Fair Trial imperatives in the Context of Juvenile Justice:...

, Ishwor Prasad Khatiwada

Fair Trial imperatives in the

Context of Juvenile Justice♦
(International Human Rights Law Perspectives)

Ishwor Prasad Khatiwada*

Abstract
Right to fair trial is one of the basic human rights. Fair trial
entails equality of arms, whereby an individual accused is
ensured as an equal party, all the rights necessary to defend
him/her in the court against the other party, the state. Since,
right to fair trial is non-derogable, universal right, a juvenile
accused of committing ‘crime’ also possess right to fair trial.
Most international human rights instruments that talk about
fair trial rights do not mention in the text children as the fair
trial beneficiaries. However, through simple analogy all the
fair trial rights of adults can also be accrued for children in
conflict with law. In addition, because of their age and
vulnerability child should also get apart from the general fair
trial guarantee, additional protection while they are tried in
court of law.

♦
This article is based on the Research Report entitled “Ensuring Fair Trial in Cases
Children in Conflict with the Laws”. The Research work was conducted by the author in
2004 / 2005 under Research Partnership Programme, in the Danish Institute for Human
Rights, Copenhagen, Denmark.
*
Judge, Court of Appeal, M.A. (Tribhuvan University), LL.M . Punjab University

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Concurring with the majority judgment of the European Court of Human

Rights (ECHR), Walsh J. in, Nortier v. The Netherlands:
“Juveniles facing criminal charges and trial are as fully entitled as
adults to benefit from all the Convention requirements for a fair trial.
Great care must always be taken to ensure that this entitlement is not
diluted by considerations of rehabilitation or of reform. These are
considerations which should be in addition to all the procedural
protections available. Fair trial and proper proof of guilt are absolute
conditions precedent”. 1

Fair trial or due process rights has been recognized by the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Article 10 provides ‘everyone is
entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and
impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of
any criminal charge against him’. The term ‘everyone’ used in article 10 of
the UDHR denotes all mankind including children. Many other International
and regional human rights instruments also provide provisions for full
equality to a fair trial2 . Hence, Children accused of having infringed penal
law are entitled to all the fair trial guarantees and rights which apply to
adults, and some additional special protection3 . Therefore, it is important to
analyze fair trial guarantees available to human beings while making an
appraisal to the fair trial right of the child.

THE CONCEPT

The right to a fair trial is a basic human right. The terms of fair trial
comprise all processes of criminal justice commencing from the
investigation to ultimate stage of trial that is sentencing of the accused4 . A
decision as to the fairness of the hearing is based on an assessment of the
course of the proceedings as a whole. When this right is violated, people
innocent of any crime face conviction, imprisonment and even execution.
The justice system itself loses credibility. The right to a fair hearing

1
Deliberated in private on 25 February and June 23, 1993.
2
See for detail, Article 9 and 14 of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,
1966 (ICCPR), Article 37 and 40 of The Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989
(CRC), Article 5 and 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms, 1950 (ECHRFF), Article 7 of the African Charter on Human and People’s
Rights (ACHPR), and Article 17 of the African Convention on Rights and Welfare of
the Child (ACRWC).
3
Amnesty International Fair Trial Manual, See for detail, http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/
intcam/fairtrial/fairtria.htm- Accessed on 17 December 2004.
4
Yubaraj Sangroula, Critical analysis of situation of fair trial and safeguard of the rights
of accused in Nepal; KSL Journal, Kathmandu School of Law, (2003) p – 1.

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 Fair Trial imperatives in the Context of Juvenile Justice:..., Ishwor Prasad Khatiwada

encompasses all the procedural and other guarantees of fair trial laid down
in international standards, but is wider in scope. It includes compliance with
national procedures, provided they are consistent with international
standards. Despite fulfilling all national and international procedural
guarantees, however, a trial may still not meet criterion of a fair hearing. 5
The closely related principles of ‘due process’ and the ‘rule of law’ are
fundamental to the protection of human rights. The protection of procedural
due process is not, in itself, sufficient to protect against human rights abuses
but it is the foundation for ‘substantive protection’ against state power. The
protection of human rights, therefore, begins but does not end with fair trial
rights6 .
Procedural fairness is one of the most important aspects of justice
dispensation. The observance of the rules of procedure, and in particular,
the protection of procedural rights of the accused guaranteed by the
constitution and the law is considered as a basic notion of fair trial. The
doctrine of ‘due process’7 , ‘the principles of fundamental justice’8 , ‘the
recognized principles of justice’9 , the fundamental ‘rights regarding
criminal justice’10 and the ‘fair trial’ concept denotes, sometimes,
synonymous meaning and to a great extent they are overlapping. The
fairness in trial implies both institutional and procedural impartiality. A trial
is said to be fair when all the actors of the criminal justice system act in a
fair manner by abiding to the process lay down by the law.
It is a fundamental principle of criminal law that ‘the court is under a duty
to ensure the accused a fair trial.’ Failure to accord to a fair trial violates
minimal constitutional standard of personal liberty. Over the past 50 years,
the courts in many jurisdictions have considered ‘fair trial’ issues. The ‘due
process’ guarantee provided by the 5th and 14th amendment of the American
Constitution puts much emphasis on the proper rules and procedures and its

5
Amnesty International Fair Trial Manual, See for detail http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/
intcam/fairtrial/fairtria.htm - accessed on 17 December 2004.
6
RICHARD CLAYTON AND HUGH TOMLINSON, THE LAW OF HUMAN Rights
Vol.- 1,Oxford University Press, 2000, p – 550.
7
The U.S. 5th and 14th Amendments due process provision and the case law developed in
this regard.
8
Section 7 of the Canadian Charter uses ‘principles of fundamental justice’. In R v
Fisher (1985) 39 MVR 287, Scollin J held that ‘the protection of basic rights by the
principles of fundamental justice must mean more than a mere guarantee of a scenic
route to the prison-camp, and that life, liberty and security of the person are illusory if
they can be unjustly taken away with impunity’.
9
The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal, 1990, Article 84
10
Id. at Article 14

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due observance as an essential condition for securing justice. Despite its

idiosyncrasies, this jurisprudence continues to influence the development of
the law throughout the common law world. 11 The doctrine has been given its
practical expression by the American judicial formulas. The fifth and
fourteenth amendment ‘due process’ clause and sixth Amendment ‘fair trial’
clause of the American Constitution has guaranteed the procedural fairness
in its letter and spirit. The Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution
provides ‘no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
due process of law’. The Sixth amendment further incorporates a few other
fair trial rights and states ‘in all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall
enjoy the right to speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury’. The U.S.
Supreme Court, in the case of Barker v Wingo, has observed that all
accused persons should be treated according to decent and fair procedure.
Proposals to extend some adult liberty rights to children did not succeed in
American constitutional law until the 1960s. By the end of the 1960s, a
rationale for extending constitutional liberty rights to children was
beginning to emerge, expressed in the phrase “students in school as well as
out of school are ‘persons’ under US Constitution. They are possessed of
fundamental rights which the State must protect”.12 However, in the 1970s
the U.S. Supreme Court balked when it had the opportunity to use this
rationale to extend other liberty rights to children. For example, the court
decided that juveniles did not have several of the rights that adults take for
granted: the right to a trial by jury, the right to bail prior to adjudication, and
protection from corporal punishment. By the end of the 1970s the court took
seemingly contradictory position that while minors were protected by the
Constitution and possessed constitutional rights, “the state nevertheless had
greater power to restrict the rights of children” than adults. 13
However, in recent days, many countries retreated from such concept of due
process, thus also strengthening young people’s access to formal justice - a
move away from discretionary, individualized welfare and towards
proportionality and determinacy. After 1970’s a concern for the greater
protection of the rights of young people in juvenile justice and child welfare
systems spread through many jurisdictions.

11
See for detail, CLAYTON supra note 6
12
Philip Fetzer and Laurence Houlgate, Are Juvenile still “Persons” under the United
States Constitution? The International Journal of Children Rights; Vol.-5, No. – 3,
(1997), p – 319-320.
13
Id. at p – 320

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 Fair Trial imperatives in the Context of Juvenile Justice:..., Ishwor Prasad Khatiwada

In India, the right to a fair hearing has been deduced from the doctrine of
natural justice14 , as well as Articles 14 and 21 of the Constitution 15 . In his
majority judgment, Subba Rao J. gave a very wide interpretation to
‘personal liberty’, and said, “it would embrace almost every facet of
personal liberty recognized in the U.S. under the ‘due process’ clause.”16 In
many other subsequent judgments, Indian Supreme Court considered fair
trial issue and examined its constitutionality on the basis of ‘just, fair and
reasonable’ test17 . The court has put much emphasis on the reasonableness
of enacted law and has said that the law should not be regressive, fanciful
and arbitrary; it should be fair, just and reasonable in all respects.
Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal, 1990, The Interim Constitution,
2007 and other procedural laws have recognized the basic principles of fair
trial and the Supreme Court has also at times laid down principles to impart
fair trial rights in Nepal. The Supreme Court of Nepal has observed that
both ‘substantive’ and ‘procedural’ requirements must be met to justify the
deprivation of personal liberty. 18 Despite the respect accorded to the notion
of a fair trial by the constitutional, legal and judicial system, due to the
vintage of the procedural laws and traditional approach of judicial process,
one can find gaps in the application of fair tria l principles in Nepal. 19

FAIR TRIAL - A FREQUENTLY BREACHED RIGHT

The right to fair trial is one of the frequently breached rights. One can find
examples from many jurisdictions. The U.S. Supreme Court stated in ‘Re
Gault (1967)’ that a child receives the worst of both worlds; that he gets
neither the protections (fair trial) accorded to adults nor the solicitous care
or regenerative treatment postulated for children. Richard Clayton and Hugh

14
Union of India v. Tulsiram, (1985) 3 SCC, The Indian Supreme Court
15
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978) S.C. P. – 597
16
Kharak Singh v. State of U. P. AIR 1963 SC 1295
17
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, AIR 1978 SC 597; Rudul Sah v. State of Bihar AIR
1983 SC 1086; H.M. Haskot v. State of Maharashtra AIR 1978 SC 1548; Sunil Batra
(I) v. Delhi Administration, AIR 1978 SC 1675; Hussainaira Khatoon v. State of Bihar
AIR 1979 SC 1360; P.S. Shukla v. Delhi Administration AIR 1980 SC 1535.
18
For example see, Yaggamurti Banjade v Bagmati Special Court NKP 2027 (1970) p –
57
19
See for detail, Ishwor Khatiwada, The Right to life, personal liberty and security under
the Nepalese Constitution, paper presented in a seminar organized by the INTERIGHTS
in Dhulikhel, Nepal, 2003.

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Tomlinson have very aptly summarized the fair trial situation in United
Kingdom. In their words 20 :
“More United Kingdom applications to Strasbourg have been based
on Article 6 than on any other provision of the Convention21 . United
Kingdom Article 6 complaints have been substantively considered by
the court on more than 60 occasions. This is partly a consequence of
the central importance of ‘fair trial rights’ in the Convention, and
partly the result of the failure of public authorities to give proper
weight to such rights. The court has found the United Kingdom to be
in violation of Article 6 on 26 occasions 22 and in violation of Article
7 on one occasion23 .

The practical situation of fair trial guarantees is not so encouraging in Asian

countries. Jurists gathered in Hong Kong, in 1999, had concluded that:
“A close look at the legal provisions for fair trial and actual practices
relating to fair trial in Asia reveals a rather shocking picture. There is
much that is defective in all the components relating to fair trial: the
criminal investigation, prosecution, court proceedings as well as
carrying out of the sentence. Although many countries are signatories
to the ICCPR and some have even made constitutional provisions for
fair trial, an examination of the state responsibilities for providing the
necessary resources, both financial as well as human resources, shows
a lack of serious concern for achieving the objective of ‘justice
through due process…the right to fair trial is denied to people,
particularly to those who do not belong to the affluent sections of
society. These methods vary from the practice of torture, which is
applied quite routinely in many countries, to various forms of neglect
and various forms of pressure exerted by judges and prosecutors of

20
CLAYTON supra note 6 at p - 675.
21
The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms, 1950 (ECHRFF)
22
Golder v United Kingdom (1975) 1 EHRR, 524; Silver v UK (1983) 5 EHRR 347;
Campbell and Fell v UK (1984) 7 EHRR165; W, B, O and H v UK (1987) 10 EHRR 29;
Granger v UK (1990) 12 EHRR 469 (Scotland); Maxwell v UK (1994) 19 EHRR 97
(Scotland); McMichael v UK (1995) 20 EHRR 205; Benham v UK (1996) 22
EHRR293; Murray v UK (1996) 22 EHRR 29 (Northern Ireland); Saunders v UK
(1996) 23 EHRR 313; Findlay v UK (1997) 24 EHRR 221; Robins v UK (1997) 26
EHRR 527; Coyne v UK RJD 1997 – V 1842; Tinnelly and McElduff v UK (1998) 4
BHRC 393, (Northern Ireland); Osman v UK (1998) 5 BHRC 293; Hood v UK (2000)
29 EHRR 365; Cable v UK, The Times, 11 March 1999; Scarth v UK (2000) , 22 Jul
1999; T and V v UK (2000) 7 BHRC 659; McGonnell v UK, (2000) 8 BHRC 56; Rowe
and Davis v UK, The Times, 1 March 2000; Condron v UK, The Times, 9 May 2000;
Magee v UK, The Times, 20 June 2000, Averill v UK, The Times, 20 Jun 2000.
23
Welch v UK (1995) 20 EHRR 247

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some countries. The purpose of denial of fair trial is sometimes

political. Due process is also denied. The people’s faith in institutions
of justice has eroded a great deal due to grave failure in various
institutions of administrative justice.” 24

INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS

GUARANTEEING FAIR TRIAL

Almost all international human rights instruments deal with fair trial rights,
in some way or other25 . Under Convention on the Rights of Child (CRC), a
Special Committee on the rights of the child has been established for the
purpose of examining progress made by State Parties in achieving the
obligation under the CRC26 . The Committee has among other things,
identified a number of guiding principles regarding juvenile justice. Few
important principles being principle of humanity, principle of privacy,
principle of the essential role of the family, principle of inviolability of the
defense, principle of judicial intervention and principle of celerity. 27 All
these principles put emphasis on the protection of the fair trial right of the
children whenever they conflict with law.
Indeed many aspects of procedural fairness have been recognized in
international human rights jurisprudence. However, principles of fairness
cannot be applied by rote but depend on the context of the decision in
question. The most significant interpretation of the right to fair trial by the
treaty bodies of the UN is that this right is not limited to the specifications
in the treaty provisions. The idea of fairness cannot be defined precisely
covering all the eventualities. Therefore, no exhaustive list may be deduced.
Whether or not a particular element applies in a given case will depend on
an individual circumstance. In a number of cases, several factors, such as
sufficient access to legal council, enough time to prepare the defense, etc.,

24
For further details, Seem Decline of Fair Trial in Asia; Asian Seminar on Fair trial 7 –
12 November 1999, Hong Kong; Organized by Asian Human Rights Commission &
Danish Centre for Human Rights, (publication 2000), p 1– 3
25
UDHR apart from proclaiming human rights to “all human beings and thus also to
children in Articles 25 and 26 specially refer to the right of children. ICCPR in Articles
9 and 14 guarantees fair trial rights. CEDAW, CAT, ECHRFF, The Inter-American
Convention on Human Rights, ACHPR, ACRWC, The Beijing Rules are other
international human rights instruments that deal with the rights of child and their fair
trial rights.
26
Article 43
27
The CRC and Juvenile Justice, UNICEF, Sebastien Dumortier, intern, HMG/UNDP
Strengthening the Rule of Law and Reform of the Judiciary Programme; Kathmandu,
December 12, 2003; p-8

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were not necessarily serious violation of fair trial rights in themselves, but,
when taken together, so adversely affected the defendant that the
proceedings were found to be in breach of the right to fair trial in many
jurisdictions. There is no established list of the elements of procedural
fairness. Therefore, the duty of law enforcement official goes beyond the
areas normally covered by constitutional ‘due process rights’ and should
include various ‘principle’ aspects of fair trial.

ASPECTS OF FAIR TRIAL

The right to a fair hearing encompasses a variety of rights. As discussed

earlier, no exhaustive list may be deduced covering all the eventualities of
fair trial. Thus only, some major aspects of fair trial in context of
international and regional human rights instruments shall be discussed. At
the mean time references will be made from different jurisdictions,
especially from India, U.K., and U.S.A., whenever appropriate.
Protection from Ex-post facto law: Various international human rights
instruments provide protection of individual including children from ex-post
facto law.28 More generally, these provisions embody the principle that only
the law can define the crime and prescribe a penalty and the principle that
the criminal law must not be extensively construed to an accused detriment,
for instance by analogy. It follows that an offence must be clearly defined in
law. Any legislation, which criminalizes conduct that at the time it was
committed was lawful, will be in breach of this principle. Interpretation of
the law must operate so as to conform to the principle of reasonable
certainty. However, this does not prevent the clarification or adaptation of
the existing law. Thus, in case S W and C R v UK,29 it was held that the
removal of the ‘marital rape exemption by the House of Lords did not
amount to a retrospective criminalization of conduct as it was foreseeable
continuation of a line of case law.
Double jeopardy: The doctrine of double jeopardy protects a person from
being subjected to trial and be punished for the same offence twice. This
doctrine has been a basic principle of criminal justice and much cherished
constitutional due process right equally applicable to all human beings
including children.

28
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 11 (2), ICCPR Article 15, CRC Article
40, ECHRFF Article 7
29
1995) 21 EHRR 363

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Independent and competent court or tribunal: An independent, impartial

and competent court is imperative to ensure fair trial. It is one of the crucial
conditions for the dispensation of justice in a fair manner. If we put it
negatively, no subversive court or tribunal can ensure a fair trial. There are
numerous legal provisions, judicial principles and practices concerning to an
independent, impartial and competent system of justice.30 It is said that the
organizational, functional and circumstantial situation of judicial
functioning would help to assess its independency. In addition, the Basic
Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary31 recognizes a set of
conditions for an independent and impartial judiciary which is truly one of
the basic requirements for fair trial.
Basic rules on initial contact: The Beijing Rules has mentioned three
important aspects of initial contact with a juvenile 32 . It include (i) immediate
notification to the parents of the child on the apprehension 33 , (ii) considering
the issue of release by a judge, without delay, (iii) respect of legal status,
promoting the well-being, avoiding harm, and due regard to the
circumstances of the case.
Treatment of Juveniles in Custody: The CRC puts an obligation on the
State Parties to ensure human treatment of juveniles in custody 34 . Indeed the
right to life and liberty, that includes a dignified life, continues even behind
the bars. In addition humane treatment is a non-derogable right available to
all human beings, even if s/he is placed behind the bars. The basic need of a
person (including food, rest, sleep, water etc.) must be met in all conditions
and circumstances also when s/he is deprived of his/her liberty.

30
UDHR Article 8, ICCPR Article 14, CRC Article 40, ACRWC Article 17, The
American Convention on Human Rights 1969 Article 8, ECHRFF Article 6 (1)
31
The Principles was adopted by the 7th UN Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the
Treatment of Offenders held at Milan from 26 August to 6 September 1985 and
endorsed by General Assembly resolutions of 29 November 1985 and of 13 December
1985
32
The Beijing Rules 10
33
See ICCPR Article 9 and 14, CRC Article 40, European Convention on Human Rights,
Article 5 (2), Article 6 (3), African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child,
Article 17. The right to be informed of the charge “promptly” requires that information
be given in the manner described as soon as the charge is first made by the competent
authority. It must be provided in a language understandable to either the accused or his
lawyer, failing which the state must provide an appropriate translation of key documents
or statements in order to meet the information required. CLAYTON supra note 6 at p-
664
34
“every child deprived of liberty shall be treated with humanity and respect for the
inherent dignity of the human person, and in a manner which takes into account the
needs of persons of his or her age” Article 37, See also ICCPR Article 10

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Further more the Beijing Rules requires specially instructed and trained
police to deal with children35 . This Rule draws attention to the need for
specialized training of all law enforcement officials who are involved in the
administration of juvenile justice. In Philippines, for instance, a specific law
exists regarding custodial treatment of juveniles, which requires among
others due care of juveniles in custody by police36 . The ECHR has
considered the issue of ill treatment by the police with an accused child in
Assenov v. Bulgaria,37 and stated
“Ill-treatment must attain a minimum level of severity… In respect of
a person deprived of his liberty, recourse to physical force which has
not been made strictly necessary by his own conduct diminishes
human dignity and is in principle an infringement of the right...”

Social contact: International child rights instruments have guaranteed

family and social contact right of a detained child. In particular, the CRC38 ,
the Beijing Rules39 and the ACRWC40 state that every child deprived of their
liberty has right to maintain family and social contacts and communications.
However, such contact may be denied in the interests of the detained child.
The authority is under a positive duty to inform or notify to the parents or
the guardian of the detained child on apprehension and detention.
Separate detention from adults: Under normal conditions children
accused or found guilty of having committed a criminal act should be

35
The Beijing Rules 12.1
36
(i) identify himself properly, (ii) inform the reasons for such custody and advise on
constitutional rights (iii) refrain from using vulgar or profane words and from sexually
harassing or abusing, or making sexual advances on the juvenile (iv) avoid displaying or
using any firearms, weapons, handcuffs, or other instruments of force or restraint, unless
absolutely necessary and only after all other methods of control have been exhausted
and have failed (v) refrain from subjecting the juvenile to greater restraint than is
necessary for his apprehension (vi) avoid violence or unnecessary force (vii) notify the
parents or nearest relative or guardian, if any, and the local social welfare officer as
soon as the apprehension is made (viii) take the juvenile immediately to an available
government medical or health officer for a physical and mental examination, and (ix)
hold the juvenile in secure quarters separate from that of the opposite sex and adult
offenders. The Philippines Rule on Juveniles in Conflict with Law, 2002 section 6.
37
(90/1997/874/1086) Strasbourg Judgment, 28 October 1998. Also see: Tekin v. Turkey,
judgment of June 9, 1998, Reports 1998 – IV, p – 1517-18, Section 52 and 53. Mifsud
Bonnici J. further said, in his dissenting opinion, that, it was up to the Bulgarian
Government “to provide a complete and sufficient explanation as to how the injuries
were caused” as firmly established by the court’s jurisprudence.
38
Article 37
39
Rule 15
40
Article 19 (4)

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detained separately from adults. 41 The CRC42 , ICCPR43 , ACRWC44 , JDLs

Rules45 , Beijing Rules 46 all call for separation of accused minors awaiting
trial and provide that the juveniles under detention pending trial shall be
separated from adults and shall be detained in a separate institution or in a
separate part of an institution also holding adults. However, it does not
mean that a child may be confined in a solitary place. Solitary confinement
also amounts a breach of the fair trial right.
Detention as a last resort: The CRC states, “the arrest, detention or
imprisonment of a child shall be in conformity with the law and shall be
used only as a measure of last resort and for the shortest appropriate period
of time”47 . The first part of this provision reflects an international standard
that may be found in numerous international legal documents. However, a
significant improvement in international standards has been brought about
by the incorporation of the ‘last resort’ and ‘shortest period of time’
standards. These principles originated with the Beijing Rules48 . The JDLs
Rules recommends that imprisonment should be used as a last resort49 . It
also seek to minimize the deprivation of liberty by recommending states
establishment of small open detention facilities with ‘no or minimal security
measures’, to avoid the additional negative effects of deprivations of
liberty. 50 The detention before trial should be ‘avoided to the extent
possible’ and ‘limited to exceptional circumstances’51 . The purpose of
deprivation of liberty for a minor must be for ‘educational supervision’, or
for bringing that person before a competent legal authority. 52

41
See for further discussion, Philip Veerman and Adir Waldman, when can children and
adolescents be detained separately from adults? The International Journal of Children’s
Rights (special issue – Children in Armed Conflict); Volume – 4, No. – 2, (1996) p –
148
42
Article 37 (c)
43
Article 10.2 and 3
44
Article 17
45
The UN Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty, 1990
46
Article 13.4
47
CRC Article 37. Also see: article 9 of the ICCPR and, UN Standard minimum Rules for
Non-custodial Measures (The Tokyo Rules) Rule 5
48
The Beijing Rules, 1985 Rule 17(1 - c)
49
The Rules for the protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty, 1990, Rule 1
50
The JDLs Rule 30. See also the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for Non-
Custodial Measures ‘The Tokyo Rules’
51
The JDLs Rules 17
52
Bouamar v Belgium, 29 February 1988, 11 EHRR 1

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Even where a person surrendered himself to the authorities, the ECHR has
held that the lawfulness of the detention could still be challenged. The
protection will not be lost through voluntary surrender.53 In the European
context, the period of time for which a child detained or imprisoned can be a
relevant but not overriding factor in determining whether a deprivation of
liberty is lawful. 54 The rule that detention should be a last resort and used
only for the shortest appropriate period of time has been included as a
principle in the South African Constitution as well55 . This means that the
period for which deprivation of liberty has been ordered can be tested
against the constitutional requirement by the court.
Access to the court: As the ECHR observed in Golder v. United Kingdom56
“the fair public and expeditious characteristics of judicial proceedings are of
no value at all if there are no judicial proceedings” Access to the court is
thus one of the most important fair trial rights of the accused person,
including child.
Bringing/Producing before a judge: Anyone arrested or detained on a
criminal charge shall be brought promptly before a judge or other officer
authorized by law to exercise judicial power.57 Anyone who is deprived of
his liberty by arrest or detention shall be entitled to take proceedings before
a court, in order that the court may decide without delay on the lawfulness
of his detention and order his release if the detention is not lawful.
Although, the time limit for the production before a judge has not been
precisely prescribed in international human rights instruments leaving room
for appreciation in the national context, it has been a widely accepted
standard of criminal justice that an accused of criminal charge must be
produced before a judge within 24 hours of arrest. Detention beyond that
period would violate right with regard to ensuring prompt appearance before
a judge.58

53
De Wilde, Ooms and Versyp v Belgium, 18 June, 1971, 1 EHRR 373
54
Geraldine Van Bueren, The International Law on the Rights of the Child; Save the
Children, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995 p – 214-215
55
See, Article 28(1)(g) of the South African Constitution
56
(1975) 1 EHRR (European Human Rights Reports), 524. A violation was found in
Silver v United Kingdom (1983) 5 EHRR 347, on similar facts. Also See, Fayed v UK
(1994) 18 EHRR 393
57
ICCPR, Article 9. Also see article 5 (3) of the ECHRFF.
58
Article 24 (3) of the Interim Constitution of Nepal, 1990, Article 22 of Indian
Constitution and many other democratic constitutions have provided 24 hours time
limit. Also see: Rogan v United Kingdom, November29, 1988, 11 EHRR 117

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Remand hearing: Risk of flight or of committing further offences are

legitimate grounds for detention awaiting trial but the longer someone is
detained the more pressing the reasons must be.59 The court must examine
whether there are specific reasons why this suspect must be detained
pending trial, not enough to derive this from the nature of the charge.60
Judicial officer must personally review all the issues in the case and hear the
detainee if s/he wants to be heard61 . The role of the trial court is not to act as
a court of third or fourth instance, but it is to ensure that domestic law has
not been interpreted in an arbitrary manner, since no lawful detention can
ever be regarded as ‘arbitrary’.62 The ECHR has said that the intervals
between reviews of detention for remand prisoners should be relatively
short.63
Prohibition on torture or inhuman and degrading treatment: Infliction
of torture on the accused and extortion of confession by inflic ting any type
of torture is a violation of fair trial right of the accused64 . The thematic
Convention, on the right against torture, the CAT65 states that the state
parties are obliged to stop and prevent torture in their jurisdictions, to make
it a criminal offence, to investigate all allegations of torture and bring to
justice suspected torturers while ensuring that anyone suspected of torture
receive fair treatment throughout proceedings, to exclude evidence obtained
through torture as evidence in trials and to ensure redress for victims. 66
Abuse of the process: The concept of abuse of process is not explicitly
guaranteed right though it may be deduced under fair trial or the ‘personal
liberty’ provision of the constitutions or the international human rights
instruments. However, the English courts now recognize the power of the
court to prevent a prosecution which amounts to an abuse of its processes as
a matter ‘of great constitutional importance and should be jealously

59
Womhoff v Germany, 27 June 1968, 1 EHRR 55
60
Mansur v Turkey, Decision of the court, 08 June 1995, 20 EHRR 535
61
Schiesser v Switzerland, Decision of the ECHR, 4 December 1979, Series A, No. 34
62
Winterwerp v Netherlands, 24 October 1979, 2 EHRR 387
63
Bezicheri v Italy, 25 October 1988, 9 EHRR 71
64
See CRC Article 37, ACRWC Article 17, UDHR Article 5, ICCPR Article 7, ECHRFF
Article 3, ACHPR Article 5
65
The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment (CAT) was adopted by consensus by the UN General Assembly in 1984 and
entered into force in 1987.
66
Amnesty International Fair Trial Manual: http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/
fairtrial/fairtria.htm- Accessed on 17 – 12 – 2004

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preserved’67 . An abuse of process is something so unfair and wrong that the

court should not allow a prosecutor to proceed with what is in all other
respect a regular proceeding. The categories of ‘abuse’ are not closed, but
include: unjustifiable delay and serious prejudice68 , having given a promise,
undertaking or representation that the accused would not be prosecuted69 ,
second time trial for the same facts70 , substantial prejudicial pre-trial
publicity 71 , trial after the loss or destruction of relevant material by the
prosecution 72 , and where it would be contrary to the public interest in the
integrity of the criminal justice system because the prosecution have been
guilty of ‘investigative impropriety’.73
Right to assistance from an interpreter: 74 A person charged with a
criminal offence has right to have free assistance of an interpreter if he
cannot understand or speak the language used in court. The guarantee
applies once the individual is ‘charged’, and to the pre-trial,75 trial and
appeal proceedings. The guarantee is intended to enable the accused to
understand the language of the court, and does not entitle him to insist on
the services of a translator to enable him to conduct his defense in his
language of choice. Whether the accused is incapable of understanding the
language is a determination of fact for the state to make, and the onus is on
the accused to show the inaccuracy of its assessment. The state must make
free interpretation a part of criminal justice facilities so that the financial
cost of an interpreter does not deter the accused from obtaining such
assistance and thus prejudice the fairness of the trial. 76 The substance of the
‘assistance’ extends beyond provision of an interpreter at the hearing to
include translations of ‘all statements which is necessary for him to
understand in order to have a fair trial’.77 This will not require a written
translation of every official document, but it implies that communications

67
Per Lord Salmon, R v Humphrys (1977) AC 1, 46
68
A-G’s Reference (No. 1 of 1990) (1992) QB 630
69
R v Croydon JJ, ex p Dean (1993) 98 Cr App Rep 76
70
DPP v Humphrys (1977) AC 1
71
R v Taylor and Taylor (1993) 98 CR App Rep 361
72
R v Beckford (1996) 1 Cr App Rep 94
73
R v Horseferry Road Magistrate’s Court, ex p Bennett (1994) AC 42
74
See ICCPR Article 14, CRC Article 40, ECHRFF Article 6 (3), ACRWC Article 17
75
See, Kamasinski v Austria (1989) 13 EHRR 36
76
CLAYTON note 6 at p – 670
77
Kamasinski v Austria (1989) 13 EHRR 36, para 74

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between the accused and his legal aid lawyer must be translated 78 and that,
where a lawyer (but not the accused) understands the language in which the
hearing is conducted, that the accused be given a personal translation of the
proceedings in order to enable him to properly instruct his lawyer.79 A trial
is a nullity if the accused cannot comprehend the charges and instruct his
lawyers.80 The Canadian Charter has given importance to the right to an
interpreter. It is the duty of the judge to determine whether the need for an
interpreter has been established. In R v Tran81 , the Canadian Supreme Court
has said that the rig ht to interpreter applies to all proceedings. The
interpretation must meet the standard of ‘continuity, precision, impartiality,
competence and contemporaneousness’.
Right to be assisted by legal counsel:82 Right to legal counsel is one of the
basic due process guarantees. The purpose of the guarantee is to ensure
adequate representation in the case, equality of arms to the accused and
vigilance by the defense over procedural regularity on behalf of his client.
This right has two folds: (a) access to legal counsel, and (b) counseling
freedom. Restricted counseling or the counseling in the presence of police
or the victim would breach the right of the accused.
The UN Human Rights Commission has said that the suspect has a right to
representation at preliminary hearings, at trial and during any relevant
appeals. Legal assistance must be assigned to the accused if he does not
have the means to pay for it.83 In, Reid v Jamaica84 , the Commission further
said that ‘the lawyer assigned to the accused must provide effective
representation’. The accused or his lawyer must have the right to act
diligently and fearlessly in pursuing all available defenses and the right to
challenge the conduct of the case if they believe it to be unfair. When

78
X v Germany (1983) 6 EHRR353
79
CLAYTON supra note 6 at p- 670. Also see: Kamasinski v Austria (1989) 13 EHRR
36.
80
R v Iqbal Begum (1991) 93 Cr App R 96
81
(1994) 2 SCR 361
82
ICCPR Article 14, CRC Article 37 & 40, African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of
the Child Article 17, The Beijing Rules 15
83
Wright and Harvey v Jamaica, Comm No. 459/1991, 27 October 1995
84
UN Comm No 250/1987, 20th July 1990

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exceptionally for justified reasons trials in absentia are held, strict

observance of the rights of the defense is all the more necessary.85
Equality of arms: The right to equality of arms means that all parties must
have access to the records and documents, which are relied on by the court.
The parties should have the opportunity to make copies of the relevant
documents from the court file. Every party to the proceedings must have a
‘reasonable opportunity of presenting his case to the court under conditions
which do not place him at substantial disadvantage vis-a-vis his opponent’ 86 .
A court should not decide a case on the basis of submissions from one side,
which the other has had no opportunity to respond to. Also the preparation
of the case is a key aspect to “equality of arms”, which has been viewed by
the court as a key element of fair procedure. The accused should not be
placed in a position where he is at a substantial disadvantage in presenting
his case compared to the prosecutor 87. UN Human Rights Commission has
observed that ‘it is an important element of a fair trial that the defence
should have an opportunity to view the documentary evidence against the
accused.88
The UDHR provides ‘full equality to a fair hearing’ 89 . The ICCPR and the
CRC also have guaranteed this right. The accused must have adequate time
and facilities for the preparation of defense and to communicate with
counsel. What is “adequate time” depends on the circumstances of each
case, but the facilities must include access to documents and other evidence
which the accused requires to prepare his case, as well as the opportunity to
engage and communicate with counsel. Lawyers should be able to counsel
and to represent their clients in accordance with their established

85
General Comment no. 13(21) of 12 April 1984 on Article 14 ICCPR, UN Doc. HRI/
GEN / 1/ Rev.1 (extract) para. – 11. For further details, also see: Viana Acosta v.
Uruguay, UN Com. 110/1981 – ref. p -10; Conteris v. Uruguay, UN Com. 158/1983 –
ref. p – 11, J. Campbell v. Jamaica, UN Com. 307/1988 – ref. p – 12, La Vende v.
Trinidad and Tobago, UN Com. 554/ 1993 – ref. p – 14, and Brown v. Jamaica, UN
Com. 775/1997 – ref. p. – 16
86
De Haes and Gijsels v Belgium (1997) 25 EHRR 1 para. 53
87
See: Neumeister v Austria, 27 June 1968, 1 EHRR 91, Delcourt v Belgium, January 17,
1970, 1 EHRR 355.
88
UN Human Rights Comm. No 451/1991, 15 July 1994
89
UDHR, Article 10

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professional standards and judgment without any restriction, influence,

pressure or undue interference from any quarter.90
The European Commission on Human Rights has held that if only one of
two witnesses to an oral agreement was allowed to be called91 , if the
applicant was denied a reply to written submissions by counsel for the
state92 ; or if the applicant was not given the opportunity to comment on a
medical report 93 would amount breache of the right to equality of arms.
Detainee has a right to see statements relied upon by the authorities to
justify continuing detention. 94 Accused person in detention awaiting trial
has a right to priority in the organization of trials. The ACHPR has dealt
with the importance and meaning of equality of arms in the African context
and said:
“…The right to fair trial involves fulfillment of certain objective
criteria, including the right to equal treatment. The right to equal
treatment by a jurisdiction, especially in criminal matters means, in
the first place, that both the defence and the public prosecutor shall
have equal opportunity to prepare and present their pleas and
indictment during the trial. This does not mean that identical
treatment should be meted to all accused. The idea here is the
principle that when objective facts are alike, the response of the
judiciary should also be similar. There is a breach of the principle of
equality if judicial or administrative decisions are applied in a
discriminatory manner”.95

Presumption of innocence: The right to remain silent under police

questioning lies at the heart of the notion of fair procedure, and is widely
recognized international standard. 96 By reason of the presumption of
innocence, the burden of proof of the charge is on the prosecution and the
accused has the benefit of doubt. No guilt can be presumed until the charge

90
General Comment no. 13(21) of 12 April 1984 on Article 14 ICCPR, UN Doc. HRI/
GEN / 1/ Rev.1 (extract) para. – 9
91
Dambo Beheer BV v Neitherlands (1993) 18 EHRR 213
92
Ruiz-Meteos v Spain (1993) 16 EHRR 505
93
Feldbrugg v Neitherlands (1986) 8 EHRR 425
94
Lamy v Belgium, 30 March 1989, 11 EHRR 529
95
Avocats Sans Frontieres v. Burundi, Com. 231/99 – ref. p – 30
96
Article 11 (1) of the UDHR, Article 14 of the ICCPR, Article 40 of the CRC, Article 17
of the ACRWC, Article 7 of the ACHPR, and Article 6 (2) of the ECHRFF

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has been proved beyond reasonable doubt 97 . The UN Human Rights

Commission has opined that ‘any confession obtained from the suspect must
be free from direct or indirect physical or psychological pressure’98 . The
onus probandi does not lie with the accused, whose innocence is presumed
and need not be proved. It is the State that has to demonstrate the accused’s
guilt. The presumption will be violated if a judicial decision concerning a
person charged with a criminal offence reflects an opinion that he is guilty
before he has been proved guilty 99 . This rule also protects the accused from
prejudicial statements by public officials that disclose the view that the
applicant is guilty before he has been tried and convicted100 . However, it
does not preclude authorit ies from providing factual information to the
public about criminal investigations, as long as this does not amount to a
declaration of guilt.101
Right to remain silent: The CRC102 provides right ‘not to be compelled to
give testimony or to confess guilt.’ The essence of the right is the notion
that the person whose freedom is placed in question by the judicial process
must be given the choice of whether or not to speak to the authorities 103 . In
Serves v France104 the ECHR has considered the issue of right to sile nce and
protection against self-incrimination and observed that the right of an
accused to remain silent and not to incriminate:
“…rational lies, inter alia, in protecting the ‘person charged’ against
improper compulsion by the authorities and thereby contributing to
the avoidance of miscarriage of justice. The right not to incriminate
oneself, in particular, presupposes that the prosecution in a criminal
case seek to prove their case without resort to evidence obtained

97
General Comment no. 13(21) of 12 April 1984 on Article 14 ICCPR, UN Doc. HRI/
GEN / 1/ Rev.1 (extract) para. – 7. Also see: Gridin v. Russia; UN Com. 770/1997 – ref.
p. – 16.
98
UN Comm No. 330/1988, 7th April 1994. In this case the commission found a violation
of Article 14(3)(g) because the murder suspect was forced under death threats to sign a
confession.
99
See, Allenet de Ribemont v France (1995) 20 EHRR 557 para 35.
100
Krause v Switzerland (1980) 13 DR 213, and Allenet de Ribemont v France (1995) 20
EHRR 557.
101
CLAYTON supra note 6 at p – 663
102
Article 40, The ICCPR Article 14 provides the right ‘not to be compelled to testify
against himself or to confess guilt’. Also see: Canadian Charter, Section 7
103
R v Hebert (1990) 2 SCR 151
104
Serves v France (1997) 28 EHRR 265 para 47

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through methods of coercion or oppression in defence of the will of

the ‘person charged”.

The right to be present at an adversarial hearing:105 Every accused

person has right to be present in an adversarial hearing. He can participate in
the process personally or through his representative and/or lawyer. The
juveniles are vested with the right to be represented by their parents or legal
guardians. The assumption that a parent will adequately safeguard the legal
rights of a child in an interrogation is questionable. It is said that parents are
as likely as the child to be ignorant of legal rights, and may also feel
intimidated. So, parents may only be fit to the role of supportive observer
rather than that of advisor to a child with respect to his or her rights.
However, some parents may even see their role as being to assist the police
to put pressure on the child to confess.106
Trial in absentia: It is general rule that a criminal trial must take place in
the presence of the accused. As a result, no part of the trial should take place
in camera in the absence of the accused. However, in exceptional
circumstances, misbehavior by the accused, voluntary absence107 trial may
proceed in absence of the accused. However, when the accused is absent for
reasons beyond his control then the trial cannot contin ue in his absence
unless he consents. A trial in absentia is acceptable if the state has diligently
but unsuccessfully given the accused notice of the hearing 108 . In some
circumstances it is also permissible to proceed where the applicant is absent
through illness.
The right to examine and cross-examine: The right to defense also
includes the right to examine and cross-examine the witness. The ICCPR109 ,
CRC110 and ECHRFF111 provide guarantee to the accused person the right to
examine witnesses for the prosecution and to call and examine witnesses on
his behalf under the same conditions as witnesses against him. The right

105
ICCPR Article 14, CRC Article 37, ECHRFF Article 5 (4) & 6 (3), ACHPR Article 7
106
Rob white and Christine Alder; The Police and Young People in Australia; Cambridge
University Press, 1994, p – 38.
107
Maleki v. Italy, UN Com. 699/1996 – ref. p – 15 (paras. 9.3 – 9.5). Also see :
Monguya Mbenge v. Zaire, UN Com. 16/1977 – ref. p – 8; Karttunen v. Finland,
UN Com. 387/1989 – ref. p – 13.
108
Colloza and Rubinat v Italy (1985) 7 EHRR 516
109
Article 14 .
110
CRC Article 40.
111
Article 6 (3).

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applies during trial and appeal proceedings, but not at the pre-trial stage.
However, this right is not absolute. But the limitations must not contravene
the principle of equality of arms.
Identity of accuser and witness: It is a fundamental right of a defendant to
know the identity of his accusers, including witnesses for the prosecution
brought against him. This is a right, which should only be denied, in rare
and exceptional circumstances. Screens may be used to protect the
anonymity of witnesses. Whether or not these circumstances exist is a
matter for the discretion of the concerned trial judge.
Public hearing imperative and camera proceedings: The public character
of hearings protects litigants against the administration of justice in secret
without public scrutiny. It is also one of the means whereby confidence in
the courts can be maintained. Open justice promotes the rule of law.
Citizens of all ranks in a democracy must be subject to transparent legal
restraint, especially those holding judicial or executive offices. Publicity
whether in the courts, the press or both, is a powerful deterrent to abuse of
power and improper behavior. Lord Woolf MR gave four reasons for the
principle of open justice112 (1) it deters inappropriate behavior on the part of
the court (2) it maintains public confidence in the administration of justice
and enables the public to know that justice is being administered fairly, (3)
it may result in new evidence becoming available, and (4) it makes
uninformed and inaccurate comment about court proceedings less likely.
Nevertheless, the court has an inherent power to exclude the public where
the public hearing would defeat the end of the justice. There are number of
grounds on which such an order may be made including the fact that the
case involves the maintenance and upbringing of minors. Also a private
hearing is necessary to protect the interests of any child. The ICCPR113
provides general rule for a public hearing and sets exceptions for hearing in
camera. Under the English system, the public, but not the press, can be
excluded when a child is testifying in a case of alleged indecency. 114 The
Canadian Charter115 provides that a person charged with an offence is
entitled to a ‘fair and public hearing’. The Supreme Court of Canada

112
Ex Parte Guardian Newspapers (1999) 1 All ER 65, 79, 82. See CLAYTON supra note
6 p – 583
113
Article 14
114
R v Legal Aid Board, ex p Kaim Todner(a firm) (1998) 3 WLR 925, 934, As cited in
CLAYTON supra note 6 at p 584-585
115
Section 11(d)

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observed that there was no justification for a requirement that all trials of
juveniles should be held in camera. A complete public trial should be the
rule and exceptions should be established on a case-by-case basis116 .
Privacy and confidentiality: The CRC states that every child has right “to
have his or her privacy fully respected at all stages of the proceedings”117 .
The Beijing Rules provides confidential measures in two ways;118 viz.: (1)
Records of juvenile offenders shall be kept strictly confidential and closed
to third parties. Access to such records shall be limited to persons directly
concerned with the disposition of the case at hand or other duly authorized
persons (2) Records of juvenile offenders shall not be used in adult
proceedings in subsequent cases involving the same offender.
Hearing within a reasonable time: The notion of criminal justice that
‘justice delayed is justice denied’ has found places in many human rights
instruments119 . A speedy trial means a trial held reasonably and
expeditiously at each and every stage of justice processes. The purpose of
‘the right to trial within a reasonable time’ is to minimize three detrimental
effects of pre-trial detention: time spent by an accused in custody or under
restrictive bail conditions; anxiety of the accused awaiting trial; and
deterioration of evidence necessary to the accused defense.
Where a complaint is made of denial of the right to speedy trial, it is
primarily for the prosecution to justify and explain the delay, which the
court ought to weigh on the basis of all the circumstances of a given case
including the nature of the alleged offence, the number of the accused and
their witnesses, the workload of the court concerned, prevailing local
conditions and so on, before pronouncing upon the complaint. It is not
expedient to determine with precision when and in what way the right to
speedy trial has been denied. Whether delay is reasonable is a matter of fact
which is likely to be entangled with constitutional right to personal liberty,
while an inordinately long delay may be taken as presumptive proof of
prejudice. A plea that a speedy trial has been denied cannot be accepted by a
claim from the prosecution that at no time speedy trial was demanded by the

116
CLAYTON supra note 6 at p – 734
117
Article 40
118
The Beijing Rule 21
119
Article 9 and 14 of the ICCPR, CRC Article 40, Article 5 (3) and 6 (1) of the ECHRFF,
ACHPR, Article 7, Beijing Rules

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accused.120 The economic difficulties is no excuse for excessive length of

procedure, because the rights set forth in the ICCPR constitute minimum
standards which all state parties have agreed to observe 121 . The fact that a
defendant in a criminal case is detained in custody is a factor to be
considered in assessing reasonableness122 . Factors such as the workload of
the court and a shortage of resources are not a sufficient justification for
delays in a trial123 . No general guidelines have been laid down for what
constitutes a ‘reasonable time’. It is submitted that the proper approach is to
decide whether the overall delay is ‘unreasonable’ and then to consider
whether the state is able to justify each period of delay. 124
In, Assenov v. Bulgaria 125 , the court observed that ‘the applicant was a
minor and thus, according to Bulgarian law, should have been detained on
remand only in exceptional circumstances. It was, therefore, more than
usually important that the authorities displayed special diligence in ensuring
that he was brought to trial within a reasonable time’. In Hussainara
Khatoon126 , the Indian Supreme Court held that speedy trial is an essential
ingredient of reasonable, fair and just procedure under article 21 of the
Constitution. In A. R. Antulay127 , the court observed that the fair, just and
reasonable procedure implicit in the Constitution is a right of the accused to
be tried speedily at all possible stages of judicial processes. State cannot
invoke excuses such as difficult economic circumstances to justify delays in
criminal procedure.128
Reasoned decision: A judge determining an issue of law or fact is under a
duty to give reason for his decision. This is a function of ‘due process and
justice’ and has a two-fold rationale: the party should be in no doubt why
they have won or lost and a fully reasoned judgment is more likely to be

120
Harishchandra Prasad Upadhyay, The speedy and Fair Trial Imperative and Judiciary,
Paper presented at the Seminar cum workshop on Criminal Justice System for District
Judiciary, HMG/UNDP Reform of the Judiciary Programme, Dhulikhel, Nepal (2002)
P – 215, 221.
121
Lubuto v. Zambia, UN Com. 390/1990 – ref. p – 13 (para 7.3).
122
Abdoella v Netherlands (1992) 20 EHRR 585
123
See, Zimmerman and Steiner v Switzerland (1983) 6 EHRR 17 para29
124
CLAYTON supra note 6 at p – 654
125
(90/1997/874/1086) Strasbourg Judgment, 28 October 1998.
126
Hussainara Khatoon v State of Bihar, 1980, SCC 88 Also see: Hussainara v. Home
Secretary, 1979, SC. p – 1360; Sher Singh v. State of Punjab, 1983, SC. P – 465
127
A. R. Antulay and others v R. S. Nayak, (1992) 1 SCC 225.
128
Fillastre and Bizouar v Bolivia, UN Communication no. 219/1986, 25th July 1994.

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soundly based on the evidence129 . A court must give reasons for its
judgment so that any party with an interest in the case is informed on the
basis of the decision, and to enable the accused in a criminal trial to exercise
the right of appeal available to him. Courts in national jurisdictions are
given a great deal of discretion as to the content and structure of their
judgments, and a reasoned judgment does not have to deal with every
argument raised, provided that it indicates the grounds on which the
decision is based with ‘sufficient clarity’. However, if a point would be
decisive for the case if accepted, the court should address it.130
Right to appeal: The CRC131 states that every child has right, if considered
to have infringed the penal law, to have this decision and any measures
imposed in consequence thereof reviewed by a higher competent,
independent and impartial authority or judicial body according to law. Thus,
at least, one time appellate right has been recognized by the international
human rights instruments.

FAIR TRIAL CONCERN IN DIVERSIONARY PROCESS

The CRC132 exhorts, wherever appropriate and desirable, to encourage

measures for dealing with children in conflict with law without resorting to
judicial proceedings, provided that human rights and legal safeguards are
fully respected. It is this provision that lays the basis for the promotion of
diversion, whic h entails channeling cases away from courts to a variety of
programs and other alternative courses of action. It requires ‘human rights
and legal safeguards must also be protected where children are diverted
from judicial proceedings’ 133 .
The purpose of diversion is not to provide children an easy ride and
therefore get away from formal criminal justice process after commission of
crimes but to give them options that enhance their sense of responsibility
and accountability. Discretion is necessary in order to guarantee the most

129
CLAYTON supra note 6 at P – 588.
130
Id, at p-652-653, Also see, Van der Hurk v Netherlands (1994) 18 EHRR 481, para 61,
Hadjianastassiou v Greece (1992) 16 EHRR 219 para 33, and Hiro Balani v Spain
(1994) 19 EHRR 565 para 28)
131
Article 40.
132
Article 40 (3)(b)
133
JULIA SLOTH – NIELSEN, THE INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK, CHILD
JUSTICE IN AFRICA – A GUIDE TO GOOD PRACTICE, Community Law Centre,
2004, University of western Cape, P. – 28

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appropriate action to be taken in each individual case. At the same time, it

should be realized that discretion is not arbitrary. The discretion must be
exercised in conformity with human rights norms and legal safeguards
guaranteed by the law. Any diversionary measures require the consent of the
juvenile or her/his parents or guardian and the consent should be made
knowingly and voluntarily. All the accused have right to a fair trial and this
right cannot be violated except it is voluntarily waived by the accused for
meaningful purpose.
Diversion can be used where a child admits offence is reasonably found
guilty of offence. The diversion process include youth who would otherwise
be adjudicated as delinquent; and those who would probably be filtered out
of the formal justice system prior to court disposition. Since diversion
process requires confession or reasonably proved situation as pre-condition,
considerations should be given for the protection of the constitutional right
to presumption of innocence. The accused person’s right to a fair trial and
due process right have to be protected and respected even in diversion
process. Diversion involves the referral of cases away from the criminal
justice system where suitable evidence for prosecution exists. It is,
therefore, imperative that children are not diverted to a program or other
informal diversion option in lieu of the possibility of prosecution. In other
words, if the state does not have sufficient evidence to prosecute a matter, it
cannot resort to diverting the child as a ‘second prize’. The state cannot
absolve itself of the onus of proving the guilt of an accused beyond a
reasonable doubt by making use of diversion to achieve a result it would
otherwise not obtain. This would constitute a serious invasion of the
accused person’s right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty 134 .
Likewise, an accused person’s right to remain silent might potentially be
compromised by the possibility of diversion. Diversion should be preceded
by the child’s acceptance of responsibility for his or her actions. There is a
danger that a child could be unduly influenced into accepting responsibility
for an offence at the expense of his/her right to remain silent. This right
being inviolable, only a voluntary acceptance of responsibility gives
credence to diversion procedures135 .

134
JACQUI GALLINETTI, LUKAS MUNTINGH AND ANN SKELTON, CHILD
JUSTICE CONCEPT, CHILD JUSTICE IN AFRICA – A GUIDE TO GOOD
PRACTICE, Community Law Centre, 2004, University of western Cape, P. – 33
135
Id.

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Waiver of due process rights :136 The U.S. Supreme Court has set a
standard for sanction as to whether ‘the waiver is intelligent, understanding
and voluntary’. In addition, the Supreme Court said that in case of juvenile
it should not be based solely on one characteristic or procedure, but rather
on all the relevant circumstances of the case, that is, the totality of
circumstances test137 . So far the waiver of the right to counsel is concerned,
American States have different regulations. Some States have made it
mandatory and others permit it for waiver. The conditions for waiver also
vary from state to states. Some restrict it to cases where the charge is not a
felony, and where there is no possibility of commitment or placement of the
child; others make waiver possible only if the parents, guardian, or
custodian is available to represent the child.
Moreover, the court may not accept a waiver of counsel unless it
determines, after thorough inquiry, that the juvenile has conferred at least
once with a lawyer and is waiving the right competently, voluntarily and
with a full understanding of the consequences138 . Some States of USA
impose restrictions on juvenile’s waiver of fair trial right. The reason for
this is based on concern that a juvenile would not be capable of making an
intelligent decision to waive the right, and some waiver decisions may be
the product of express or implied coercion by parents, police or court
officials as the youth perceive that exercising this right will provoke hostile
official reactions. Also, they may feel that such waiver can show the
cooperative attitude necessary to warrant more lenient punishment from the
court.139

136
U.S. Supreme Court in Fare v Michael C (1979) has underlined a nine-point standard as
criteria in determining whether a juvenile is capable of understanding and waiving one
or more of his constitutional rights. Those nine points are: (1) Age (2) Education (3)
Knowledge of the substance of the charge, and the nature of the right to remain silent
and the right to an attorney (4) Whether the accused is allowed to contact with parents,
guardian, attorney, or other interested adults (5) Whether the interrogation occurred
before or after indictment (6) Methods used in interrogation (7) Length of interrogation
(8) Whether the accused refused to voluntarily give statements on prior occasions (9)
Whether the accused had repudiated an extra-judicial statement at a later date136.
137
DEAN J. CHAMPION; THE JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM – DELINQUENCY,
PROCESSING AND THE LAW; 2001, p – 367
138
National Institute for Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, U.S.
Department of Justice, ‘Pre-adjudication and Adjudication Processes’ Vol. VII of IX, p.
– 52.
139
Xiaojie Wen, Comparative Research of Juvenile Justice; The Research Partnership
4/2002, The Danish Centre for Human Rights, P – 58.

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Kathmandu Law Review, Vol. 1, No. 1

CONCLUDING WORDS

A child has the right wit hout any discrimination to receive such measures of
protection as required by his status as a minor from the family, society and
the state. No doubt, juveniles facing criminal charges and trial are as fully
entitled as adults to benefit from all the requirements for a fair trial.
Children are also entitled to special measures of protection in addition to the
measures which state parties are under a duty to ensure to all individuals.
The child rights instruments further stipulates that in all actions concerning
children, whether undertaken by public or private social welfare institutions,
courts of law, administrative authorities or legislative bodies, the best
interests of the child shall be a primary consideration.
However, juvenile justice critics have been consistently asserting that within
the past three decades, judicial decisions, legislative amendments and
administrative changes have transformed the juvenile court “from a
nominally rehabilitative social welfare agency into a scaled-down second-
class criminal court that provides young offenders with neither therapy nor
justice.” 140 Hence the substantive and procedural convergence between
juvenile and criminal courts should eliminate virtually all of the conceptual
and operational differences in strategie s of criminal social control for youths
and adults.
•

140
BARRY C. FELD, REHABILITATION, RETRIBUTION AND RESTORATIVE
JUSTICE: ALTERNATIVE CONCEPTIONS OF JUVENILE JUSTICE; Restorative
Juvenile Justice: Repairing the Harm of Youth Crime; Gordon Bazemore and Lode
Walgrave (ed.), Criminal Justice Press, New York (1999) p – 17.

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