Consumer Electronics – Module 1

Module 1
Microphones & Loudspeakers
1.1 Introduction
In all audio systems sound energy has to be transmitted to distant places. This can be done by converting the
variations of sound pressure into electrical impulses. A microphone is a transducer which converts variations
of sound pressure into electrical signals of the same frequency. The amplitude of the electrical signals are
proportional to the intensity of the sound waves. It is important to amplify the electrical signals using an audio
amplifier before these signals can be transmitted through wires or by wireless means.

1.2 Requirements
Electrical signals are faithful reproduction of sound pressure only if the microphone fulfills the following
requirements.
1. Its response should be independent of frequency in the complete audio frequency range 16Hz to 20Khz
2. The noise generated within the microphone should be as low as possible
3. Its performance should not be affected by the adjacent electric and magnetic fields
4. It should be mechanically robust
5. Its response should be independent of the direction of sound waves

1.3 Quality of Microphones

A microphone should have the following qualities so that it matches the above requirements
1. Sensitivity: It is the output in milli volt for a sound pressure of 0.1 pa at 1000 Hz. Many times,
sensitivity is expressed in dB below 1V
2. Frequency response: Audio frequency range extends from 16Hz to 20KHz. However, the audio system
is considered to be very good if it has a flat response from 40Hz to 15KHz
3. Signal to Noise Ratio: All equipments generate noise. If the generated noise is high, the quality of
sound will be poor. In a good microphone the signal to noise ratio should be low. S/N ratio is defined
as the ratio at the output when sound pressure is 0.1 pa to the output in the absence of sound.
4. Output impedance: The importance of this parameter arises because of the necessity to transfer
maximum power to the transmission circuit. As per the maximum power transfer theorem, the power
transferred to the load is maximum when load resistance is equal to source resistance. To ensure
maximum power transfer, the resistance of the load and source can be matched by the process of
impedance matching. For this purpose, the microphone is connected to a two winding transformer
whose output is fed to the transmission system. The transformer changes the impedance level.
5. Distortion: A microphone may suffer from non-linear distortion, frequency distortion and phase
distortion. Non linear distortion means that the relative amplitudes of different frequencies in the
electrical output is not same as in the sound wave Frequency distortion means some frequencies not
present in the sound signal appear in the output. This is due to natural resonant frequency of the
movable parts of the microphone. Phase distortion means that the inter-phase relationship between
different frequency components in the output is not same as in the input. This generally occurs when
more than one microphone is used in the system.
6. Directivity: The response or sensitivity of a microphone is not the same for sounds coming from
different directions. This effect is known as directivity. A microphone may be unidirectional,
bidirectional or omnidirectional. Directivity is defined in terms of angle 𝜃 which is the angle between
half power points. Directivity is also given by 20 log D were
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D=

Fig 1: Directivity of Microphone

Fig 2: Polar Curves of Microphones (M)

a) Omnidirectional b) Bidirectional c) Special Directivity Pattern

1.4 Classification
The basic principle of microphone is that sound waves set up mechanical vibrations in a moving element. The
mechanical vibrations generate electrical voltages at audio frequencies. The generated voltage can be either
proportional to velocity of the moving element or its amplitude. Accordingly, microphones are classified as
constant amplitude or constant velocity microphones. Carbon, crystal and capacitor microphones are constant
velocity type.

1.5 Moving Coil Microphone

A moving coil microphone works on the principle of induced emf. The variations of sound pressure cause the
motion of a coil in a magnetic field. Thus, an emf is induced in the moving coil. It is also known as a dynamic
microphone.
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Fig 3 shows the construction. It consists of a permanent magnet, generally POT type with a central south pole
and peripheral north pole. The magnet is so shaped as to give a uniform field in the air gap. A diaphragm made
of non-magnetic material is fixed to the body by springs. A coil wound on the cardboard cylinder is attached
to the diaphragm and is free to move in the air gap as the diaphragm vibrates due to sound waves. A protective
cover saves the delicate diaphragm and other parts from mechanical damage.

Fig 3: Moving coil microphone

When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it moves forward and backwards. The coil also moves along with
diaphragm and an emf is induced in the coil. The magnitude of emf is given by
e= Blv
Where e = emf
B = flux density Wb/m2 or T
L = length of the conductor/coil, m
V = velocity of coil, m/sec
Since the emf is proportional to velocity of coil, it is designated as velocity microphone. The motion of coil
depends on pressure of sound waves. Therefore, it is pressure microphone.
Features
1. Its sensitivity is about 90dB below 1V when sound pressure is 0.1pa. The voltage induced is about
30V
2. Its output impedance is low, around 30 to 40 ohms. If it is to feed a transmission line of impedance
250 ohms, an intervening step-up transformer of turns ratio about 3 is needed.
3. Its frequency response is nearly flat in the 40Hz to 8KHz range
4. It is an omnidirectional microphone
5. Its signal to noise ratio is about 25dB
6. Its distortion is less than 5%
Advantages
1. It is mechanically robust and is not affected by weather.
2. Cheaper than ribbon and condenser microphones but is more costly compared to crystal and carbon
microphones.
Disadvantages
1. It has to be kept within 25cm distance from source of sound.
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2. Its weight is considerable because of heavy magnet.

Applications
1. Public address system and broadcast studios

1.6 Ribbon Microphone

Its principle is exactly the same as that of the moving coil microphone. However instead of diaphragm and
coil like in the moving coil microphone this has an aluminum ribbon which acts as a diaphragm as well as
coil. When sound waves strike the ribbon, emf is induced in it. It is velocity microphone because the induced
emf is proportional to the velocity of the ribbon. Moreover, the working depends on the pressure sound waves.
Hence it is a pressure microphone.

Fig 4: Ribbon Microphone

The permanent magnet has extended pole pieces Between the pole pieces is placed the aluminium ribbon in
which the emf is induced. A step-up transformer is inbuilt in the microphone case.
The ribbon acts as a diaphragm. When sound waves strike it, it vibrates. Because of this motion an emf
proportional to velocity of ribbon is induced in it. This voltage is stepped up by the transformer and appears
at the output terminals.
Features
1. The sensitivity of ribbon microphone is low, about 3V or 110dB below 1V for a sound pressure of
0.1 pa. However, this voltage is stepped up to about 30 times by step up transformer.
2. Because of low mass of ribbon, the frequency response is very good and is almost flat from about
20Hz to about 12000Hz
3. Its output impedance is very low, generally less than 0.5 ohm. The step up transformer helps in
increasing the output impedance by about 900 times.
4. Sound pressure can be applied to the ribbon from front as well as back. Therefore it is a bidirectional
microphone.
5. Its distortion is less than 1%
6. Its Signal to Noise Ratio is good
7. It gives good transient response
Advantages
1. Good frequency response
2. Bidirectional behavior
3. Good transient response
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Disadvantages
1. It is a delicate and expensive microphone
2. It can be easily damaged due to slight mishandling
3. Its sensitivity is low
Applications
1. Dramas, music, broadcast
2. Its bidirectional feature allows the participants of a drama to talk face to face

1.7 Condenser (or Capacitor) Microphone

The capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates i.e

𝐶=
Where C = Capacitance, Farads
𝜀𝑜 = Permittivity of free space i.e 8.85 x 10-12 F/m
d = distance between plates, m
A = area of plate m2
As d changes due to pressure of sound waves, capacitance changes. This change in capacitance causes a change
in the frequency of an oscillatory circuit. This change in frequency is a measure of the pressure of sound
waves. Alternatively, this change in capacitance causes successive charging and discharging currents in a
resistance. These currents produce oscillating voltage across the resistance. This voltage is a measure of the
pressure of the sound waves.
Fig 5 shows the construction of a capacitance microphone. It consists of a light wight diaphragm about 0.0025
cm thick made of duralumin. It is separated by about 0.005 cm from another metal plate which is fixed and is
known as backplate. It is connected in series with a resistance R across a battery of about 150 V. The output
voltage across R is fed to an amplifier as shown in the fig below.

Fig 5: Condenser Microphone

As sound waves impinge on the diaphragm, the distance between the diaphragm and back plate changes and
thus the capacitance between the plate changes. Charging and discharging currents flow in the circuit causing
a change in voltage across resistance R. This voltage is amplified by the amplifier. Thus, output voltage of the
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amplifier varies with the change in pressure of sound waves. It is a pressure microphone since output is
proportional to pressure of sound waves.
Features:
1. Its sensitivity is low and therefore it has an inbuilt amplifier.
2. It has a very good and almost flat frequency response from 40Hz to 15KHz
3. Its distortion is less than 1%
4. Its signal to noise ratio is high, 40dB or so
5. It is omni directional
6. Its output impedance is very high, about 50 MΩ or so.
Advantages
1. High output impedance
2. Good frequency response
3. Low distortion
4. High signal to noise ratio
Disadvantages
1. Delicate
2. Costly
3. Working is affected by heat and moisture
Applications
1. Used as a standard microphone for calibration of other microphones
2. Also used in high fidelity sound recording and in sound meter

1.8 Crystal Microphone

Its principle is based on piezoelectric effect. As per this effect the application of pressure across the faces of a
crystal, produces a voltage across the faces. The crystals which exhibit this property are Rochelle salt, quartz,
ceramic etc. Ceramic is the most commonly used material.

Fig 6: Crystal Microphone

Construction: The crystal is in the form of bimorph crystal unit. Metal foils are attached to the crystal surfaces
to serve as terminals. A diaphragm, generally made of aluminium is held between supports through springs.
The diaphragm is connected to the biomorph through a push rod.
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When sound waves impinge on the diaphragm, it vibrates. These vibrations are picked up by the bimorph
element and a voltage is developed across its faces. The voltage developed is proportional to pressure of sound
waves. This voltage is generally fed to an amplifier.
Features
1. Its sensitivity is good
2. Almost flat frequency response between 80Hz to 8000Hz
3. The noise generated with in this microphone is low. Hence it has high signal to noise ratio.
4. Its output impedance is very high, about 1MW
5. Its distortion is low
6. It is omni directional
Advantages
1. Good sensitivity
2. High Signal to Noise
3. Low Distortion
4. Small Size
5. Omni directional characteristics
6. Low cost
Disadvantages
1. Less rugged than moving coil
2. Cannot withstand high temperature
3. Very low frequency sound waves are attenuated.
4. It is affected by moisture
Applications
1. Home recording
2. Mobile communication systems
3. Amateur communication

1.9 Carbon Microphone

When carbon granules are packed in a casing, the resistance of granules depends on the applied pressure. The
sound waves impinge on the diaphragm which compresses the granules. The change in resistance causes a
change in voltage in circuit. This voltage is proportional to pressure of sound waves. Fig 7 Shows the
construction.
Fine carbon granules are packed in a case as shown. The sound pressure acts on a metallic diaphragm. The
movable metal piston transmits this pressure to a movable carbon plate. The second metallic plate is fixed. A
battery is connected between the two plates. A transformer is used to eliminate the dc content in the
microphone output.
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Fig 7: Carbon Microphone

Features
1. V. Good sensitivity, about 20 dB below 1V. The output voltage is about 100mV
2. The frequency response is limited between about 200 Hz to 5000 Hz
3. The signal to noise ratio is poor. Random variation of carbon resistance causes a rather continuous
noise.
4. Its output impedance is about 100 ohms
5. Its distortion is also high, about 10%
6. It is more or less omni directional
Advantages
1. Very rugged
2. Small size
3. Very cheap
4. Good sensitivity
Disadvantages
1. Poor Signal to Noise ratio
2. High Distortion
3. Limited frequency response
4. Not suitable for high fidelity-work
Applications
1. Telephones
2. Portable Radios

1.10 Electret Microphone

Its principle is same as that of a condenser microphone. However, it does not require a d.c supply. It has a
inbuilt charge on one plate. Sound pressure causes movement of diaphragm and a consequent change in
capacitance. Since charge is constant, a voltage appears between the plates. Fig 8 shows the construction. The
metallic diaphragm held in position by springs. The fixed plate has coating of Teflon which has the
characteristic of retaining charge for a longer period. Teflon layer is given a negative charge at the time of
manufacture.
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Fig 8: Electret Microphone

When sound pressure acts on the diaphragm, it vibrates. Therefore, capacitance between the plates changes.
Charge Q, capacitance C and Voltage V are related as
𝑄
𝑉=
𝐶

When capacitance decreases, voltage or field across the plates increases When capacitance increases, the
field decreases. Thus, the terminal voltage changes due to pressure of sound waves.
Features
1. Sensitivity is average
2. Frequency response is good
3. Signal to nose ratio is high
4. Distortion is low
5. Output impedance is high, about 50 MΩ
6. It is omni directional
Advantages
1. Very cheap
2. Very light weight
3. Does not require dc supply
4. Low distortion
5. Small size
Disadvantages
1. Delicate
2. Working is affected by temperature and moisture
Applications
1. Public address system of small gatherings (clubs etc.)
2. Since it is very lightweight
3. It is commonly used as a tie clip microphone
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Table 1 Comparison of Microphones

1.11 Loudspeakers
Loud speaker is an essential component of all audio systems. It converts electrical audio frequency signals
into sound waves of the same frequency. Thus, its work is opposite to that of a microphone. The input to a
loudspeaker may come from the audio system directly or from the antenna.

1.12 Features of Loudspeaker

A loudspeaker must convert the electrical signals into sound waves as faithfully as possible without any
distortion and in the whole of audio-frequency range. The main features of a speaker are sensitivity, frequency
response, signal to noise ratio, distortion, directivity and input impedance.
Sensitivity
It is the input signal required to give a sound pressure of 0.1pa at a distance of one meter from the loudspeaker.
Sometimes the word efficiency is used to describe the ability of the speaker to convert electrical signals into
sound waves.
Frequency Response
The frequency response is the range of frequencies having an amplitude ±1dB. Ideally the frequency response
should be flat over the whole audio range i.e 16Hz to 20KHz. However, the mass of the diaphragm of the
speaker attenuates high frequencies. The speaker will always have a natural resonant frequency. The input
signal at this frequency is strengthened giving rise to non-linearity.
Signal to Noise Ratio
A loudspeaker also generates some noise in itself. Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of the output(with signal)
to the output(without signal). It should be as high as possible.
Distortion
It may in amplitude, frequency and phase. Causes of distortion are non-linear behavior of magnetic field, mass
of diaphragm, natural frequency of the mechanical parts etc.
Directivity
It is defined as the ratio of sound intensity in the direction of maximum response to the sound intensity which
would be existing if the speaker is omnidirectional.
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Input Impedance
It is expressed in ohms. For maximum power output from speaker, its input impedance should be equal to the
source impedance so that proper impedance matching is obtained.

1.13 Moving Coil (Cone Type) Loudspeaker

Its principle is the same as that of a motor. It is also known as direct radiating loud speaker. A coil, known as
voice coil, is placed in the magnetic field of permanent magnet. When electric current passes through the coil,
a force acts on the coil causing the coil to move(vibrate). A paper diaphragm of the shape of a cone is attached
to the coil. Thus, the diaphragm vibrates, produces pressure variations in air and the result is the sound waves.
The force acting on the voice coil causes vibration of the diaphragm resulting in compressions and rarefactions
in the air. Thus, electrical signals are converted into sound waves of the same frequencies.
Construction
The main parts of the loudspeaker are magnet, voice coil, conical diaphragm. This loudspeaker uses a pot type
permanent magnet having central south pole and peripheral north pole. To give a strong magnetic field, the
magnet is made of special alloy Alnico. This material has a very high retentivity and can thus retain magnetism
almost indefinitely. A voice coil is suspended by a suitable suspension in the air gap and is free to move in the
air gap when a force acts on it. The coil is attached to a conical diaphragm made of special paper. Terminals
of the voice coil are fixed on the cone surface. Fig 9 shows the moving coil loudspeaker

Fig 9: Moving Coil Loudspeaker

Working
When electric current flows through the voice coil, interaction between the field of permanent magnet and the
magnetic field of current occurs. Due to this, interaction of force acts on the voice causing its to and fro motion.
Since the conical diaphragm is attached to the voice coil, the diaphragm also vibrates causing compressions
and rarefactions in air. Thus, the electrical signals are converted into sound waves of the same frequency. The
cone helps in spreading the sound over a large area and thus sound can be heard at a great distance.
Features
1. Efficiency of this loudspeaker is poor. Only 5-10% of the signal power is converted into sound
2. The signal to noise ratio is about 30dB
3. It gives a nearly flat frequency response in the 200Hz to 5000Hz
4. The non-linear distortion can be as high as 10%
5. It is omni directional. Directivity can be modified by using baffles and enclosures so that most of the
sound waves go to the area in front of it.
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6. The impedance of the voice coil is the input impedance of the loudspeaker. This impedance is a
function of frequency because of the inductance of the voice coil. For transfer of maximum power, the
input impedance of speaker should be equal to the output impedance of the system feeding signal to
the loudspeaker. Since the input impedance is a function of frequency, perfect matching is possible
only at one frequency.
1.13.1 Equivalent Circuit
Fig 10 shows the equivalent circuit of a cone type loudspeaker. Source is the source of signals. rc and Lc
denote the resistance and self-inductance of the voice coil, Cm is the mechanical compliance (Stiffness) and
Lm is the inductance which represents mass of the moving system. RL is the load. At low frequencies, the
resistance of Lm is low and shunts the load resistance. Therefore, the output at low frequencies is reduced. At
high frequencies the reactance of series inductance is high and causes attenuation of high frequency
components of signal. Effect of Cm is small and negligible.

Fig 10: Equivalent Circuit of moving coil Loudspeaker

Advantages
1. Small Size
2. Low cost
3. Satisfactory frequency response

Disadvantages
1. Poor efficiency
2. Very low and high frequencies are attenuated
Applications
1. Radio receivers
2. TV receivers
3. Cassette Players
4. Record Players
5. Used in all audio appliances designed for small groups of people
Capacity Available
1. Direct radiating cone type loudspeakers are available in number of sizes up to about 25W

1.14 Electrodynamic Loudspeaker

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The principle of electrodynamic loudspeaker is exactly the same as that of moving coil direct radiating
loudspeaker. The construction is also similar except that electrodynamic speaker uses an electromagnet The
field coil of the electromagnet is wound over the central limb as shown in Fig 11.

Fig 11: Electrodynamic Loudspeaker

This field coil produces a very strong magnetic field. Therefore, this speaker can handle more power.
Loudspeakers of rating from 25W upto 100W or so are of this type. The flow of electric current in the voice
coil creates a magnetic field. This field interacts with the field of electromagnet and creates a force. This force
causes a to and fro motion of voice coil and the conical diaphragm vibrates thus converting electrical signal r
into sound waves.
The main advantage of this speaker is that it can handle more input power. However, it needs a source of
power supply for the electromagnet. Its cost is more than that of moving coil cone type.

1.15 Horn Loudspeaker

Principle
The interaction of the magnetic field due to current in the voice coil with the magnetic field of the magnet
causes a force to act on the coil. The coil moves to and fro and causes vibrations of the diaphragm. However,
it does not use a cone and does not deliver sound directly to open space. Instead, it delivers sound to air trapped
in a horn which, in turn, radiates sound to the open space.

Construction
Fig 12 shows the construction of horn speaker. The magnet, voice coil, diaphragm are similar to that in moving
coil direct radiating speaker. However, it does not have a cone. The cone is replaced by a horn whose diameter
increases from small value at the throat to a large value at the mouth. The shape of the horn may be canonical,
exponential or hyperbolic as shown in Fig 13. The dimensions of a horn loudspeaker may be pretty large with
length about 2m and diameter at mouth about 1m. To optimize the space needed, folded horn Fig 14 can be
used.
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Fig 12: Horn Loudspeaker

Fig 13: Shapes of Horn Loudspeakers

(a) Canonical (b) Exponential (c) Hyperbolic

Fig 14: Horn Loudspeaker with Folded Horn

Working
When current flows in voice coil, it creates a magnetic field. This magnetic field interacts with the magnetic
field of the magnet creating a force. This force causes the voice coil to move to and fro. Thus, the diaphragm
vibrates. The horn expands from a small diameter at throat to a large opening at mouth. The sound pressure at
the throat is maximum and decreases as we approach the mouth. The loudspeaker power is delivered to the air
space indirectly i.e the power is delivered at the throat and sound waves then travel to the mouth. The horn
acts as an acoustic transformer. The advantage is that a better matching exists between the impedance of the
voice coil and the acoustical resistance thus increasing the efficiency of the loudspeaker. A small diaphragm
can produce a large volume of sound. Response is good at low as well as high frequencies
Features
1. Efficiency is good, about 40%
2. Signal to noise ratio is about 40 dB
3. Almost flat frequency response from about 25 to 10000Hz. The high frequency response can be further
improved using tweeter horn
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4. Non-linear distortion is less than 5%

5. Directivity is different at different frequencies
a. At low frequencies it is nearly omni directional
b. At high frequencies the radiation is concentrated in narrow cone around the axis of the horn
Advantages
1. High efficiency
2. Good power handling capacity
Disadvantages
1. More costly than cone type loudspeaker
2. Large size
Applications
1. Public address systems
2. Big auditoriums and music concerts

1.16 Loudspeaker for High Fidelity Systems

Fig 15 shows a special loudspeaker for high fidelity (hi-fi) music systems. It is a combination of a cone and
exponential horn. The cone faces away from the audience. The enclosure for the cone and the exponential
horn is so placed that the output from the horn is directed towards the audience.

Fig 15: Horn Loudspeaker for High Fidelity