', num2str(decoded_message)]);
This program defines the generator polynomial for a (7, 4) cyclic code and
includes functions to encode a 4-bit message into a 7-bit codeword using
polynomial division and to decode a received codeword using syndrome
decoding. Finally, it demonstrates an example of encoding, introducing an error,
and decoding a message. You can adjust the generator polynomial and the
message accordingly.
#Program8
#Write a MATLAB program to implement algorithm for generating
convolutional code by code tree.
#Generating a convolutional code using a code tree involves defining
the code tree structure and traversing it to generate the code
sequences. Here's a MATLAB program to generate a convolutional
code using a code tree:
% Define the generator polynomials for the convolutional code
g1 = [1 1 1]; % Example generator polynomial 1
g2 = [1 0 1]; % Example generator polynomial 2

% Define the constraint length

K = length(g1) - 1;

% Function to generate the code tree

function tree = generate_code_tree(K, g1, g2)
num_states = 2^K; % Number of states in the code tree
tree = cell(num_states, 1); % Initialize the code tree

% Initialize the state transition matrix

transition_matrix = zeros(num_states, 2);
for i = 1:num_states
input_0 = mod([i-1, bitshift(i, -1)], 2); % Input sequence for transition with
input 0
 input_1 = mod([bitshift(i, -1), 1], 2); % Input sequence for transition with
input 1
transition_matrix(i, 1) = bi2de(conv(input_0, fliplr(g1)), 'left-msb'); % Next
state for input 0
transition_matrix(i, 2) = bi2de(conv(input_1, fliplr(g2)), 'left-msb'); % Next
state for input 1
end

% Populate the code tree

for state = 1:num_states
tree{state} = struct('input', [], 'output', []);
for input = 0:1
next_state = transition_matrix(state, input+1);
tree{state}(input+1).input = input;
tree{state}(input+1).output = mod([fliplr(conv([input, 0], g1(2:end))),
fliplr(conv([0, input], g2(2:end)))], 2);
tree{state}(input+1).next_state = next_state + 1;
end
end
end

% Generate the code tree

code_tree = generate_code_tree(K, g1, g2);

% Display the code tree

disp('Code Tree:');
disp(code_tree);
This program defines the generator polynomials and generates a convolutional
code tree using these polynomials. Each node in the tree represents a state in the
convolutional code, and each transition represents a possible input and the
corresponding output.
#Program9
#Write a MATLAB program to implement algorithm for generating
convolutional code by code trellis.
#To generate a convolutional code using the trellis representation, we can
utilize MATLAB's built-in function poly2trellis. Here's a MATLAB program that
generates a convolutional code using the trellis representation:
% Define the generator polynomials for the convolutional code
g1 = [1 1 1]; % Example generator polynomial 1
g2 = [1 0 1]; % Example generator polynomial 2

% Define the constraint length

K = length(g1) - 1;

% Convert the generator polynomials to a trellis structure

trellis = poly2trellis(K, [g1; g2]);

% Display the trellis structure

disp('Trellis Structure:');
disp(trellis);
This program uses the poly2trellis function to convert the generator polynomials
into a trellis structure. The trellis structure defines the states, transitions, and
outputs of the convolutional code. You can adjust the generator polynomials and
the constraint length according to your specific requirements.
#Program10
#Write a MATLAB program to implement algorithm for encoding and
decoding of BCH code.
#To implement encoding and decoding of BCH (Bose-Chaudhuri-
Hocquenghem) codes in MATLAB, you can use the bchenco and
bchdec functions provided by the Communications Toolbox. Here's an
example program:
% Define parameters
n = 15; % Codeword length
k = 9; % Message length
t = 2; % Error correction capability

% Generate a random message vector

msg = randi([0 1], 1, k);

% Encode the message

codeword = bchenco(msg, n, k);

% Introduce errors into the codeword

received_codeword = codeword;
error_indices = randperm(n, t); % Introduce t random errors
received_codeword(error_indices) = mod(received_codeword(error_indices) + 1,
2);

% Decode the received codeword

decoded_msg = bchdec(received_codeword, n, k);

% Display results
disp('Original Message:');
disp(msg);
disp('Encoded Codeword:');
disp(codeword);
disp('Received Codeword with Errors:');
disp(received_codeword);
disp('Decoded Message:');
disp(decoded_msg);
This program demonstrates how to encode a random message using a BCH code,
introduce errors into the codeword, and then decode the received codeword to
recover the original message. Adjust the parameters n, k, and t according to your
specific requirements.