4.

1 INTRODUCTION
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device that amplifies or
switches electrical signals by utilizing the interaction between two p-n junctions. It operates
based on the control of current through a small input at the base terminal, which governs a
larger current flow between the collector and emitter terminals. Depending on the
arrangement of the semiconductor layers, a BJT can be either NPN or PNP in configuration.
This experiment focused on analyzing the electrical characteristics of a BJT to understand its
behavior across different regions of operation, namely the cutoff, linear, and saturation
regions. By plotting the input and output characteristic curves, the relationship between the
base current (IB), collector current (IC), and collector-emitter voltage (VCE) was explored. The
experiment also aimed to determine the transistor’s current gain (β), as well as identify the
load line and the quiescent or operating point (Q-point), which are critical for biasing and
stability in analog circuit applications. These parameters are also essential in designing stable
and efficient amplifier circuits.
Understanding the characteristics and limitations of BJTs under various biasing conditions
provides insight into their role in signal amplification and switching. Accurately determining
the operating point and load line is essential in designing efficient transistor-based circuits, as
it allows for predictable and consistent performance under dynamic conditions.
4.2 THEORY
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a current-controlled, three-layer semiconductor device
that consists of two p-n junctions. It has three terminals: the base (B), collector (C), and
emitter (E). The two types of BJTs are NPN and PNP, depending on the doping
configuration. In active mode, an NPN transistor conducts when the base-emitter junction is
forward-biased and the base-collector junction is reverse-biased. In the NPN transistor used
in this experiment, charge carrier flow occurs when electrons injected from the forward-
biased base-emitter junction diffuse across the thin base region and are collected by the
reverse-biased base-collector junction. This process establishes the transistor's fundamental
current amplification property, where small changes in base current (IB) control much larger
collector currents (IC).

When a BJT operates in its active region, it behaves like a current amplifier. The collector
current IC is proportional to the base current IB, as shown by the following equation:

I c =β I B (1)

Where:

 IC is the collector current (A)

 IB is the base current (A)
 β is the DC current gain, typically ranging from 50 to 300 for small-signal transistors

In an NPN transistor like the 2N2222 used in this experiment, current flow is governed by
minority carrier diffusion across the forward-biased base-emitter junction and collection by
the reverse-biased base-collector junction. The transistor's behavior divides into three distinct
operating regions, each characterized by specific bias conditions and charge carrier dynamics:
1. Cutoff Region: In this region, both the base-emitter and base-collector junctions are
reverse-biased. The transistor is off, and both IB and IC are approximately zero. The transistor
acts like an open switch. It occurs when both junctions are reverse-biased (VBE < 0.5V and
VBC < 0). In this state, negligible current flows through the device, as the potential barriers
prevent significant carrier injection.

👉 Insert Image: Diagram of the cutoff region on the BJT output characteristics
📌 Caption: Figure 1: Cutoff region – no base current, negligible collector current

2. Active (Linear) Region: In this region, the collector current is independent of VCE and
depends mainly on IB. It occurs when the base-emitter junction is forward-biased (VBE ≈
0.7V) while the base-collector junction remains reverse-biased. Electrons injected from the
emitter diffuse across the thin base region, with most collected by the strong electric field at
the collector junction. The transistor operates as an amplifier, with IC linearly related to IB via
Equation (1).

👉 Insert Image: Diagram showing active region curve segments for multiple base currents
📌 Caption: Figure 2: Active region – transistor amplifies the input signal
3. Saturation Region: In saturation, both junctions are forward-biased. The transistor is fully
on, and current flows freely from collector to emitter. Increasing IB further does not
significantly increase IC. The BJT behaves like a closed switch with minimal VCE typically
0.2 V–0.3 V for silicon transistors.

👉 Insert Image: Graph showing flattening of ICI_C at low VCEV_{CE}

📌 Caption: Figure 3: Saturation region – BJT behaves like a closed switch

In the analysis and design of BJT amplifier circuits, determining the load line and operating
point (Q-point) is essential to ensure that the transistor operates in the desired region which is
typically the active region for analog amplification.

The DC load line: represents the constraint imposed on the transistor by the external circuit,
particularly the collector resistor RC and the supply voltage VCC. It is derived by applying
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) around the collector loop of a common-emitter
configuration:

V CC =IcRc+ V CE (2)

Rearranging this equation gives the linear relationship between ICand VCE:

V CE =V CE −IcRc (3)

Equation (3) is the load line equation, and when plotted on the transistor’s output
characteristics graph, it forms a straight line. This line intercepts the vertical axis (where V CE
= 0) at:

V cc
I c(max )= (4 )
Rc

and the horizontal axis (where IC = 0) at:

V CE(max )=V cc (5)

These two intercepts define the endpoints of the DC load line. Every possible operating state
of the transistor, based on the external supply and resistor, must lie somewhere along this
line.

The Operating Point also known as the Q-point (quiescent point) is the steady-state operating
point of the transistor when no input signal is applied. It is the intersection of the load line
with one of the transistor’s output characteristic curves, which correspond to different values
of base current IB. At the Q-point, the transistor exhibits a fixed collector-emitter voltage
VCE(Q) and collector current IC(Q).

The choice of the Q-point is crucial for the linear operation of the amplifier. If the Q-point is
too close to cutoff or saturation, parts of the signal may be clipped or distorted. A well-
chosen Q-point lies centrally in the active region, providing the transistor with enough
headroom for signal variations in both directions.

4.3 MEASUREMENT METHODS (AND SPOT CHECKS)

Apparatus
Analog Trainer (TPS 3321) – served as the primary breadboarding station and included an
integrated variable power supply for biasing and measurement of transistor configurations
DC Power Supply – provided the adjustable voltages required for base and collector biasing
of the transistor
Multimeter – used to measure current and voltage across components during the experiment
Jumper Wires – connected various circuit elements on the analog trainer
Transistor (2N2222, NPN) – used as the active device under test to observe the input and
output characteristics of a BJT in different configurations
Resistors – included 2 × 100 Ω resistors, a 1 kΩ resistor, and a 10 kΩ resistor; used to limit
current and provide stable biasing at collector, emitter, and base terminals respectively

The procedure was conducted using the TPS 3321 analog trainer, which served as both the
breadboarding surface and an adjustable power supply platform. Jumper wires were verified
for continuity using a multimeter in resistance mode, ensuring negligible resistance before
use. Fixed resistors were identified via color coding and confirmed with multimeter
measurements. The analog trainer was allowed to stabilize before measurements began.
The experimental investigation of BJT characteristics employed a systematic measurement
approach using the analog trainer platform configured in two distinct stages. For the first
circuit configuration (circuit diagram1), the circuit was arranged with the transistor's collector
connected through a 1kΩ resistor to the power supply (VCC = 12V), emitter grounded through
a 100Ω resistor, and base fed through a 10kΩ resistor from a variable voltage source (VS).
Measurements commenced with VS set to 0V, incrementing in 0.2V steps up to 1.2V. At each
voltage level, after allowing 5 seconds for stabilization, the base voltage (VB), collector
voltage (VC), and emitter voltage (VE) were recorded simultaneously using multiple
multimeters to ensure correlated readings. Spot checks during this phase verified the
relationship VBE = VB - VE remained within the expected 0.6-0.7V range for active region
operation, with any deviations triggering immediate circuit inspection.
Circuit Diagram 1

The second configuration (circuit diagram 2) modified the biasing approach by introducing a
potentiometer at the collector while directly grounding the emitter. This stage involved
setting fixed base bias voltages (VBB) at 0.6V, 0.7V, 0.8V, and 0.9V using a precision power
supply. For each VBB value, the collector supply voltage (VCC) was varied from 1V to 12V in
1V increments using the potentiometer, with VCE measurements recorded at each step.
Particular attention was given to the transition region around VCE = 0.5V where the transistor
exits saturation, with measurements taken at finer 0.1V intervals in this critical range.
Continuous spot checks compared the measured VBE against the set VBB values, with
discrepancies greater than 0.02V prompting recalibration of the base bias network.

Circuit Diagram 2
Throughout both configurations, instrument verification procedures were implemented to
ensure measurement integrity. Multimeter zero offsets were checked before each
measurement set by shorting probes and recording any residual voltages. The variable power
supply outputs were cross-verified with a secondary multimeter, particularly when setting the
critical 0.6-0.9V base bias range. Thermal stabilization periods of 5 seconds were maintained
between measurements to account for both instrument settling time and minor junction
heating effects, with longer 10-second pauses implemented after any current exceeding 10mA
to prevent β degradation.

Spot checks also were used throughout the experiment to verify that the readings matched the
expected behavior of a BJT in the respective regions of operation. During the first
configuration, terminal voltages were compared to theoretical expectations based on the
standard rule-of-thumb voltage drops — such as a base-emitter voltage of approximately
0.6 V to 0.7 V when the transistor begins to conduct. In the second configuration, the gradual
increase of VCE at constant VBB was monitored to confirm the characteristic flat regions
corresponding to saturation and the active region, verifying that the transistor’s output
response was consistent with theoretical BJT output characteristics.

The measurement sequences generated comprehensive datasets capturing the transistor's

response to both base-emitter and collector-emitter voltage variations. In the first
configuration, the VS increments provided resolution of the turn-on characteristics, while the
second configuration's VCC sweeps at fixed VBB values revealed the output characteristics
under controlled bias conditions. All recorded voltages were corrected for the measured 0.1%
voltage drop across test leads, and current values were derived from measured voltages across
known resistors rather than direct ammeter measurements to minimize circuit loading effects.
The complete measurement matrices, including all spot check validations and corrected data,
appear in Appendix I.

4.4 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

The experimental results were analyzed to study the input and output characteristics of the
2N2222 NPN bipolar junction transistor under both static and dynamic biasing conditions.
The collected data from the first configuration was used to plot the collector current (I C) as a
function of base current (IB), and base current (IB) as a function of base-emitter voltage (VBE).
These plots allowed for direct analysis of the transistor’s current gain and the forward-biased
base-emitter junction behavior.

Figure 1 shows the plot of collector current IC (in mA) versus base current IB (in µA). The
data exhibits a linear relationship, which is consistent with the theoretical model expressed by
Equation (1).

This linearity confirms that the transistor was operating in the active region during these
measurements. From the slope of the line, the DC current gain β\beta can be estimated. The
gain appeared reasonably constant over the measured range, indicating that the transistor
responded predictably to increases in base current.
 IC against IB
Ic against Ib
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
IC (mA)

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.2 1.21
-0.5
IB (mA)

Figure 1: Plot of Collector Current ICI_C (mA) vs. Base Current IBI_B (µA) for the first
configuration

Figure 2 presents the plot of base current IB (in µA) versus base-emitter voltage VBE (in V).
The graph displays an exponential trend, typical of the forward-biased base-emitter junction
in a BJT, and aligns with the expected diode-like behavior. The threshold voltage was
observed to be in the range of 0.6 V to 0.7 V, which corresponds well with standard values
for silicon transistors. This further supports the validity of the measurements taken during the
first procedure.

IB against VBE
IB against Vbe
1.22

1.2

1.18
IB (mA)

1.16

1.14

1.12

1.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
VBE (V)

Figure 2: Plot of Base Current IBI_B (µA) vs. Base-Emitter Voltage VBEV_{BE} (V) for
the first configuration
In the second configuration, the collector current IC was measured as the collector-emitter
voltage VCE was varied for multiple fixed base voltages ranging from 0.6 V to 0.9 V. These
curves are shown collectively in Figure 3. For each value of base voltage, the corresponding
curve exhibits three distinct regions:

 Cutoff Region: For lower VCE values and insufficient base drive (e.g., VBB ≈ 0.6 V),
IC remains close to zero, indicating the transistor is not conducting.
 Active (Linear) Region: As VBB increases and VCE rises beyond the saturation knee,
IC increases and stabilizes for a given base bias. The curves in this region show IC
being largely independent of VCE, consistent with active-mode operation and the
theory expressed in Equation (1).
 Saturation Region: For low values of VCE (typically under 0.3 V) at higher base
voltages, the collector current begins to level off, indicating the transistor is entering
saturation.

at VBB = 0.6V at VBB = 0.7V at VBB = 0.8V at VBB = 0.9V at VBB = 1.0 V
10
9
8
7
6
IC (mA)

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
VCE (V)

Figure 3: Plot of Collector Current ICI_C (mA) vs. Collector-Emitter Voltage VCE (V) for
base voltages ranging from 0.6 V to 1.0 V. The cutoff, active, and saturation regions are
marked accordingly.

The observed curves in Figure 3 conform well to theoretical expectations of a BJT’s output
characteristics. Each successive curve for higher base voltages shows a higher IC, confirming
the dependence of collector current on base current. The flattening of the curves at higher V CE
and the sharply rising edge near the knee voltage further validate the active-to-saturation
transition typically seen in BJT operation.

4.5. DISUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION

The primary objective of the experiment was to examine the input and output characteristics
of a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and to understand its behavior across different operating
regions—cutoff, active, and saturation. The experiment also aimed to reinforce the
relationship between base current and collector current, and to observe how collector-emitter
voltage influences transistor operation. Based on the collected data and resulting plots, the
experimental goals were successfully achieved.

In the first configuration, the linear relationship between collector current (I C) and base
current (IB) confirmed the validity of Equation (1) across the active region. The calculated
values of β were relatively consistent, indicating stable gain for the 2N2222 transistor within
the tested range. The plot of IB vs. VBE showed an exponential increase in base current
beyond approximately 0.6 V, aligning with theoretical expectations for a forward-biased
base-emitter junction in a silicon transistor.

In the second configuration, the transistor’s output characteristics were clearly visualized
through a family of IC-VCE curves at different base bias levels. Each curve showed the
expected behavior: a cutoff region where the transistor remained off, a saturation region
where IC flattened out at low VCE, and an active region where IC remained largely
independent of VCE. These transitions were observed cleanly and consistently across all
measurements, indicating proper transistor operation and confirming the theoretical operating
regions described in the Theory section.

No significant discrepancies were observed between the experimental data and theoretical
predictions. Minor deviations in collector current readings may be attributed to multimeter
resolution limits, contact resistance at jumper connections, or slight thermal drift during
prolonged measurements. However, these were minimal and did not affect the overall trends
or interpretations.

The implications of these results are fundamental for analog circuit design. Understanding
how a BJT transitions between operating regions is crucial for correctly biasing transistors in
amplifiers or switching applications. In particular, the clear identification of the active region
and the estimation of current gain β\beta provide essential parameters for predicting amplifier
performance.

In future iterations of this experiment, a more precise method for measuring IB directly rather
than calculating it from VS and the base resistor could be employed to improve data accuracy.
Additionally, automated data logging tools could be introduced to generate denser datasets
and capture small transitions more clearly, especially near the boundary between regions.
Exploring different types of transistors or extending the analysis to include temperature
variation effects could also yield valuable insights.

Among all parameters measured, VBE and IB proved most critical in determining the
transistor’s mode of operation. The collector resistor RC influenced the output swing but did
not directly affect the base behavior. The emitter resistor in the first configuration provided
local feedback and helped stabilize the measurements by controlling the emitter voltage,
which indirectly affected VBE.

In conclusion, the experiment effectively demonstrated the operating principles and region-
based characteristics of a BJT. The measured data aligned closely with theoretical
 predictions, reinforcing core transistor behavior and offering practical experience with
biasing, measurement, and analysis techniques fundamental to electronic circuit design.

4.6. REFERENCES

[1] ON Semiconductor, 2N2222: NPN General Purpose Transistor, datasheet, Rev. 11, Sep.
2002. [Online]. Available: https://www.onsemi.com/pdf/datasheet/2n2222-d.pdf

4.7. APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Raw Data (Tables)

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
VS 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
VB 0.01 0.11 0.22 0.30 0.42 0.52 0.59 0.67 0.77 0.83 0.90 0.99 1.0
VC 12.08 12.08 12.08 12.08 12.08 12.02 11.78 11.30 10.49 9.90 9.30 8.51 7.85
VE 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.03 0.08 0.16 0.22 0.28 0.35 0.42
VBE 0.01 0.11 0.22 0.30 0.42 0.51 0.56 0.59 0.61 0.61 0.62 0.64 0.58
VCE 12.08 12.08 12.08 12.08 12.08 12.01 11.75 11.02 10.33 9.68 9.02 8.16 7.43
IE 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.3 0.8 1.6 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.2
IC -0.08 -0.08 -0.08 -0.08 -0.08 -0.02 0.22 0.7 1.51 2.1 2.7 3.49 4.15
IB 1.2 1.19 1.18 1.17 1.16 1.15 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14

The values where gotten with these formulas and parameters:

VBE = VB – VE (in Volts)

VCE = VC – VE (in Volts)

IC = (VCC – VC) / RC (in milliampere)

IE = VE / RE (in milliampere)

IB = (VBB – VBE) / RB (in milliampere),

RB = 10 k ohms, RE = 100 ohms, RC = 1000 ohms , VCC = 12V, VBB = 12 V

Appendix 2: Raw Data (Table 1) VBB = 0.6V VB = 0.51V

VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
VCE 0.0 0.47 1.55 2.56 3.51 4.54 5.56 6.57 7.56 8.60 9.62 10.61 11.60
IC 0 0.53 0.45 0.44 0.49 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.44 0.40 0.38 0.39 0.40

Raw Data (Table 2) VBB = 0.7V VB = 0.52V

VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
VCE 0.0 0.07 0.12 0.54 1.54 2.43 3.38 4.43 5.41 6.45 7.36 8.38 9.32
IC 0 0.93 1.88 2.46 2.46 2.57 2.62 2.57 2.59 2.55 2.64 2.62 2.68

Raw Data (Table 3) VBB = 0.8V VB = 0.54V

VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

VCE 0.0 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.38 1.30 2.25 3.20 4.15 5.04 6.01 6.87

IC 0 0.95 1.93 2.9 3.87 4.62 4.70 4.75 4.80 4.85 4.96 4.99 5.13

Raw Data (Table 4) VBB = 0.9V VB = 0.55V

VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

VCE 0.0 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.14 0.22 1.04 1.95 2.78 3.67 4.52

IC 0 0.96 1.94 2.92 3.91 4.89 5.86 6.78 6.96 7.05 7.22 7.33 7.48

Raw Data (Table 5) VBB = 1.0V VB = 0.55V

VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
VCE 0.0 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.12 0.15 0.23 1.02 1.84 2.72
IC 0 0.96 1.95 2.93 3.92 4.91 5.89 6.88 7.85 8.77 8.98 9.16 9.28