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CIE IGCSE Physics Your notes

5.1 The Nuclear Model of the Atom

Contents
5.1.1 The Atom
5.1.2 The Nucleus
5.1.3 Protons, Neutrons & Electrons
5.1.4 Fission & Fusion

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5.1.1 The Atom

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Atomic Structure
Atoms are the building blocks of all matter
They are incredibly small, with a radius of only 1 × 10-10 m
This means that about one hundred million atoms could fit side by side across your thumbnail
Atoms have a tiny, dense nucleus at their centre, with electrons orbiting around the nucleus
The radius of the nucleus is over 10,000 times smaller than the whole atom, but it contains almost all of
the mass of the atom
They consist of small dense positively charged nuclei, surrounded by negatively charged electrons

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An atom: a small positive nucleus, surrounded by negative electrons

(Note: the atom is around 100,000 times larger than the nucleus!) Your notes

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Rutherford's Experiment
EXTENDED Your notes
In 1909 a group of scientists were investigating the Plum Pudding model
Physicist, Ernest Rutherford was instructing two of his students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden
to carry out the experiment
This involved the scattering of alpha (α) particles by a sheet of thin metal supports the nuclear model of
the atom
A beam of alpha particles (He2+ ions) were directed at a thin gold foil
They expected the alpha particles to travel through the gold foil, and maybe change direction a small
amount
Instead, they discovered that :
Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the foil
Some of the alpha particles changed direction but continued through the foil
A few of the alpha particles bounced back off the gold foil
The bouncing back could not be explained by the Plum Pudding model, so a new model had to be
created
This was the first evidence of the structure of the atom

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Your notes

When α-particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through but a very small number
bounce straight back
When α-particles are fired at thin pieces of gold foil:
The majority of them go straight through (A)
This happens because the atom is mainly empty space
Some are deflected through small angles (B)
This happens because the positive α-particles are repelled by the positive nucleus which contains
most of its mass
A very small number are deflected straight back (C)
This is because the nucleus is extremely small

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Atoms & Ions

An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of electrons Your notes
An atom will lose or gain electrons to become more stable
A stable atom is normally electrically neutral
This means it has the same number of protons (positive charge) and electrons (negative charge)
Positive ions are therefore formed when atoms lose electrons
There will be more protons than electrons
Negative ions are therefore formed when atoms gain electrons
There will be more electrons than protons

The difference between positive and negative ions

Exam Tip
You may hear the term 'net charge'. This just means the 'overall' charge of the atom. If an atom has 5
protons, 5 neutrons and 6 electrons, it has a net negative charge because it's a negative ion (more
electrons than protons).
Remember which way around the charges are by proton being positive.

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5.1.2 The Nucleus

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Composition of the Nucleus
The structure of the atom is made up of a:
Positively charged nucleus at the centre (made up protons and neutrons)
Negatively charged electrons in orbit around the nucleus

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom

Protons have a positive charge, whilst neutrons have no charge
This is why the nucleus is overall positive

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Be careful with your terminology:
Atom = nucleus (proton and neutron) and electrons
Nucleus = protons and neutrons at the centre of the atom

Describing the Nucleus

Proton Number, Z
The number of protons in an atom is called its proton number (it can also be called the atomic number)
Elements in the periodic table are ordered by their atomic number
Therefore, the number of protons determines which element an atom is
The atomic number of a particular element is always the same
For example:
Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. It always has just one proton
Sodium has an atomic number of 11. It has 11 protons
Uranium has an atomic number of 92. It has 92 protons
The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons in an atom
This is because atoms have the same number of electrons and protons in order to have no overall
charge
Nucleon Number, A
The total number of particles in the nucleus of an atom is called its nucleon number (or mass number)
The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the atom
The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number
Number of Neutrons = Nucleon Number - Proton Number
For example, if a sodium atom has a mass number of 23 and an atomic number of 11, then the number of
neutrons would be 23 – 11 = 12

Exam Tip
You may have noticed that the number of electrons is not part of the mass number. This is because
electrons have a tiny mass compared to neutrons and protons. We say their mass is negligible when
compared to the particles in the nucleus.

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Nuclide Notation
A nuclide is a group of atoms containing the same number of protons and neutrons Your notes
For example, 5 atoms of oxygen are all the same nuclide but are 5 separate atoms
Atomic symbols are written in a specific notation called nuclide or ZXA notation

Atomic symbols in AZX Notation describe the constituents of nuclei

The top number A represents the nucleon number or the mass number
Nucleon number (A) = total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
The lower number Z represents the proton or atomic number
Proton number (Z) = total number of protons in the nucleus
Note: In Chemistry, the nucleon number is referred to as the mass number and the proton number as
the atomic number. The periodic table is ordered by atomic number
An example of an atomic symbol is:

Atomic symbols, like the one above, describe the constituents of nuclei
When given an atomic symbol, you can figure out the total number of protons, neutrons and electrons
in the atom:
Protons: The number of protons is equal to the proton number

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Electrons: Atoms are neutral, and so in a neutral atom the number of negative electrons must be
equal to the number of positive protons
Neutrons: The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the proton number from the Your notes
nucleon number
The term nucleon is used to mean a particle in the nucleus – ie. either a proton or a neutron
The term nuclide is used to refer to a nucleus with a specific combination of protons and neutrons

Worked example
The element symbol for gold is Au. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in the gold atom?

ANSWER: D
Step 1: Determine the atomic and mass number
The gold atom has an atomic number of 79 (lower number) and a mass number of 197 (top number)
Step 2: Determine the number of protons
The atomic number is equal to the number of protons
The atom has 79 protons
Step 3: Calculate the number of neutrons

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The mass number is equal to the number of protons and neutrons

The number of neutrons is equal to the mass number minus the atomic number
Your notes
197 - 79 = 118
The atom has 118 neutrons
Step 4: Determine the number of electrons
An atom has the same number of protons and electrons
The atom has 79 electrons

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Isotopes
Although the number of protons in a particular element is always the same, the number of neutrons can Your notes
be different
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have an equal number of protons but a different number
of neutrons
This means that each element can have more than one isotope
Isotopes tend to be more unstable due to their imbalance of protons and neutrons
This means they're more likely to decay
In the diagram below are three isotopes of Hydrogen:

Hydrogen has three isotopes, each with a different number of neutrons

Isotopes occur naturally, but some are more rare than others
For example, about 2 in every 10,000 Hydrogen atoms is Deuterium
Tritium is even more rare (about 1 in every billion billion hydrogen atoms)

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Worked example
Your notes
Which of the following elements are isotopes of each other?

35 Cl and 35 Cl
A 17 18
238 U and 235 U
B 92 92
12 C and 14 C
C 6 8
16 O and 14 N
D 8 7

Answer: B
In nuclide notion, the top number is the nucleon number (number of protons and neutrons) and the
bottom number is the proton number (number of protons)
Isotopes are two of the same elements
This eliminates option D since one is oxygen (O) and the other nitrogen (N)
Which have the same number of protons
This eliminates option C and A
Their proton numbers are different for the same element
But a different number of neutrons
Therefore, the correct answer is B

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5.1.3 Protons, Neutrons & Electrons

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Relative Charge
The different particles that make up atoms have different properties
Relative mass is a way of comparing particles. It is measured in atomic mass units (amu)
A relative mass of 1 is equal to mass of 1.67 × 10-27 kg
Charge can be positive or negative
Relative charge is, again, used to compare particles
The fundamental charge is equal to the size of the charge on a proton and an electron, however the
electron's charge is negative
The properties of each of the particles are shown in the table below:
Table of Relative Charge & Mass

If have a particle has 0 relative charge, this means it is neutral

Both the proton and neutron relative mass is 1, this means that they have the same mass

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Nuclear Charge
Nuclear charge is normally stated as the relative charge of the nucleus Your notes
The term 'relative' refers to the charge of the particle divided by the charge of the proton
The proton number is the number of protons in a nucleus
Since nuclei are made up of only protons and neutrons, the proton number determines the relative
charge on a nucleus

Worked example
What is the relative charge of the Chromium nucleus 52 Cr?
24

Step 1: Determine the number of protons

The number of protons is the proton number
This is the bottom number in the AZX notation

This Chromium nucleus has 24 protons

Step 2: State the relative mass of 1 proton
1 proton has a relative charge of +1
Step 3: Multiple relative charge of 1 proton by the number of protons
This nucleus of Chromium therefore has a relative charge of +24

Exam Tip
Charge can be either positive (+) or negative (–). Therefore, remember to include the sign when writing
the relative charge!

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Nuclear Mass
Nuclear mass is stated as the relative mass of the nucleus Your notes
The term 'relative' refers to the mass of the particle divided by the mass of the proton
The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
The nucleon number (mass number) determines the relative mass of a nucleus

Worked example
What is the relative mass of the Chromium nucleus 52 Cr?
24

Step 1: Determine the number of protons and neutrons

The number of protons and neutrons is the mass (nucleon) number
This is the top number in the AZX notation

This Chromium nucleus has 52 protons and neutrons

Step 2: State the relative mass of 1 proton and neutron
1 proton has a relative mass of 1
1 neutron has a relative mass of 1
Step 3: Multiple relative charge of 1 proton and neutron by number of protons and neutrons
This nucleus of Chromium therefore has a relative mass of 52

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Exam Tip
Your notes
The relative mass of a nucleus only includes the protons and neutrons. However, this is pretty much the
relative mass of the whole atom because electrons have negligible (very little) mass in comparison to
the proton and neutron.

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5.1.4 Fission & Fusion

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Fission & Fusion
Nuclear Fission
There is a lot of energy stored within the nucleus of an atom
This energy can be released in a nuclear reaction such as fission
Nuclear fission is defined as:
The splitting of a large, unstable nucleus into two smaller nuclei
Isotopes of uranium and plutonium both undergo fission and are used as fuels in nuclear power
stations
During fission, when a neutron collides with an unstable nucleus, the nucleus splits into two smaller
nuclei (called daughter nuclei) as well as two or three neutrons
Gamma rays are also emitted

Large nuclei can decay by fission to produce smaller nuclei and neutrons with a lot of kinetic energy
The products of fission move away very quickly
Energy transferred is from nuclear potential energy to kinetic energy

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The mass of the products (daughter nuclei and neutrons) is less than the mass of the original nucleus
This is because the remaining mass has been converted into energy which is released during the
fission process Your notes
The processes involved in nuclear fission can be shown in different ways as diagrams
These diagrams show how the reaction happens in a way that is easy to understand

A neutron is fired into the target nucleus, causing it to split

The diagram above is useful because it shows clearly the different parts of the fission reaction
An example of a nuclide equation for fission is:
235 U + 1n → 92 Kr + 141 Ba + 3 1n + energy
92 0 36 56 0

Where:
235 U is an unstable isotope of Uranium
92
1n is a neutron
0

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92 Kr us an unstable isotope of Krypton

36
141 Ba is an unstable isotope of Barium Your notes
56
The above equation represents a fission reaction in which a Uranium nucleus is hit with a neutron and
splits into two smaller nuclei – a Krypton nucleus and a Barium nucleus, releasing three neutrons in the
process
The sum of top (nucleon) numbers on the left-hand side equals the sum of top number on the right-
hand side:
235 + 1 = 92 + 141 + (3 × 1)
The same is true for the lower (proton) numbers:
92 + 0 = 36 + 56 + (3 × 0)
Nuclear Fusion
Small nuclei can react to release energy in a process called nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is defined as:
When two light nuclei join to form a heavier nucleus
This process requires extremely high temperatures to maintain
This is why nuclear fusion has proven very hard to reproduce on Earth
Stars use nuclear fusion to produce energy
In most stars, hydrogen atoms are fused together to form helium and produce lots of energy

Two hydrogen nuclei are fusing to form a helium nuclei

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The energy produced during nuclear fusion comes from a very small amount of the particle’s mass
being converted into energy
Albert Einstein described the mass-energy equivalence with his famous equation: Your notes
E = m × c2
Where:
E = energy released from fusion in Joules (J)
m = mass converted into energy in kilograms (kg)
c = the speed of light in metres per second (m/s)
Therefore, the mass of the product (fused nucleus) is less than the mass of the two original nuclei
This is because the remaining mass has been converted into energy which is released when the
nuclei fuse
The amount of energy released during nuclear fusion is huge:
The energy from 1 kg of hydrogen that undergoes fusion is equivalent to the energy from burning
about 10 million kilograms of coal
An example of a nuclide equation for fusion is:
2H + 1H → 3He + energy
1 1 2

Where:
2H is deuterium (isotope of hydrogen with 1 proton and 1 neutron)
1
1H is hydrogen (with one proton)
1
3He is an isotope with helium (with two protons and one neutron)
2

Worked example
A nuclide equation for nuclear fission is stated as:

Calculate the number of neutrons, N emitted in this reaction.

Step 1: Calculate the nucleon number on the left side of the equation

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235 + 1 = 236
Step 2: Calculate the nucleon number on the right side of the equation Your notes
96 + 137 + (N × 1) = 233 + N
Step 3: Equate the nucleon number for both sides of the equation
236 = 233 + N
Step 4: Rearrange for the number of neutrons, N
N = 236 – 233 = 3

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