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The Essentials of
Ibaˉd· ˉı Islam
The Education of Women and The Vices of Men: Two Qajar Tracts
h a s a n java di and w i l l e m f l o or , trans.
The Essentials of
Ibaˉd· ˉı
Islam
12 13 14 15 16 17 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN: 978-0-8156-3288-7
Acknowledgments • vii
Abbreviations • xi
pa rt on e
Introduction • 3
pa rt t wo
Al-‘Aqida ’l-Wahbiyya
by Nasir b. Salim b. ‘Udayyam al-Rawahi
Author’s Introduction • 55
pa rt t h r e e
‘Abd al-‘Aziz al-Thamini al-Mus‘abi on God’s Power
and Human Acts, from Kitab Ma‘alim al-Din
Glossary • 279
Biographical Dictionary • 291
References • 313
Index • 327
ack now l edgm en ts
The bulk of this research was conducted in Oman during the 2000–2001 aca-
demic year, thanks to a research grant in the Fulbright Middle East, North Africa,
and South Asia Regional Research Program run by the Council for International
Exchange of Scholars. I did some follow-up on this research when I returned to
Oman for a two-month period in February and March 2010 on a scholarship
from the Carnegie Corporation. My interest in Ibadism was sparked initially by
two summers of research in Zanzibar. In summer 1998, I went to Zanzibar with
a travel grant from the University of Illinois’ Center for African Studies, and the
following summer I went specifically to study Ibadism in Zanzibar with a Wil-
liam and Flora Hewlett award granted by the Office of International Programs
and Studies at the University of Illinois. I was granted some relief from teaching
in order to concentrate on my research, thanks to an appointment as an associate
in the Center for Advanced Study at the University of Illinois in spring 2003. I am
very grateful for all the support that has made this book possible.
My research sponsor in Oman was Professor Ibrahim Soghayroun, the infi-
nitely gracious and patient chairman of the Department of History at Sultan
Qaboos University. I owe Dr. Soghayroun a very great debt of gratitude for his
help, his wise counsel, and his friendship during my time in Oman. His wife and
family also offered hospitality to me and my daughter. I am also grateful to Rich-
ard Wilbur, the former public affairs officer at the American Embassy in Muscat,
and his assistant, Sa‘id al-Harthy, who were extremely helpful in introducing me
to the people and institutions I would need to know for my research.
The people of Oman are some of the most wonderful people in the world,
and I cannot say enough to express my gratitude to the many who went out of
their way to help me. Sa‘id al-Harthy escorted me to his hometown of Mudhayrib
in order to meet the eminent scholar, Shaykh Salim ibn Hamad ibn Sulayman
vii
viii • Acknowledgments
al-Harithi, who, along with his wife, his son ‘Abdallah, and his daughter, extended
great courtesy to me and was very helpful in answering my questions. Sa‘id al-
Harthy also took me to the town of Mintirib, so I could meet the descendants of
the great scholar, Nur al-Din ‘Abdallah ibn Humayd al-Salimi, and visit the fam-
ily’s private library. The al-Salimi family was extremely hospitable to me; for an
entire week during Ramadan my daughter and I were guests in their home, while
Hamza bin Sulayman bin Muhammad bin ‘Abdallah al-Salimi was extremely
helpful in acquainting me with the holdings of the family library and answering
my questions about scholars and sources. My memories of the week spent with
the Salimi family are very warm, and I am grateful to all of them, especially to
Hamza and his sister, ‘Azza. Sa‘id al-Harthy also arranged for my meeting with
the Grand Mufti of Oman, His Eminence Shaykh Ahmad ibn Hamad al-Khalili,
who received me with the utmost grace and honesty, and invited me to his home
to meet his wife and daughters. I am very grateful to this kindhearted and hum-
ble man, who has done so much to foster Islamic unity while knowledgeably and
effectively continuing to teach traditional Ibadi theology.
I owe a very special debt of gratitude to His Highness Sayyid Muhammad bin
Ahmad Al-Bu Sa‘idi, in whose wonderful library I conducted some of my most
valuable research. I thank him for granting me special permission to photograph
manuscripts of the creed by al-Rawahi, which enabled me to check the accuracy
of my transcription of the text even after my return to the United States. I am also
very grateful to the library’s former caretaker, Mubarak ‘Abd al-Rahman, who
was extremely helpful in locating sources of interest to me. I also wish to extend
my thanks to the staff of the manuscript division of the Ministry of National
Heritage and Culture (now the Ministry of Heritage and Culture), especially its
former director, ‘Isa al-Harithi.
I am deeply indebted to Dr. Wilferd Madelung, who offered some very help-
ful advice after reading an early draft of this book, and did a meticulous reading
of a late draft. Dr. John Wilkinson and an anonymous reviewer also made com-
ments and suggestions on an earlier draft of the book. I am grateful to all of these
scholars, whose comments enabled me to improve the quality of the book. All
errors that remain are entirely my responsibility.
Last but not least, I wish to thank my family, fully cognizant of the sacri-
fices they made in order for me to be able to do this research: my husband, Dr.
Kirk Hauser, my daughter Rachel, and my son Michael, who all remained in the
Acknowledgments • ix
United States when I went to Oman, and endured an often painful separation;
and my daughter Deborah, who accompanied me to Oman and made my stay
there so much more enjoyable than it otherwise would have been. I would also
like to thank my husband for doing the artwork for the book cover.
To all these people, and to the other friends and colleagues who enriched my
time in Oman, I say “thank you.”
a bbr ev i ations
This was the first of the schools of Islam (al-madhahib) to be founded, and its
scholars have written more than those of any other school. They were the first to
write a commentary on the Qur’an, the first to write a collection of Hadith, and
the first to write a book on Law (fiqh). (Al-Harithi 1974, 3)
1. Josef van Ess, at the “Ibadhism, Ibadhi Studies, and the Sultanate of Oman” conference at
Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, November 9–10, 2009.
2. The “AH” dates refer to the Islamic calendar, which began “after the hijra.” Islamic dates are
given before CE (“common era,” i.e., Gregorian) dates, separated by a slash.
3
4 • Essentials of Ibaˉd· ˉı Islam
3. Hadith is the body of literature that contains narratives about what the Prophet said and did—
that is, his Sunna. The Hadith collections of Muhammad b. Isma‘il al-Bukhari (194–256/810–870) and
Muslim b. al-Hajjaj (206–261/821–875), both entitled Al-Jami‘ al-sahih [The Authentic Collection],
are considered the most sound and authoritative collections. These collections are often referred to
simply as “al-Bukhari” and “Muslim” or Sahih al-Bukhari (the Sahih of al-Bukhari) or Sahih Muslim.
Less reliable but frequently used are Sunan collections of Abu ‘Isa Muhammad b. ‘Isa al-Tirmidhi
(210–279/825–892), Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad b. Yazid b. Maja (known as Ibn Maja, 209–273/824 or
825–887), Abu ‘Abd al-Rahman Ahmad b. ‘Ali al-Nasa’i (215–303/830–915), and Abu Dawud Sulay-
man b. al-Ash‘ath al-Sijistani (202–275/817–889). “Hadith” with a capital H refers to the literature as a
whole, and “hadith” with a lowercase h refers to a particular narrative.
4. In order to make this book comprehensible to students of theology who are not specialists in
Islam, I provide some information that is unnecessary for scholars of Islam (such as the comments on
Hadith in n. 3 and the summary of the events of the great fitna that led to the formation of sects in Islam).
Introduction • 5
and theory.5 Indeed, much of the interest in Ibadism among Western scholars
concerns its role in the development of early Islamic thought. The relative lack
of interest in Ibadi theology may be partly because Ibadi literature is often very
long, dry, dense, and difficult to understand. That is why I selected Nasir al-
Rawahi’s theological primer as the centerpiece of this book, although very few
people, Ibadi or otherwise, have read it:6 it is an unusually brief text intended
as a primer for Ibadi theology students. It condenses and clarifies concepts that
otherwise must be learned through a very arduous process, while allowing us to
hear the voice of an Ibadi scholar trained in the classical tradition. The one draw-
back of this text is that al-Rawahi appears to have died before completing it. For
this reason, I have included a translation of ‘Abd al-‘Aziz al-Thamini’s discussion
of the relationship between God’s power and human acts, a topic of tremendous
importance in Islamic theology but omitted from al-Rawahi’s primer.
The history of Ibadi Islam, like the history of Sunni and Shi‘i Islam, is inextrica-
bly linked with the controversies over leadership of the Muslim community that
developed during the reign of the third caliph, ‘Uthman b. ‘Affan (23—35/644–
656),7 and the events following his assassination on 18 Dhu ’l-Hijja 35/17 June
5. Ennami’s book, based on his Ph.D. dissertation (Cambridge University, 1971), contains valuable
information, but the English is not very good and the book is not readily available. Both Cuperly and
Ennami include translations of some brief Ibadi creeds. Besides the works of Cuperly and Ennami, the
most important studies on early Ibadism in Western languages include Cook 1981; Madelung 2006;
Crone and Zimmerman 2001; Gaiser 2010; Lewicki 1953, 1955, 1962; Savage 1997; van Ess 1992, vol. 2;
and Wilkinson 1982, 1985, 1987, 1990, 2010. Many of these are source-critical studies of Ibadi origins,
with the exception of Wilkinson 1990, which lists major Ibadi sources but does not explain Ibadi theol-
ogy. Ersilia Francesca has written a number of articles on Ibadi law. On aspects of modern Ibadism, see
Eickelman 1989; Ghazal 2005a, 2005b, 2010; and Hoffman 2004, 2005, 2009. For a complete bibliogra-
phy of Ibadi publications and secondary literature on Ibadism, see Custers 2006.
6. The grand mufti of Oman, Shaykh Ahmad b. Hamad al-Khalili, and some students at the Insti-
tute of Shari‘a Sciences have read this text, but I have never found any references to it except for in A.
al-Khalili 1993.
7. Ibn means “son of ”; in keeping with standard usage in Islamic studies, subsequent references
to names will use the abbreviation b. instead of ibn if the given name is also mentioned.
6 • Essentials of Ibaˉd· ˉı Islam
656.8 Sunni Muslims see the first four caliphs as righteous men, the “rightly
guided caliphs” (al-khulafa’ al-rashidun). Sunni political theory as articulated
by al-Mawardi argued that the caliph must belong to the Prophet Muhammad’s
tribe, Quraysh. All the caliphs up to al-Mawardi’s time—the “rightly guided
caliphs” (11—40/632–661), the Umayyad caliphs (40—132/661–750), and the
‘Abbasid caliphs (132—656/750–1258)—had in fact belonged to this tribe. Shi‘i
Muslims believe that the leadership of the Muslim community must be more
narrowly placed within Muhammad’s immediate family. They believe that
Muhammad appointed his cousin and son-in-law, ‘Ali b. Abi Talib, as his suc-
cessor, and although ‘Ali did become the fourth caliph after ‘Uthman’s assassi-
nation, the Shi‘a see the first three caliphs as usurpers of the power that rightly
belonged to ‘Ali from the time of the Prophet’s death in 11/632. Some early Shi‘i
sects, including the one that played an active role in the ‘Abbasid revolution,
did not limit leadership to ‘Ali and his descendants who were descended from
the Prophet, but allowed the imamate (leadership) of other descendants of ‘Ali,
and even descendants of the Prophet’s uncle, al-‘Abbas. But when the ‘Abbasids
came to power in 132/750, they championed Sunni Islam, and afterward the
Shi‘a limited the imamate to the descendants of ‘Ali and Muhammad’s daughter,
Fatima.9 Western historians largely reject as fabrications of history Shi‘i claims
that Muhammad appointed ‘Ali as his successor and say there is no evidence
that Muhammad appointed anyone as his successor. Madelung (1997) suggests
8. Th is section lays out this history in a form that adheres to the Ibadi point of view—a view-
point that has been vigorously debated and challenged by Western scholars, most notably Wilkin-
son (2010). As important as that project is in contemporary scholarship, it is not the task of this
book. The forces driving the confl icts in early Islam were, in reality, multiple and complex and can-
not be reduced to theoretical differences over the nature of Islamic leadership; they include struggles
over the allocation of Iraq’s resources after the last of the great conquests in that region in 639–640
(cf. Hinds 1971).
9. The term imam (“leader”) has religious connotations and can be used in many different con-
texts—an imam is someone who leads congregational prayer; in classical Sunni literature, “imam” and
“caliph” (khalifa, meaning “successor” or “deputy”) were interchangeable titles for the supreme ruler of
the Islamic empire; and among Sunni Muslims today “imam” may be an honorific title applied to supe-
rior scholars—but among the Shi‘a, “imam” as a title means the only legitimate leader of the Muslims,
chosen by God from among the descendants of ‘Ali and Fatima. In Ibadism, the imam is a righteous
ruler who is selected by the leading men of the community and rules according to Islamic dictates.
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Title: La mandragore
Language: French
LE DÉPOT LÉGAL
Jean Lorrain
La Mandragore
Trente-trois Illustrations de Marcel Pille
GRAVÉES PAR
DELOCHE, FLORIAN, LES DEUX FROMENT
ET JULIEN TINAYRE
PARIS
Édouard Pelletan, Éditeur
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uand on sut que la reine avait accouché
d’une grenouille, ce fut une
consternation à la cour; les dames du
palais en demeurèrent muettes et l’on ne
s’aborda plus dans les hauts vestibules
qu’avec des bouches cousues et des
regards navrés qui en disaient long; le
maître-mire, qui avait procédé à cette
belle opération, ne put prendre sur lui
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prestement la campagne par une
poterne des communs et ne reparut
plus; quant à la reine, à la vue du
monstrillon issu de ses entrailles, elle était tombée en
syncope.
es tiens te dédaignent
Et tu meurs d’amour,
Tes grands yeux qui saignent,
Riront-ils un jour?
Et elle,
Godelive, la
reine répudiée du
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fille des rois de Courlande, elle, la reine très catholique et
très chrétienne, errait à minuit dans ces solitudes, au milieu
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au pied de chaque potence où parfois quelque chose de
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lui tombait sur la joue.... Et les hautes herbes blêmes,
blêmes comme des os de mort, bruissaient doucement
autour d’elle, si doucement qu’on eût dit des voix lointaines
ou quelque obscur vagissement.... Et des pieds de pendus se
profilaient déchiquetés et noirs au niveau de ses tempes;
parfois un gros orteil mou l’effleurait, l’odeur alors montait
plus forte, et des battements d’ailes l’accueillaient dans la
nuit, d’oiseaux de proie effarés qu’elle avait réveillés en
passant.... Et Godelive continuait d’errer au milieu du
charnier et de ses pestilences, exténuée, défaillante mais
hallucinée par son idée fixe et ranimée de minute en minute
par l’affreux espoir qu’elle avait au cœur; et de sa main
fébrile, elle cherchait le lévrier noir qui marchait dans son
ombre et se rassurait en lui flattant les côtes; il était auprès
d’elle, inquiet et flaireur, attiré comme elle au pied des gibets
par l’horrible odeur, et parfois un bruit sourd de mâchoire
avertissait la reine que le chien avait trouvé, lui, ce qu’il
cherchait.
Et la reine, à travers
l’oppression de son rêve, se
souvenait, très lucide, quels rites
atroces la kabbale impose à qui
veut s’emparer de la racine
magique: attacher un chien vivant
à une des fibres de la plante
maudite et, tandis que l’animal
garrotté se débat, déracinant à
chaque mouvement un peu de
l’herbe convoitée, le guetter
sournoisement dans
l’ombre pour, la
mandragore à peine
hors de terre, se
précipiter sur la bête
haletante et l’étriper à
coups de couteau. La vie
de l’animal égorgé passe
alors dans la racine
hideuse et l’anime du souffle nécessaire aux promptes et
sûres incantations.
Un autre
cauchemar la
tourmentait
aussi: il lui
semblait qu’elle
vivait, retirée
depuis des
années déjà, au
milieu des bois,
au fond d’un
mélancolique
manoir; le
peuple et le
roi l’avaient
oubliée et,
dans sa
solitude fleurie
d’aubépine en
avril et de neige
l’hiver, elle
menait une existence
effacée et quasi heureuse
en compagnie de la grenouille attentionnée et tendre comme
la plus douce des filles. Elle avait fini par se faire à sa
repoussante laideur. Dans sa haute chambre toute tendue de
vieilles tapisseries et quelque peu obscure, elle vivait là, sans
se plaindre, avec le monstre au regard presque humain,
toujours coquettement couronné de marguerites des prés et
dont la petite patte visqueuse avait pris à la longue des
douceurs infinies; sa honte d’avoir pu engendrer une si
monstrueuse créature avec les années s’était atténuée et,
les jours de soleil, il lui arrivait d’aller se promener avec la
pauvre bête dans les prairies et d’y prendre parfois plaisir.
Au cours d’une de ces radieuses promenades, comme
elles s’étaient engagées dans un bois tout neigeux de
pommiers et d’amandiers en fleurs, en débusquant dans une
clairière, elles tombèrent toutes les deux sur un cortège de
femmes nobles et de paysannes se rendant toutes en habits
de fête à la chapelle d’un monastère voisin. C’étaient toutes
d’heureuses mères ou de fortunées aïeules conduisant leur
progéniture à la bénédiction du Seigneur; car toutes tenaient
par la main quelque joli enfant aux longs cheveux couronnés
de roses; quelques-unes avaient même, pendus après leurs
robes, trois ou quatre marmots, filles ou garçons au teint
d’aurore, aux yeux rieurs.
A la vue de ces femmes, le cœur de la reine se fendit,
mais moins de douleur que de honte; elle rougit de tout son
être de la piteuse grenouille enguirlandée qui sautelait sur
ses pas; brusquement elle l’attira contre elle et la couvrit de
son manteau; son instinct la dérobait aux regards. Une
soudaine détresse l’avertit en même temps d’un immense
malheur; moitié par honte, moitié par épouvante, elle tint
quand même le manteau refermé sur elle. Quand le cortège
eut passé, la grenouille n’y était plus, mais une large tache
de sang en souillait la doublure: son incurable orgueil avait
tué sa fille une seconde fois.
Et ce cauchemar
attristait d’autant plus sa
vie qu’il se mêlait
maintenant et bien
étrangement à la réalité.
Elle avait quitté la cour
et, quasi répudiée par le
roi, à la fin alarmé d’une
reine aux grossesses
bestiales et plus
préoccupée de magie que de
messe, elle avait dû céder la
place à une maîtresse moins
périlleuse et plus jeune, et, à
demi condamnée par
l’opinion du peuple et celle
du clergé, elle vivait désormais dans un petit fief royal situé
à la frontière.
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