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 Contents vii

PART THREE The Preschool Years From Research to Practice:

Reading to Children: Keeping It Real 243

7
Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts
Physical and Cognitive
Development in the Preschool Years 208 8 Social and Personality Development
Looking Ahead 209 in the Preschool Years 246
Physical Growth 210
Looking Ahead 247
The Growing Body 210
Forming a Sense of Self 247
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HEIGHT AND WEIGHT •
CHANGES IN BODY SHAPE AND STRUCTURE • NUTRITION: Psychosocial Development: Resolving the Conflicts 248
EATING THE RIGHT FOODS • HEALTH AND ILLNESS • Self-Concept in the Preschool Years:
INJURIES DURING THE PRESCHOOL YEARS: PLAYING IT Thinking about the Self 249
SAFE • THE SILENT DANGER: LEAD POISONING IN YOUNG
Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Awareness 249
CHILDREN
RACIAL IDENTITY: DEVELOPING SLOWLY •
The Growing Brain 214 Gender Identity: Developing Femaleness
Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?: and Maleness
Keeping Preschoolers Healthy 215 Developmental Diversity and Your Life:
BRAIN LATERALIZATION • THE LINKS BETWEEN Developing Racial and Ethnic Awareness 250
BRAIN GROWTH AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER •
Motor Development 218 PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVES • SOCIAL LEARNING
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS • POTTY WARS: WHEN—AND APPROACHES • COGNITIVE APPROACHES
HOW—SHOULD CHILDREN BE TOILET TRAINED? • FINE Friends and Family: Preschoolers’ Social Lives 255
MOTOR SKILLS • HANDEDNESS
The Development of Friendships 255
Intellectual Development 221 Playing by the Rules: The Work of Play 256
Piaget’s Stage of Preoperational Thinking 221 CATEGORIZING PLAY • THE SOCIAL ASPECTS OF PLAY
THE RELATION BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND
Preschoolers’ Theory of Mind:
THOUGHT • CENTRATION: WHAT YOU SEE IS WHAT YOU THINK •
Understanding What Others Are Thinking 258
CONSERVATION: LEARNING THAT APPEARANCES ARE DECEIVING •
INCOMPLETE UNDERSTANDING OF TRANSFORMATION • THE EMERGENCE OF THEORY OF MIND
EGOCENTRISM: THE INABILITY TO TAKE OTHERS’ PERSPECTIVES • From Research to Practice: How Children Learn
THE EMERGENCE OF INTUITIVE THOUGHT • EVALUATING PIAGET’S to Become Better Liars 260
APPROACH TO COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Preschoolers’ Family Lives 260
Information Processing Approaches to
Effective Parenting: Teaching Desired Behavior 261
Cognitive Development227
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN CHILDREARING PRACTICES
PRESCHOOLERS’ UNDERSTANDING OF NUMBERS •
MEMORY: RECALLING THE PAST • INFORMATION Child Abuse and Psychological Maltreatment:
PROCESSING THEORIES IN PERSPECTIVE The Grim Side of Family Life 263
Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development: Taking PHYSICAL ABUSE • PSYCHOLOGICAL MALTREATMENT
Culture into Account 230 Resilience: Overcoming the Odds 266
THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT AND SCAFFOLDING: Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?:
FOUNDATIONS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • EVALUATING Disciplining Children 267
VYGOTSKY’S CONTRIBUTIONS
Moral Development and Aggression 268
The Growth of Language and Learning 233
Developing Morality: Following Society’s
Language Development 233
Rights and Wrongs 268
PRIVATE SPEECH AND SOCIAL SPEECH • HOW LIVING
PIAGET’S VIEW OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT •
IN POVERTY AFFECTS LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
EVALUATING PIAGET’S APPROACH TO MORAL
Learning from the Media: Television and the Internet 236 DEVELOPMENT • SOCIAL LEARNING APPROACHES
TELEVISION: CONTROLLING EXPOSURE • SESAME STREET: TO MORALITY • GENETIC APPROACHES TO MORALITY •
A TEACHER IN EVERY HOME? EMPATHY AND MORAL BEHAVIOR
Early Childhood Education: Taking the “Pre” Out Aggression and Violence in Preschoolers:
of the Preschool Period 239 Sources and Consequences 271
THE VARIETIES OF EARLY EDUCATION • THE EFFECTIVENESS THE ROOTS OF AGGRESSION • SOCIAL LEARNING
OF CHILD CARE • THE QUALITY OF CHILD CARE APPROACHES TO AGGRESSION • VIEWING VIOLENCE
Developmental Diversity and Your Life: Preschools ON TV: DOES IT MATTER? • COGNITIVE APPROACHES
TO AGGRESSION: THE THOUGHTS BEHIND ­VIOLENCE
around the World: Why Does the United States
Lag behind? 242 Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?:
Increasing Moral Behavior and Reducing Aggression
PREPARING PRESCHOOLERS FOR ACADEMIC PURSUITS:
DOES HEAD START TRULY PROVIDE A HEAD START? •
in Preschool-Age Children 275
ARE WE PUSHING CHILDREN TOO HARD AND TOO FAST? Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts
viii Contents Contents

PART FOUR The Middle Childhood Years Below and Above Intelligence Norms: Intellectual
Disabilities and the Intellectually Gifted 315
ENDING SEGREGATION BY INTELLIGENCE LEVELS:
9 Physical and Cognitive Development THE BENEFITS OF ­MAINSTREAMING • BELOW THE NORM:
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY • ABOVE THE NORM: THE
in Middle Childhood 280 GIFTED AND TALENTED • EDUCATING THE GIFTED
AND TALENTED
Looking Ahead 281
Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts
Physical Development 282
The Growing Body 282
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT CHANGES • CULTURAL 10 Social and Personality
PATTERNS OF GROWTH • PROMOTING GROWTH
WITH HORMONES: SHOULD SHORT CHILDREN BE MADE
Development in Middle Childhood 322
TO GROW? • NUTRITION • CHILDHOOD OBESITY Looking Ahead 323
Motor Development 285 The Developing Self 324
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS
Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood 324
Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?:
Understanding One’s Self: A New Response
Keeping Children Fit 286
to “Who Am I?” 325
FINE MOTOR SKILLS THE SHIFT IN SELF-UNDERSTANDING FROM THE
Physical and Mental Health during Middle PHYSICAL TO ­THE ­PSYCHOLOGICAL • SOCIAL COMPARISON
Childhood287 Self-Esteem: Developing a Positive—or Negative—
ASTHMA • ACCIDENTS • PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS View of the Self 327
Children with Special Needs 290 CHANGE AND STABILITY IN SELF-ESTEEM
SENSORY DIFFICULTIES: VISUAL, AUDITORY, AND SPEECH From Research to Practice: The Danger of Inflated Praise 329
PROBLEMS • LEARNING DISABILITIES: DISCREPANCIES RACE AND SELF-ESTEEM
BETWEEN ACHIEVEMENT AND ­CAPACITY TO LEARN •
ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
Developmental Diversity and Your Life: Are
Children of Immigrant Families Well Adjusted? 330
From Research to Practice: Does Medicating
Children with ADHD Produce Academic Benefits? 294 Moral Development 331
MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN GIRLS
Intellectual Development 294
Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development 295 Relationships: Building Friendship in Middle Childhood 334
THE RISE OF CONCRETE OPERATIONAL THOUGHT • Stages of Friendship: Changing Views of Friends 335
PIAGET IN PERSPECTIVE: PIAGET WAS RIGHT, PIAGET STAGE 1: BASING FRIENDSHIP ON OTHERS’ BEHAVIOR •
WAS WRONG STAGE 2: BASING FRIENDSHIP ON TRUST • STAGE 3:
BASING FRIENDSHIP ON PSYCHOLOGICAL CLOSENESS
Information Processing in Middle Childhood 297
MEMORY • IMPROVING MEMORY Individual Differences in Friendship:
What Makes a Child Popular? 336
Vygotsky’s Approach to Cognitive Development
STATUS AMONG SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN: ESTABLISHING
and Classroom Instruction 299
ONE’S ­POSITION • WHAT PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS
LEAD TO ­POPULARITY? • SOCIAL PROBLEM-SOLVING
Language Development: What Words Mean 300 ABILITIES • SCHOOLYARD—AND CYBER-YARD—BULLIES
MASTERING THE MECHANICS OF LANGUAGE • Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?:
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS • HOW LANGUAGE Increasing Children’s Social Competence 339
PROMOTES SELF-CONTROL • BILINGUALISM: SPEAKING
IN MANY TONGUES Gender and Friendships: The Sex Segregation
of Middle Childhood 340
Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle
Childhood303 Cross-Race Friendships: Integration in and out
of the Classroom 341
Reading: Learning to Decode the Meaning behind Words 304
READING STAGES • HOW SHOULD WE TEACH READING?
Family and School: Shaping Children’s Behavior
in Middle Childhood 342
Educational Trends: Beyond the Three Rs 305
CULTURAL ASSIMILATION MODEL
Families: The Changing Home Environment 343
FAMILY LIFE: STILL IMPORTANT AFTER ALL THESE
Developmental Diversity and Your Life:
YEARS • WHEN BOTH PARENTS WORK OUTSIDE THE HOME:
Multicultural Education 306 HOW DO CHILDREN FARE? • DIVORCE • SINGLE-PARENT
CULTURAL ASSIMILATION OR PLURALISTIC FAMILIES • MULTIGENERATIONAL FAMILIES • LIVING IN
SOCIETY? • FOSTERING A BICULTURAL IDENTITY BLENDED FAMILIES • CHILDREN WITH GAY AND LESBIAN
Intelligence: Determining Individual Strengths 308 PARENTS • RACE AND FAMILY LIFE • POVERTY AND FAMILY
LIFE • GROUP CARE: ORPHANAGES IN THE 21ST CENTURY
INTELLIGENCE BENCHMARKS: DIFFERENTIATING THE
INTELLIGENT FROM THE UNINTELLIGENT • WHAT IQ School: The Academic Environment 349
TESTS DON’T TELL: ALTERNATIVE CONCEPTIONS OF HOW CHILDREN EXPLAIN ACADEMIC SUCCESS
­INTELLIGENCE • GROUP DIFFERENCES IN IQ • AND FAILURE • CULTURAL COMPARISONS: INDIVIDUAL
EXPLAINING RACIAL DIFFERENCES IN IQ • THE BELL CURVE DIFFERENCES IN ATTRIBUTION • BEYOND THE 3RS:
CONTROVERSY SHOULD SCHOOLS TEACH EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE?
 Contents ix

Developmental Diversity and Your Life:

Explaining Asian Academic Success 351
12 Social and Personality
Development in Adolescence 388
Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts
Looking Ahead 389
Identity: Asking “Who Am I?” 390
PART FIVE Adolescence Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 390
SELF-CONCEPT: ASKING, “WHAT AM I LIKE?” •

11
SELF-ESTEEM: ASKING HOW DO I LIKE MYSELF? •
Physical and Cognitive GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SELF-ESTEEM •
Development in Adolescence 356 SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND RACE DIFFERENCES
IN SELF-ESTEEM
Looking Ahead 357 Identity Formation: Change or Crisis? 392
Physical Maturation 358 SOCIETAL PRESSURES AND RELIANCE ON FRIENDS
AND PEERS • PSYCHOLOGICAL MORATORIUM •
Growth during Adolescence:
LIMITATIONS OF ERIKSON’S THEORY
The Rapid Pace of Physical and Sexual Maturation 358
PUBERTY IN GIRLS • PUBERTY IN BOYS • BODY IMAGE: Marcia’s Approach to Identity Development:
REACTIONS TO PHYSICAL CHANGES IN ADOLESCENCE • Updating Erikson 394
THE TIMING OF PUBERTY: THE CONSEQUENCES Religion and Spirituality 395
OF EARLY AND LATE ­MATURATION
Identity, Race, and Ethnicity 396
Nutrition, Food, and Eating Disorders:
Depression and Suicide: Psychological
Fueling the Growth of Adolescence 363
Difficulties in Adolescence 397
OBESITY • ANOREXIA NERVOSA AND BULIMIA
ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION • ADOLESCENT SUICIDE
Brain Development and Thought: Paving
Are You An Informed Consumer of Development?:
the Way for Cognitive Growth 365
Adolescent Suicide: How to Help 400
THE IMMATURE BRAIN ARGUMENT: TOO YOUNG
FOR THE DEATH PENALTY? • SLEEP DEPRIVATION Relationships: Family and Friends 401
Cognitive Development and Schooling 367 Family Ties: Changing Relations with Relations 402
Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development: THE QUEST FOR AUTONOMY • CULTURE AND
Using Formal Operations 368 AUTONOMY • THE MYTH OF THE GENERATION
GAP • CONFLICTS WITH PARENTS • CULTURAL
USING FORMAL OPERATIONS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS •
DIFFERENCES IN PARENT–CHILD CONFLICTS DURING
THE CONSEQUENCES OF ADOLESCENTS’ USE OF FORMAL
ADOLESCENCE
OPERATIONS • EVALUATING PIAGET’S APPROACH
Information Processing Perspectives: Gradual Relationships with Peers: The Importance
Transformations in Abilities 371 of Belonging 406
SOCIAL COMPARISON • REFERENCE GROUPS •
Egocentrism in Thinking: Adolescents’ Self-Absorption 372
CLIQUES AND CROWDS: BELONGING TO A GROUP •
School Performance 373 GENDER RELATIONS.
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND SCHOOL PERFORMANCE: From Research to Practice: From Research
INDIVIDUAL ­DIFFERENCES IN ACHIEVEMENT •
to Practice 407
ETHNIC AND RACIAL DIFFERENCES IN SCHOOL
ACHIEVEMENT • ACHIEVEMENT TESTING IN HIGH SCHOOL: Developmental Diversity and Your Life:
WILL NO CHILD BE LEFT ­BEHIND? Race Segregation: The Great Divide
From Research to Practice: Do Video Games Improve of Adolescence 408
Cognitive Ability? 376 Popularity and Conformity 409
DROPPING OUT OF SCHOOL POPULARITY AND REJECTION • CONFORMITY:
Cyberspace: Adolescents Online 377 PEER PRESSURE IN ADOLESCENCE • JUVENILE
DELINQUENCY: THE CRIMES OF ADOLESCENCE
MEDIA AND EDUCATION

Threats to Adolescents’ Well-Being 379 Dating, Sexual Behavior, and Teenage

Pregnancy412
Illegal Drugs 380
Dating and Sexual Relationships in the
Alcohol: Use and Abuse 380
Twenty-first Century 412
Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?:
THE FUNCTIONS OF DATING • DATING, RACE,
Hooked on Drugs or Alcohol? 382
AND ETHNICITY • SEXUAL BEHAVIOR • SEXUAL
Tobacco: The Dangers of Smoking 382 INTERCOURSE
Developmental Diversity and Your Life: Selling Death: Sexual Orientation: Heterosexuality,
Pushing Smoking to the Less Advantaged 383 Homosexuality, Bisexuality, and
Sexually Transmitted Infections 383 Transexualism415
WHAT DETERMINES SEXUAL ORIENTATION?
AIDS • OTHER SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS •
AVOIDING STIS Teenage Pregnancies 416
Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts
x Contents Contents

PART SIX Early Adulthood Intimacy, Friendship, and Love

SEEKING INTIMACY: ERIKSON’S VIEW OF YOUNG
456

ADULTHOOD • FRIENDSHIP
13 Physical and Cognitive Development From Research to Practice: Emerging Adulthood
in Early Adulthood 422 Not Quite There Yet! 457
Looking Ahead 423 Defining the Indefinable: What Is Love? 458
PASSIONATE AND COMPANIONATE LOVE: THE TWO FACES
Physical Development 424
OF LOVE • STERNBERG’S TRIANGULAR THEORY:
Physical Development, Fitness, and Health 424 THE THREE FACES OF LOVE
THE SENSES • PHYSICAL FITNESS • HEALTH
Choosing a Partner: Recognizing Mr. or Ms. Right 460
Eating, Nutrition, and Obesity: A Weighty Concern 426 SEEKING A SPOUSE: IS LOVE THE ONLY THING THAT
GOOD NUTRITION • OBESITY MATTERS? • FILTERING MODELS: SIFTING OUT A SPOUSE
Developmental Diversity and Your Life: How Attachment Styles and Romantic Relationships:
Cultural Beliefs Influence Health and Health Care 428 Do Adult Loving Stsyles Reflect Attachment
Physical Disabilities: Coping with Physical Challenge 428 in Infancy? 463
Stress and Coping: Dealing with Life’s Challenges 430 Developmental Diversity and Your Life: Gay
THE ORIGINS OF STRESS • COPING WITH STRESS •
and Lesbian Relationships: Men with Men
HARDINESS, RESILIENCE, AND COPING and Women with Women 464
Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?: The Course of Relationships 465
Coping with Stress 434 Cohabitation, Marriage, and Other Relationship
Cognitive Development 435 Choices: Sorting Out the Options of Early Adulthood 466
MARRIAGE • WHAT MAKES MARRIAGES WORK? •
Intellectual Growth in Early Adulthood 435
EARLY MARITAL CONFLICT
POSTFORMAL THOUGHT
Parenthood: Choosing to Have Children 468
Approaches to Postformal Thinking 437
FAMILY SIZE • ­DUAL-­EARNER COUPLES •
PERRY’S RELATIVISTIC THINKING
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD: TWO’S A COUPLE,
From Research to Practice: Young Adult Brains THREE’S A CROWD?
Are Still Developing 437 Gay and Lesbian Parents 472
SCHAIE’S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Staying Single: I Want to Be Alone 472
Intelligence: What Matters in Early Adulthood? 439 Work: Choosing and Embarking on a Career 473
PRACTICAL AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE •
Identity during Young Adulthood:
CREATIVITY: NOVEL THOUGHT • LIFE EVENTS AND
The Role of Work 473
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Picking an Occupation: Choosing Life’s Work 474
College: Pursuing Higher Education 443
GINZBERG’S CAREER CHOICE THEORY • HOLLAND’S
The Demographics of Higher Education 443 PERSONALITY TYPE THEORY
THE GENDER GAP IN COLLEGE ATTENDANCE •
Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?:
THE CHANGING COLLEGE STUDENT: NEVER TOO
LATE TO GO TO COLLEGE? Choosing a Career476
College Adjustment: Reacting to the Gender and Career Choices: Women’s Work 476
Demands of College Life 445 Why Do People Work? More Than
Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?: Earning a Living 478
When Do College Students Need Professional Help INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION •
with Their Problems? 446 SATISFACTION ON THE JOB
Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts
Gender and College Performance 447
BENEVOLENT SEXISM: WHEN BEING NICE IS
NOT SO NICE
Dropping Out of College 449 PART SEVEN Middle Adulthood
Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts

15 Physical and Cognitive

14 Social and Personality Development in Middle Adulthood 484
Development in Early Adulthood 452 Looking Ahead 485
Looking Ahead 453 Physical Development 486
Forging Relationships: Intimacy, Liking, Physical Transitions: The Gradual
and Loving During Early Adulthood 454 Change in the Body’s Capabilities 486
The Components of Happiness: Fulfilling HEIGHT, WEIGHT, AND STRENGTH: THE BENCHMARKS
Psychological Needs 455 OF CHANGE

THE SOCIAL CLOCKS OF ADULTHOOD • WOMEN’S SOCIAL The Senses: The Sights and Sounds of Middle Age 487
CLOCKS VISION • HEARING
 Contents xi

Reaction Time: Not-So-Slowing Down 488 Family Evolutions: From Full House to
Sex in Middle Adulthood: The Ongoing Sexuality Empty Nest 525
of Middle Age490 BOOMERANG CHILDREN: REFILLING THE EMPTY NEST •
THE SANDWICH GENERATION: BETWEEN CHILDREN
THE FEMALE CLIMACTERIC AND MENOPAUSE • THE
AND PARENTS
DILEMMA OF HORMONE THERAPY: NO EASY ANSWER. •
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF MENOPAUSE • Becoming a Grandparent: Who, Me? 527
THE MALE CLIMACTERIC Family Violence: The Hidden Epidemic 528
Health494 THE PREVALENCE OF SPOUSAL ABUSE • THE STAGES OF
SPOUSAL ABUSE • THE CYCLE OF VIOLENCE • SPOUSAL
Wellness and Illness: The Ups and Downs
ABUSE AND SOCIETY: THE CULTURAL ROOTS OF VIOLENCE
of Middle Adulthood 494
STRESS IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?:
Dealing with Spousal Abuse 531
Developmental Diversity and Your Life:
Individual Variation in Health: Socioeconomic Work and Leisure 531
Status and Gender Differences 497 Work and Careers: Jobs at Midlife 532
The A’s and B’s of Coronary Heart Disease: CHALLENGES OF WORK: ­ON-­THE-JOB DISSATISFACTION
Linking Health and Personality 498 Unemployment: The Dashing of the Dream 533
RISK FACTORS FOR HEART DISEASE • TYPE A’S AND TYPE B’S From Research to Practice: ­House-­Husbands: When
The Threat of Cancer 500 Fathers Are the Primary Caregivers for Their Children 533
From Research to Practice: Is Genetic Testing ­ witching—­and ­Starting—­Careers at Midlife
S 534
for Serious Diseases a Good Idea?502 Leisure Time: Life beyond Work 535
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS RELATING TO CANCER: Developmental Diversity and Your Life: Immigrants
MIND OVER TUMOR?
on the Job: Making It in America 535
Cognitive Development 504
Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts
Does Intelligence Decline in Adulthood? 504
THE DIFFICULTIES IN ANSWERING THE QUESTION •
CRYSTALLIZED AND FLUID INTELLIGENCE • REFRAMING

PART EIGHT
THE ISSUE: WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF COMPETENCE DURING
­MIDDLE ADULTHOOD? Late Adulthood
The Development of Expertise: Separating
Experts from Novices 507 17 Physical and Cognitive Development
Memory: You Must Remember This 508
in Late Adulthood 542
TYPES OF MEMORY • MEMORY SCHEMAS

Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?: Looking Ahead 543

Effective Stratiges for Remembering509 Physical Development in Late Adulthood 544
Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts Aging: Myth and Reality 544
THE DEMOGRAPHICS OF LATE ADULTHOOD • AGEISM:
16 Social and Personality CONFRONTING THE STEREOTYPES OF LATE ADULTHOOD

Development in Middle Adulthood 513 Physical Transitions in Older People 547

OUTWARD SIGNS OF AGING • INTERNAL AGING
Looking Ahead 514 Slowing Reaction Time 549
Personality Development 515 The Senses: Sight, Sound, Taste, and Smell 550
Two Perspectives on Adult Personality Development: VISION • HEARING • TASTE AND SMELL
Normative Crisis versus Life Events 515 Health and Wellness in Late Adulthood 552
Erikson’s Stage of Generativity versus Stagnation 516 Health Problems in Older People: Physical
BUILDING ON ERIKSON’S VIEWS: VAILLANT AND and Psychological Disorders 553
GOULD • BUILDING ON ERIKSON’S VIEWS: LEVINSON’S
COMMON PHYSICAL DISORDERS • PSYCHOLOGICAL
SEASON OF LIFE THEORY • THE MIDLIFE CRISIS: REALITY
AND MENTAL DISORDERS • ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
OR MYTH?
From Research to Practice: Falling Is a
Stability versus Change in Personality 518
Risk and a Fear for Older Adults 554
STABILITY AND CHANGE IN THE “BIG FIVE”
PERSONALITY TRAITS Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?:
Developmental Diversity and Your Life: Caring for People with Alzheimer’s Disease 556
Middle Age: In Some Cultures It Doesn’t Exist 519 Wellness in Late Adulthood: The Relationship
Relationships: Family in Middle Age 521 between Aging and Illness 557
PROMOTING GOOD HEALTH
Marriage and Divorce 521
MARRIAGE • THE UPS AND DOWNS OF Sexuality in Old Age: Use It or Lose It 558
MARRIAGE • DIVORCE • REMARRIAGE Approaches to Aging: Why Is Death Inevitable? 559
xii Contents Contents

GENETIC PROGRAMMING THEORIES OF AGING • WEAR-AND- The Death of a Spouse: Becoming Widowed 592
TEAR THEORIES OF AGING • RECONCILING THE THEORIES OF
The Social Networks of Late Adulthood 594
AGING • LIFE EXPECTANCY: HOW LONG HAVE I GOT?
FRIENDSHIP: WHY FRIENDS MATTER IN LATE
Postponing Aging: Can Scientists Find the Fountain ADULTHOOD • SOCIAL SUPPORT: THE SIGNIFICANCE
of Youth? 561 OF OTHERS
Developmental Diversity and Your Life: Gender, Race, Family Relationships: The Ties That Bind 595
and Ethnic Differences in Average Life Expectancy: CHILDREN • GRANDCHILDREN AND ­GREAT-­
Separate Lives, Separate Deaths 563 GRANDCHILDREN

Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 564 Elder Abuse: Relationships Gone Wrong 597
Intelligence in Older People 564 Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts
RECENT FINDINGS ABOUT INTELLIGENCE IN OLDER PEOPLE
Memory: Remembrance of Things Past—and Present 566 19 Death and Dying 602
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY: RECALLING THE DAYS OF
OUR LIVES • EXPLAINING MEMORY CHANGES IN OLD AGE Looking Ahead 603
Never Too Late 568 Dying and Death Across the Life Span 603
TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING IN LATE ADULTHOOD Defining Death: Determining the Point at
Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts Which Life Ends 604
Death across the Life Span: Causes and
18 Social and Personality Reactions604
DEATH IN INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD • CHILDHOOD
Development in Late Adulthood 572 CONCEPTIONS OF DEATH • DEATH IN ADOLESCENCE •
Looking Ahead 573 DEATH IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD • DEATH IN MIDDLE
ADULTHOOD • DEATH IN LATE ADULTHOOD
Personality Development and Successful Aging 574
Cultural Responses to Death 608
Continuity and Change in Personality during Late
Adulthood574 Developmental Diversity and Your Life: Differing
Conceptions of Death 609
EGO INTEGRITY VERSUS DESPAIR: ERIKSON’S FINAL
STAGE • PECK’S DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS • LEVINSON’S Can Death Education Prepare Us for the Inevitable? 609
FINAL SEASON: THE WINTER OF LIFE • COPING WITH AGING:
Confronting Death 611
NEUGARTEN’S STUDY • LIFE REVIEW AND REMINISCENCE:
THE COMMON THEME OF PERSONALITY ­DEVELOPMENT Understanding the Process of Dying: Are There
Steps Toward Death? 611
Age Stratification Approaches to Late Adulthood 577
DENIAL • ANGER • BARGAINING • DEPRESSION •
Does Age Bring Wisdom? 577 ACCEPTANCE
Developmental Diversity and Your Life: How Culture • EVALUATING KÜBLER-ROSS’S THEORY
Shapes the Way We Treat People in Late Adulthood 578 Choosing the Nature of Death: Is DNR the
Successful Aging: What Is the Secret? 579 Way to Go? 613
DISENGAGEMENT THEORY: GRADUAL RETREAT • ACTIVITY LIVING WILLS • EUTHANASIA AND ASSISTED SUICIDE
THEORY: CONTINUED INVOLVEMENT • CONTINUITY THEORY: Caring for the Terminally Ill: The Place of Death 616
A COMPROMISE POSITION
Grief and Bereavement 617
From Research to Practice: Is Age Really Just a State
Mourning and Funerals: Final Rites 618
of Mind? 582
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN GRIEVING
SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION WITH COMPENSATION:
A GENERAL MODEL OF ­SUCCESSFUL AGING
From Research to Practice: The Rising Popularity
of Cremation 619
The Daily Life of Late Adulthood 584
Living Arrangements: The Places and Spaces Bereavement and Grief: Adjusting to the Death
of Their Lives 584 of a Loved One 619
DIFFERENTIATING UNHEALTHY GRIEF FROM NORMAL GRIEF
LIVING AT HOME • SPECIALIZED LIVING
• THE CONSEQUENCES OF GRIEF AND BEREAVEMENT
ENVIRONMENTS • INSTITUTIONALISM AND LEARNED
HELPLESSNESS Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?:
Financial Issues: The Economics of Late Adulthood 586 Helping a Child Cope with Grief 621
Work and Retirement in Late Adulthood 587 Epilogue • Looking Back • Key Terms and Concepts
OLDER WORKERS: COMBATING AGE
DISCRIMINATION • RETIREMENT: FILLING A LIFE OF LEISURE
References626
Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?:
Planning for—and Living—­a Good Retirement 589 Credits681
Relationships: Old and New 590 Name Index 687
Marriage in the Later Years: In Sickness and in Health 590
Subject Index  710
DIVORCE • DEALING WITH RETIREMENT: TOO MUCH
TOGETHERNESS? • CARING FOR AN AGING SPOUSE Developmental Timeline 720
Preface

T
his book tells a story: the story of our lives, and our • The second goal of the text is to explicitly tie development
parents’ lives, and the lives of our children. It is the to students’ lives. Findings from the study of lifespan de-
story of human beings and how they get to be the velopment have a significant degree of relevance to stu-
way they are. dents, and this text illustrates how these findings can be
Unlike any other area of study, lifespan development applied in a meaningful, practical sense. Applications are
speaks to us in a very personal sense. It covers the range presented in a contemporaneous framework, including
of human existence from its beginnings at conception to its current news items, timely world events, and contempo-
inevitable ending at death. It is a discipline that deals with rary uses of lifespan development that draw readers into
ideas and concepts and theories, but one that above all has the field. Numerous descriptive scenarios and vignettes
at its heart people—our fathers and mothers, our friends reflect everyday situations in people’s lives, explaining
and acquaintances, our very selves. how they relate to the field.
Development Across the Life Span seeks to capture the • The third goal is to highlight both the commonalities and
discipline in a way that sparks, nurtures, and shapes read- diversities of today’s multicultural society. Consequently,
ers’ interest. It is meant to excite students about the field, the book incorporates material relevant to diversity in all
draw them into its way of looking at the world, and build its forms—racial, ethnic, gender, sexual orientation, reli-
their understanding of developmental issues. By exposing gion, and cultural—throughout every chapter. In addi-
readers to both the current content and the promise inher- tion, every chapter has at least one Developmental Diversity
ent in lifespan development, the text is designed to keep chapter. These features explicitly consider how cultural
interest in the discipline alive long after students’ formal factors relevant to development both unite and diversify
study of the field has ended. our contemporary, global society.
• Finally, the fourth goal is one that is implicit in the other
Overview of the Eighth Edition three: making the field of lifespan development engaging,
accessible, and interesting to students. Lifespan develop-
Development Across the Life Span, Eighth Edition—like
ment is a joy both to study and teach because so much of
its predecessors—provides a broad overview of the field of
it has direct, immediate meaning to our lives. Because all
human development. It covers the entire range of the hu-
of us are involved in our own developmental paths, we
man life, from the moment of conception through death.
are tied in very personal ways to the content areas cov-
The text furnishes a broad, comprehensive introduction
ered by the book. Development Across the Life Span, then,
to the field, covering basic theories and research findings
is meant to engage and nurture this interest, planting a
as well as highlighting current applications outside the
seed that will develop and flourish throughout readers’
laboratory. It covers the life span chronologically, encom-
lifetimes.
passing the prenatal period, infancy and toddlerhood, the
preschool years, middle childhood, adolescence, early and
In accomplishing these goals, the book strives to be
middle adulthood, and late adulthood. Within these peri-
user friendly. Written in a direct, conversational voice, it
ods, it focuses on physical, cognitive, and social and per-
duplicates as much as possible a dialogue between author
sonality development.
and student. The text is meant to be understood and mas-
The book seeks to accomplish the following four major
tered on its own by students of every level of interest and
goals:
motivation. To that end, it includes a variety of pedagogical
• First and foremost, the book is designed to provide a features that promote mastery of the material and encour-
broad, balanced overview of the field of lifespan develop- age critical thinking.
ment. It introduces readers to the theories, research, and In short, the book blends and integrates theory, re-
applications that constitute the discipline, examining both search, and applications, focusing on the breadth of human
the traditional areas of the field and more recent innova- development. Furthermore, rather than attempting to pro-
tions. It pays particular attention to the applications devel- vide a detailed historical record of the field, it focuses on the
oped by lifespan development specialists, demonstrating here and now, drawing on the past where appropriate, but
how lifespan developmentalists use theory, research, and with a view toward delineating the field as it now stands
applications to help solve significant social problems. and the directions toward which it is evolving. Similarly,

xiii
xiv Preface

while providing descriptions of classic studies, the empha- Career References

sis is more on current research findings and trends. Students will encounter frequent questions throughout the
Development Across the Life Span is meant to be a text designed to show the applicability of the material to a
book that readers will want to keep in their own personal variety of professions, including education, nursing, social
libraries, one that they will take off the shelf when consid- work, and health-care providers.
ering problems related to that most intriguing of questions:
How do people come to be the way they are? Putting It All Together
In end-of-part integrative concept maps, a short vignette is
Special Features presented and students are asked to consider the v ­ ignette
from both their point of view and the point of view of
Chapter-Opening Prologues ­parents, educators, health-care workers, social workers,
Each chapter begins with a short vignette, describing an in-
and so on.
dividual or situation that is relevant to the basic develop-
mental issues being discussed in the chapter.
What’s New in the Eighth Edition?
Looking Ahead Sections The revision includes a number of significant changes and
These opening sections orientate readers to the topics to be additions. Most importantly, the text now includes a com-
covered, bridging the opening prologue with the remainder prehensive list of specific, numbered learning objectives.
of the chapter. This helps instructors to design tests focused on certain
learning objectives and students to direct their study most
Learning Objectives effectively and efficiently.
Each major section includes explicit learning objectives. In addition, every chapter begins with a new opening
These numbered learning objectives provide a means for vignette that introduces students to the real-world impli-
instructors to evaluate student mastery of specific content. cations of the chapter topic. Furthermore, almost all From
Research to Practice boxes—which describe a contemporary
From Research to Practice
developmental research topic and its applied implica-
Each chapter includes a section that describes current de-
tions—are new to this edition.
velopmental research applied to everyday problems, help-
Finally, the Eighth Edition of Development Across
ing students to see the impact of developmental research
the Life Span incorporates a significant amount of new
throughout society. Many are new in this edition.
and updated information. For instance, advances in such
Developmental Diversity areas as behavioral genetics, brain development, evolu-
Every chapter has at least one “Developmental Diversity” tionary perspectives, and cross-cultural approaches to de-
section incorporated into the text. These sections highlight velopment receive expanded and new coverage. Overall,
issues relevant to today’s multicultural society. hundreds of new citations have been added, with most
of those from articles and books published in the last few
Running Glossary years.
Key terms are defined in the margins of the page on which New topics were added to every chapter. The following
the term is presented. sample of new and revised topics featured in this edition
provides a good indication of the currency of the revision:
Are You an Informed Consumer of Development?
Every chapter includes information on specific uses that Chapter 1
can be derived from research conducted by developmental
• Update on the first person conceived in vitro
investigators.
• Control of children’s use of the Internet
Review and Journal Prompt Sections • Long-term effects of war
Interspersed throughout each chapter are three short recaps
of the chapter’s main points, as well as Journal Prompts Chapter 2
designed to elicit critical thinking about the subject matter
through written responses. • Fetal alcohol syndrome disorder
• Update incidence of hunger
End-of-Chapter Material • Updated incidence of Down’s Syndrome births
Each chapter ends with a summary and an Epilogue that
• Updated incidence of Klinfelter’s syndrome
refers back to the opening Prologue and that ties the chap-
ter together. The Looking Back summary is keyed to the • Abortion aftereffects
chapter’s learning objectives. • Miscarriage
 Preface xv

New DSM terminology: • Childhood-onset fluency disorder

• Autism spectrum disorder • Specific learning disorders

• Schizophrenia disorder spectrum disorder • New figure on ADHD incidence rise

• Major depression disorder Chapter 10

• Interpretation of birth defect probability
• Dealing with bullying
Chapter 3 • New figure on single parent households

• Advantages of infant massage • Gay and Lesbian parenting

• U.S. infant mortality rate (new figure) Chapter 11

• Taste preferences being in utero
• Obesity and fast foods
• Parents modify speech when talking to infants
• Sleep deprivation in adolescents
Chapter 4 • New trends in e-cigarette use

• Percentage of deaths from shaken baby syndrome • Changes in marijuana usage

• Brain plasticity Chapter 12

• Sudden infant death syndrome statistics (new figure)
• Empathy in adolescence
• Malnutrition in the United States
• Transexualism
• Malnutrition worldwide (new figure)
• Percentage of low-income and poor families (new figure) Chapter 13
• Recent research on breast milk • International homicide rates
• Infant massage associated with social development • Obesity
• Exercise and longevity
Chapter 5
• Sucking reflex and transition to next stage Chapter 14
• Brain growth and infantile amnesia • Gender wage gap changes
• Usefulness of Bayley Scales • Emerging adulthood
• Change in style of speech with foreigners • Same-sex marriage

Chapter 6 Chapter 15
• Infant emotions • Coronary heart disease rates
• Fathers’ involvement child care • Breast cancer incidence
• Fusiform gyrus and attention to children’s faces • Genetic screening for future illness susceptibility
• “Expert” babies
Chapter 16
• Update on families in the twenty-first century
• Change in immigration statistics
Chapter 7 • Relationship between perceived age and chronological
• Update on obesity in children age: health outcomes
• Update on depressive orders in children
Chapter 17
• Television viewing and other media use (new figure)
• Life span statistics
Chapter 8 • Proportion of people over 60
• Play and brain development • Risk of falling
• Autism spectrum disorder
Chapter 18
• One-parent families
• Poverty and the elderly
Chapter 9 • Increase in divorce among elderly
• Asthma “triggers” • Aging as a state of mind
xvi Preface

Chapter 19 Print and Media Supplements

• Cost of funeral update for the Instructor
• Increasing popularity of cremation • Instructor’s Resource Manual (ISBN: 0134474244). The
Instructor’s Resource Manual has been thoroughly re-
Ancillaries viewed and revised for the eighth edition. It includes
Development Across the Life Span, Eighth Edition, is ac- learning objectives, key terms and concepts, self-contained
companied by a superb set of teaching and learning material. lecture suggestions, and class activities for each chapter.
The Instructor’s Resource Manual will be available
RevelTM for download via the Pearson Instructor’s ­Resource
Center (www.pearsonhighered.com) or on the
Educational Technology Designed for the Way MyPsychLab® platform (www.MyPsychLab.com).
Today’s Students Read, Think, and Learn.
When students are engaged deeply, they learn more ef- • Annotated Instructor’s Edition (ISBN 013446561X).
fectively and perform better in their courses. This simple With the new Annotated Instructor’s Edition, instructors
fact inspired the creation of REVEL: an immersive learn- will find helpful suggestions in the margins for teaching
ing experience designed for the way today’s students read, with the new online and interactive REVEL edition along
think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and with student activity tips, lecture note tips, and more.
students nationwide, REVEL is the newest, fully digital • Video Enhanced PowerPoint Slides (ISBN:
way to deliver respected Pearson content. 0134474651). These slides bring the Feldman design
REVEL enlivens course content with media interactives right into the classroom, drawing students into the lec-
and assessments—integrated directly within the authors’ ture and providing wonderful interactive activities, vi-
narrative—that provide opportunities for students to read suals, and videos.
about and practice course material in tandem. This immer-
sive experience boosts student engagement, which leads • PowerPoint Lecture Slides (ISBN: 0134422228). The lec-
to better understanding of concepts and improved perfor- ture slides provide an active format for presenting con-
mance throughout the course. cepts from each chapter and feature prominent figures
and tables from the text. The PowerPoint Lecture Slides
Learn more about REVEL are available for download via the Pearson Instructor’s
http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/ Resource Center (www.pearsonhighered.com) or on the
The eighth edition includes integrated videos and me- MyPsychLab® platform (www.MyPsychLab.com).
dia content throughout, allowing students to explore topics
• Test Bank (ISBN: 0134422244). For the eighth edition,
more deeply at the point of relevancy.
each question was checked for accuracy to ensure that
the correct answer was marked and the page reference
was accurate. The test bank contains over 3,000 multiple-
choice, true/false, and essay questions, each referenced
to the relevant page in the book and correlated to chapter
learning objectives. The test bank features the identifica-
tion of each question as factual, conceptual, or applied
and also makes use of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Finally, each
item is also identified in terms of difficulty level to allow
professors to customize their tests and ensure a balance
of question types. Each chapter of the test item file begins
with the Total Assessment Guide: an easy-to-reference
grid that makes creating tests easier by organizing the
test questions by text section, question type, and whether
it is factual, conceptual, or applied.

• MyTest (ISBN: 0134422236). The test bank comes with the

Pearson MyTest, a powerful assessment generation pro-
Revel also offers the ability for students to assess their gram that helps instructors easily create and print quizzes
content mastery by taking multiple-choice quizzes that and exams. Questions and tests can be authored online,
offer instant feedback and by participating in a variety of allowing instructors ultimate flexibility and the ability to
writing assignments, such as peer-reviewed questions and efficiently manage assessments anytime, anywhere. For
auto-graded assignments. more information, go to www.PearsonMyTest.com.
 Preface xvii

• MyPsychLab (ISBN: 0134428935). Available at www. t­ oday’s most current and pressing issues in psychology.
MyPsychLab.com, ­MyPsychLab is an online homework, The journal is discounted when packaged with this text
tutorial, and assessment program that truly engages stu- for college adoptions.
dents in learning. It helps students better prepare for
• Twenty Studies That Revolutionized Child Psychology
class, quizzes, and exams—resulting in better perfor-
by Wallace E. Dixon, Jr. (ISBN: 0130415723). Presenting
mance in the course. It provides educators a dynamic set
the seminal research studies that have shaped modern
of tools for gauging individual and class performance:
developmental psychology, this brief text provides an
• Customizable. MyPsychLab is customizable. Instructors overview of the environment that gave rise to each
choose what students’ course looks like. Homework, ap- study, its experimental design, its findings, and its im-
plications, and more can easily be turned on and off. pact on current thinking in the discipline.

• Blackboard Single Sign-on. MyPsychLab can be used • Human Development in Multicultural Contexts: A Book
by itself or linked to any course management system. of Readings (ISBN: 0130195235). Written by Michele A.
Blackboard single sign-on provides deep linking to all Paludi, this compilation of readings highlights cultural
New MyPsychLab resources. influences in developmental psychology.

• Pearson eText and Chapter Audio (ISBN: 0134423895). • The Psychology Major: Careers and Strategies for
Like the printed text, students can highlight relevant ­Success (ISBN: 0205684688). Written by Eric Landrum
passages and add notes. The Pearson eText can be ac- (Idaho State University), Stephen Davis (Emporia State
cessed through laptops, iPads, and tablets. Download University), and Terri Landrum (Idaho State Universi-
the free Pearson eText app to use on tablets. Students ty), this 160-page paperback provides valuable informa-
can also listen to their text with the Audio eText. tion on career options available to psychology majors,
tips for improving academic performance, and a guide
• Assignment Calendar and Gradebook. A drag and
to the APA style of research reporting.
drop assignment calendar makes assigning and com-
pleting work easy. The automatically graded assessment
provides instant feedback and flows into the gradebook, Acknowledgments
which can be used in the MyPsychLab or exported.
I am grateful to the following reviewers who have pro-
• Personalized Study Plan. Students’ personalized plans vided a wealth of comments, constructive criticism, and
promote better critical thinking skills. The study plan or- ­encouragement:
ganizes students’ study needs into sections, such as Re-
Wanda Clark—South Plains College; Ariana Durando—
membering, Understanding, Applying, and Analyzing.
Queens College; Dawn Kriebel—Immaculata University;
Yvonne L ­ arrier—Indiana University South Bend; Meghan
Video Resource for Instructors Novy—­Palomar College; Laura Pirazzi—San Jose State
• Pearson Teaching Films Lifespan Development Video ­University
(ISBN: 0205656021) engages students and brings to life a Kristine Anthis—Southern Connecticut State ­University;
wide range of topics spanning prenatal through the end Jo Ann Armstrong—Patrick Henry C ­ ommunity College;
of the life span. International videos shot on location Sindy Armstrong—Ozarks Technical College; Stepha-
allow students to observe similarities and differences in nie Babb—University of Houston-Downtown; Verneda
human development across various cultures. Hamm Baugh—Kean University; Laura Brandt—Adlai
E. Stevenson High School; Jennifer Brennom—Kirkwood
Supplementary Texts Community College; Lisa Brown—Frederick C ­ ommunity
College; Cynthia Calhoun—Southwest T ­ ennessee
Contact your Pearson representative to package any of
­Community College; Cara Cashon—University of Louis-
these supplementary texts with Development Across the Life
ville; William ­Elmhorst—Marshfield High School; Donnell
Span, Eighth Edition.
Griffin—­Davidson County Community College; Sandra
• Current Directions in Developmental Psychology Hellyer—Ball State University; Dr. Nancy Kalish—Califor-
(ISBN: 0205597505). Readings from the American Psy- nia State University, Sacramento; Barb Ramos—Simpson
chological Society. This exciting reader includes over College; Linda Tobin—Austin Community College; Scott
20 articles that have been carefully selected for the un- Young—Iowa State University.
dergraduate audience, and taken from the very acces- Amy Boland—Columbus State Community College;
sible Current Directions in Psychological Science journal. Ginny Boyum—Rochester Community and Technical Col-
These timely, cutting-edge articles allow instructors lege; Krista Forrest—University of Nebraska at Kearney;
to bring their students a real-world perspective about John Gambon—Ozarks Technical College; Tim Killian—
xviii Preface Preface

University of Arkansas; Peter Matsos—Riverside City Col- of Massachusetts, who make the university such a wonder-
lege; Troy Schiedenhelm—Rowan-Cabarrus Community ful place in which to teach and do research.
College; Charles Shairs—Bunker Hill Community College; Several people played central roles in the development
Deirdre Slavik—NorthWest Arkansas Community C ­ ollege; of this book. The ever-thoughtful and creative Chris Poirier
Cassandra George Sturges—Washtenaw Community was a partner in developing the REVEL materials, and his
­College; Rachelle Tannenbaum—Anne Arundel Commu- support was critical. John Bickford provided important re-
nity College; Lois Willoughby—Miami Dade College. search and editorial input, and I am thankful for their help.
Nancy Ashton, R. Stockton College; Dana Davidson, Most of all, John Graiff was essential in juggling and coor-
University of Hawaii at Manoa; Margaret Dombrowski, dinating the multiple aspects of writing a book, and I am
Harrisburg Area Community College; Bailey Drechsler, very grateful for the substantial role he played.
Cuesta College; Jennifer Farell, University of North Caro- I am also grateful to the superb Pearson team that
lina—Greensboro; Carol Flaugher, University at Buffalo; was instrumental in the inception and development of this
Rebecca Glover, University of North Texas; R. J. Grisham, book. Amber Chow, senior editor, brought enthusiasm and
Indian River Community College; Martha Kuehn, ­Central a wealth of thoughtful ideas to this edition. Program man-
Lakes College; Heather Nash, University of Alaska ager Cecilia Turner went way beyond the call of duty to
­Southeast; Sadie Oates, Pitt Community College; Patricia provide help in bringing this book to press I am grateful
Sawyer, Middlesex Community College; Barbara Simon, for their support. Most of all, I want to thank the always
Midlands Technical College; Archana Singh, Utah State creative and thoughtful Shannon LeMay-Finn, who played
University; Joan Thomas—Spiegel, Los Angeles Harbor an absolutely critical role in bringing this book to fruition.
College; Linda Veltri, University of Portland. On the production end of things, Denise Forlow, the
Libby Balter Blume, University of Detroit Mercy; team lead, and Shelly Kupperman, the project manager,
Bobby Carlsen, Averett College; Ingrid Cominsky, Onon- helped in bringing all the aspects of the text together. I
daga Community College; Amanda Cunningham, Empo- am also perennially grateful to Jeff Marshall, whose many
ria State University; Felice J. Green, University of North ideas permeate this book. Finally, I’d like to thank (in ad-
Alabama; Mark Hartlaub, Texas A&M University—Corpus vance) marketing manager Lindsey Prudhomme Gill, on
Christi; Kathleen Hulbert, University of M ­ assachusetts— whose skills I’m counting.
Lowell; Susan Jacob, Central Michigan University; Laura I also wish to acknowledge the members of my fam-
Levine, Central Connecticut State U ­ niversity; Pamelyn M. ily, who play such an essential role in my life. My brother,
MacDonald, Washburn University; Jessica Miller, Mesa ­Michael, my sisters-in-law and brother-in-law, my nieces and
State College; Shirley Albertson Owens, Vanguard Uni- nephews—all make up an important part of my life. In addi-
versity of Southern California; Stephanie Weyers, Empo- tion, I am always indebted to the older generation of my fam-
ria State University; Karen L. Yanowitz, Arkansas State ily, who led the way in a manner I can only hope to emulate.
­University. I will always be obligated to the late Harry Brochstein, Mary
Many others deserve a great deal of thanks. I am in- Vorwerk, and Ethel Radler. Most of all, the list is headed by my
debted to the numerous people who provided me with a father, the late Saul Feldman, and my mother, Leah Brochstein.
superb education, first at Wesleyan University and later In the end, it is my immediate family who deserve the
at the University of Wisconsin. Specifically, Karl Scheibe greatest thanks. My terrific kids, Jonathan and wife Leigh;
played a pivotal role in my undergraduate education, and Joshua and wife Julie; and Sarah and husband Jeff not only
the late Vernon Allen acted as mentor and guide through are nice, smart, and good-looking, but my pride and joy.
my graduate years. It was in graduate school that I learned My wonderful grandchildren, Alex, Miles, Naomi, and
about development, being exposed to such experts as Ross Lilia, have brought immense happiness from the moment
Parke, John Balling, Joel Levin, Herb Klausmeier, and many of their births. And ultimately my wife, Katherine Vorwerk,
­others. My education continued when I became a professor. provides the love and grounding that makes everything
I am especially grateful to my colleagues at the University worthwhile. I thank them, with all my love.
Robert S. Feldman
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
About the Author
A Fellow of the American Psychological Association, the
Association for Psychological Science, and the ­American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science, Professor ­Feldman
received a B.A. with High Honors from Wesleyan University
(from which he received the Distinguished Alumni Award).
He has an MS and Ph.D. from the U ­ niversity of Wisconsin-
Madison. He is a winner of a Fulbright Senior Research
Scholar and Lecturer award, and he has written more than
100 books, book chapters, and scientific articles. He has ed-
ited Development of Nonverbal Behavior in Children (Springer-
Verlag) and Applications of N ­ onverbal B
­ ehavioral Theory and
Research (Erlbaum), and co-edited Fundamentals of Nonverbal
Behavior (Cambridge University Press). He is also author of
Child Development, Understanding Psychology, and P.O.W.E.R.
Learning: Strategies for Success in College and Life. His books
have been translated into many languages, including Span-
ish, French, Portuguese, Dutch, Chinese, Korean, German,

R
obert S. Feldman is Professor of Psychological Arabic, and Japanese. His research interests include hon-
and Brain Sciences and Deputy Chancellor of the esty and deception in everyday life, work that he described
­University of Massachusetts, Amherst. A recipient in The Liar in Your Life, a trade book published in 2009. His
of the College Distinguished Teacher Award, he teaches research has been supported by grants from the National In-
psychology classes ranging in size from 15 to nearly 500 stitute of Mental Health and the National Institute on Dis-
students. During the course of more than three decades as abilities and ­Rehabilitation Research.
a college instructor, he has taught both undergraduate and Professor Feldman is president of the Federation of
graduate courses at Mount Holyoke College, Wesleyan ­Associations of Behavioral and Brain Sciences Foundation,
­University, and Virginia Commonwealth University in ad- a consortium of societies that benefit the social sciences. In
dition to the University of Massachusetts. addition, he is on the Board of New England Public Radio.
Professor Feldman, who initiated the Minority Professor Feldman loves music, is an enthusiastic pianist,
­Mentoring Program at the University of Massachusetts, also and enjoys cooking and traveling. He has three children,
has served as a Hewlett Teaching Fellow and Senior Online four grandchildren, and he and his wife, a psychologist,
Teaching Fellow. He initiated distance learning courses in live in western Massachusetts in a home overlooking the
psychology at the University of Massachusetts. Holyoke Mountain Range.

xix
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1
An Introduction to
Lifespan Development

Learning Objectives
LO 1.1 Define the field of lifespan development LO 1.8 Describe how the humanistic perspective
and describe what it encompasses. explains lifespan development.
LO 1.2 Describe the areas that lifespan LO 1.9 Describe how the contextual perspective
development specialists cover. explains lifespan development.
LO 1.3 Describe some of the basic influences LO 1.10 Describe how the evolutionary perspective
on human development. explains lifespan development.
LO 1.4 Summarize four key issues in the field LO 1.11 Discuss the value of applying multiple
of lifespan development. perspectives to lifespan development.
LO 1.5 Describe how the psychodynamic LO 1.12 Describe the role that theories
perspective explains lifespan and hypotheses play in the study
development. of development.
LO 1.6 Describe how the behavioral LO 1.13 Compare the two major categories
perspective explains lifespan of lifespan development research.
development. LO 1.14 Identify different types of correlational
LO 1.7 Describe how the cognitive perspective studies and their relationship to cause
explains lifespan development. and effect.
1
2 PART 1 ● Beginnings

LO 1.15 Explain the main features of an LO 1.17 Compare longitudinal research, ­

experiment. cross-sectional research, and sequential
research.
LO 1.16 Distinguish between theoretical research
and applied research. LO 1.18 Describe some ethical issues that affect
psychological research.

Chapter Overview
An Orientation to Lifespan Development The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach
Characterizing Lifespan Development to Development
The Scope of the Field of Lifespan Development Evolutionary Perspectives: Our Ancestors’ Contributions
Influences on Lifespan Development to Behavior
Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature— Why “Which Approach Is Right?” Is the Wrong Question
and Nurture—of Lifespan Development Research Methods
Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Theories and Hypotheses: Posing Developmental
The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Questions
Person Choosing a Research Strategy: Answering Questions
The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Correlational Studies
Behavior Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect
The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots Theoretical and Applied Research: Complementary
of Understanding Approaches
The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating Measuring Developmental Change
on the Unique Qualities of Human Beings Ethics and Research

Prologue: New Conceptions

What if for your entire life, the image that others held of you was colored by the way in which you
were conceived?
In some ways, that’s what it has been like for Louise Brown, who was the world’s first “test
tube baby,” born by in vitro fertilization (IVF), a procedure in which fertilization of a mother’s egg by
a father’s sperm takes place outside of the mother’s body.
Louise was a preschooler when her parents told her how she was conceived, and throughout
her childhood she was bombarded with questions. It became routine to explain to her classmates
that she, in fact, was not born in a laboratory.
As a child, Louise sometimes felt completely alone. “I thought it was something peculiar to
me,” she recalled. But as she grew older, her isolation declined as more and more children were
born in the same manner.
In fact, today Louise is hardly isolated. More than 5 million babies have been born using the
same procedure, which has become almost routine. And at the age of 28, Louise became a mother
herself, giving birth to a baby boy named Cameron—conceived, incidentally, the old-fashioned way
(Falco, 2012; ICMRT, 2012). ■

Looking Ahead
Louise Brown’s conception may have been novel, but her development, from infancy,
through childhood and adolescence, to her marriage and the birth of her baby, has fol-
lowed a predictable pattern. The specifics of our development vary: some encounter eco-
nomic deprivation or live in war-torn ­territories; others contend with genetic or family
issues like divorce and step-parents. The broad strokes of development, however, set in
motion in that test tube all those years ago, are remarkably similar for all of us. Like
 Chapter 1 ● An Introduction to Lifespan Development 3

­ eBron James, Bill Gates, and the Queen of England, each and
L
every one of us is traversing the territory known as lifespan
­development.
Louise Brown’s conception in the lab is just one of the
brave new worlds of the twenty-first century. Issues ­ranging
from cloning to the consequences of poverty on development
or the prevention of AIDS raise significant concerns that affect
human development. Underlying these are even more funda-
mental i­ssues: How do we develop physically? How does our
understanding of the world grow and change throughout our
lives? And how do our personalities and our social relationships
develop as we move from birth through the entire span of our
lives?
Each of these questions, and many others we’ll encoun- Louise Brown and her son.
ter throughout this book, are central to the field of lifespan
­development. As a field, lifespan development ­encompasses not only a broad span of
time—from before birth to death—but also a wide range of areas of ­development. Con-
sider, for example, the range of interests that different specialists in lifespan development
focus on when considering the life of Louise Brown:

• Lifespan development researchers who investigate behavior at the level of biological

processes might determine if Louise’s functioning prior to birth was affected by her
conception outside the womb.
• Specialists in lifespan development who study genetics might examine how the
­genetic endowment from Louise’s parents affects her later behavior.
• For lifespan development specialists who investigate the ways thinking changes
over the course of life, Louise’s life might be examined in terms of how her under-
standing of the nature of her conception changed as she grew older.
• Researchers in lifespan development who focus on physical growth might c­ onsider
whether her growth rate differed from children conceived more traditionally.
• Lifespan development experts who specialize in the social world and social rela-
tionships might look at the ways that Louise interacted with others and the kinds of
friendships she developed.

Although their interests take many forms, these specialists in lifespan development
share one concern: understanding the growth and change that occur during the course of
life. Taking many differing approaches, developmentalists study how both the biologi-
cal inheritance from our parents and the environment in which we live jointly affect our
behavior.
Some developmentalists focus on explaining how our genetic background can
­determine not only how we look but also how we behave and relate to others in a con-
sistent manner—that is, matters of personality. They explore ways to identify how much
of our potential as human beings is provided—or limited—by heredity. Other lifespan
development specialists look to the environment, exploring ways in which our lives
are shaped by the world that we encounter. They investigate the extent to which we are
shaped by our early environments, and how our current circumstances influence our be-
havior in both subtle and evident ways.
Whether they focus on heredity or environment, all developmental specialists
­acknowledge that neither heredity nor environment alone can account for the full range
of human development and change. Instead, our understanding of people’s d ­ evelopment
requires that we look at the interaction of heredity and environment, ­attempting to grasp
how both, in the end, contribute to human behavior.
In this chapter, we orient ourselves to the field of lifespan development. We begin
with a discussion of the scope of the discipline, illustrating the wide array of topics it
4 PART 1 ● Beginnings

covers and the full range of ages, from conception to death, that it examines. We also
survey the key issues and controversies of the field and consider the broad perspectives
that developmentalists take. Finally, we discuss the ways developmentalists use research
to ask and answer questions.

An Orientation to Lifespan Development

Have you ever wondered how it is possible that an infant tightly grips your finger with
tiny, perfectly formed hands? Or marveled at how a preschooler methodically draws a
picture? Or at the way an adolescent can make involved decisions about whom to invite
to a party or the ethics of downloading music files? Or the way a middle-aged politician
can deliver a long, flawless speech from memory? Or wondered what it is that makes a
grandfather at 80 so similar to the father he was when he was 40?
If you’ve ever wondered about such things, you are asking the kinds of questions
that scientists in the field of lifespan development pose. In this section, we’ll examine how
the field of lifespan development is defined, the scope of the field, as well as some basic
influences on human development.

Defining Lifespan Development

LO 1.1 Define the field of lifespan development and describe what it
encompasses.
lifespan development Lifespan development is the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change,
the field of study that examines and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span. Although the defini-
patterns of growth, change, and tion of the field seems straightforward, the simplicity is somewhat misleading. In order
stability in behavior that occur to understand what development is actually about, we need to look underneath the vari-
throughout the entire life span ous parts of the definition.
In its study of growth, change, and stability, lifespan development takes a
­scientific a­ pproach. Like members of other scientific disciplines, researchers in lifespan
­development test their assumptions about the nature and course of human develop-
ment by applying scientific methods. As we’ll see later in the chapter, they develop theo-
ries about development, and they use methodical, scientific techniques to validate the
­accuracy of their assumptions systematically.
Lifespan development focuses on human development. Although there are
­developmentalists who study the course of development in nonhuman species, the vast
majority examine growth and change in people.
Some seek to understand universal principles of
development, whereas others focus on how cul-
tural, racial, and ethnic differences affect the course
of development. Still others aim to understand the
unique aspects of individuals, looking at the traits
and characteristics that differentiate one person
from another. Regardless of approach, however, all
developmentalists view development as a continu-
ing process throughout the life span.
As developmental specialists focus on the
ways people change and grow during their lives,
they also consider stability in people’s lives. They
ask in which areas, and in what periods, people
show change and growth, and when and how their
behavior reveals consistency and continuity with
prior behavior.
How people grow and change over the course of their lives is the focus of lifespan Finally, developmentalists assume that the
development. process of development persists ­throughout every
Other documents randomly have
different content
the nature of the subject and its interior development ... not from
the impress of an external and extraneous stamp"?[39]
But it would be quite wrong to suppose that this
victory over the rhetoric of kinds was either the Their persistence
in philosophical
cause or the consequence of a final victory over its theories.
philosophical presuppositions. In pure theory, none
of the critics above named wholly abandoned the kinds and the
rules. Berchet admitted four elementary forms, that is four
fundamental kinds, in poetry; lyrical, didactic, epic and dramatic,
claiming for the poet only the right of "uniting and fusing together
the elementary forms in a thousand fashions."[40] Manzoni's only
real quarrel was with those rules "founded on special facts instead of
on general principles; on the authority of rhetoricians instead of
reason."[41] Even De Sanctis was satisfied with a concept somewhat
vague, though true enough at bottom: "the most important rules are
not those capable of being applied to every content, but those which
draw their force ex visceribus caussæ, from the very heart of the
content itself."[42] Even more diverting than the spectacle which had
delighted Home, is the sight of German philosophy according the
honour of a dialectical deduction to the empirical classification of
kinds. We shall give two examples, each representing one extreme
end of the chain:
Schelling at the beginning of the century (1803),
and Hartmann at the end (1890). One section of Fr. Schelling.
Schelling's Philosophy of Art is devoted to "the
construction of individual poetic kinds"; in it he remarks that were he
to follow the historical order, Epic would come first; whereas in the
scientific order the Lyric occupies the first place: indeed, if poetry is
the representation of the infinite in the finite, the Lyric, in which
difference prevails (the finite, the subject), is its first moment,
corresponding with the first power of the ideal series, reflexion,
knowledge, consciousness, whereas Epic corresponds with the
second power, action.[43] From Epic, which is par excellence the
objective kind (as being the identity of subjective and objective),
derive the Elegy and the Idyl if subjectivity be placed in the object
and objectivity in the poet: if objectivity be placed in the object and
subjectivity in the poet, didactic poetry results.[44] To these
differentiations of the Epic, Schelling adds the romantic or modern
Epic, the poem of chivalry; the novel; and the experiments in an epic
of ordinary life such as the Luisa of Voss and the Hermann and
Dorothea of Goethe; and, co-ordinate with all the foregoing, the
Comedia of Dante, "an epic kind in itself" (eine epische Gattung für
sich). Finally, from the union on a higher plane of Lyric with Epic,
liberty with necessity, arises the third form, the Drama, the
reconciliation of antitheses in a totality, "supreme incarnation of the
essence and the in-itself of all art."[45]
In Hartmann's Philosophy of the Beautiful, poetry is
divided into spoken poetry and read poetry. The E. von Hartmann.
former is subdivided into Epic, Lyric and Dramatic,
with further subdivisions of Epic into plastic Epic, or strictly epic Epic,
and pictorial or lyrical Epic; of Lyric into epical Lyric, lyrical Lyric and
dramatic Lyric; of Dramatic into lyrical Drama, epic Drama and
dramatic Drama. Read poetry (Lese poesie) is again subdivided into
predominantly epical, lyrical or dramatic form with tertiary partitions
of the affecting, the comic, the tragic and humorous; and into
poems "to be read at a sitting" (like the short story) or to be taken
up again and again (like the novel).[46]
Without these highly philosophical trivialities the
divisions of kinds still wander through the books The kinds in the
schools.
called Institutions of Literature, written by
philologists and men of letters, and the ordinary school-books of
Italy, France and Germany; and psychologists and philosophers still
persist in writing about the Æsthetic of the tragic, of the comic and
of the humorous.[47] The objectivity of literary kinds is frankly
maintained by Ferdinand Brunetière, who looks on literary history as
"the evolution of kinds,"[48] and gives sharply defined form to a
superstition which, seldom confessed so truthfully or applied so
rigorously, survives to contaminate modern literary history.[49]
[1] Republic, iii. 394; see also E. Müller, Gesch. i. Th. d. Kunst, i.
pp. 134-206; ii. pp. 238-239, note.
[2] Poet. ch. 6
[3] Annotazioni, introd.
[4] Cf. for Sanskrit poetry S. Levi, Le Théâtre indien, pp. 11-152.
[5] Cf. Menendez y Pelayo, op. cit. I., i. pp. 126-154, 2nd ed.
[6] Introd. to his tr. of the Poetics.
[7] Lintilhac, Un Coup d'état, etc., p. 543.
[8] Hamburg. Dramat. Nos. 81, 101-104.
[9] Op. cit. Nos. 96, 101-104.
[10] G. B. Giraldi Cintio, De' romanzi, delle comedie e delle
tragedie, 1554 (ed. Dælli, 1864).
[11] Iacopo Mazzoni, Difesa della commedia di Dante, Cesena,
1587.
[12] G. M. Cecchi, prologue to Romanesca, 1585.
[13] Cf. besides the two Veratti, the Compendio della poesia
tragicomica, Venice, 1601.
[14] Proginn. poet., Florence, 1627, iii. p. 130.
[15] Cf. A. Belloni, Il seicento, Milan, 1898, pp. 162-164.
[16] Examens, and Discours du poème dramatique, de la
tragédie, des trois unités, etc.
[17] Réflexions sur le comique larmoyant, 1749 (trans. by
Lessing, Werke, vol. cit.).
[18] Gellert, De comædia commovente, 1751; Lessing,
Abhandlungen von den weinerlichen oder rührenden Lustspiele,
1754 (in Werke, vol. vii.).
[19] Prologue to the Cortigiana, 1534.
[20] Degli eroici furori in Opere italiane, ed. Gentile, ii. pp. 310-
311.
[21] Il Veratto (against Jason de Nores), Ferrara, 1588.
[22] Menendez y Pelayo, op. cit. iii. pp. 174-175 (1st ed.), i.
[23] Menendez y Pelayo, op. cit. iii. p. 468 (2nd ed.).
[24] Arte nuevo de hacer comedias (1609), ed. Morel Fatio, 11.
40-41, 138-140, 157-158.
[25] Menendez y Pelayo, op. cit. iii. p. 459.
[26] Marino, letter to G. Preti, in Lettere, Venice, 1627, p. 127.
[27] Dell' arte rappresentiva meditata e all' improvviso, Naples,
1699; cf. pp. 47, 48, 65.
[28] Trattato dello stile e del dialogo, 1646, preface.
[29] Discorso su l' Endimione (in Opere italiane, ed. cit.), ii. pp.
15-16.
[30] Della tragedia, 1715 (ibid. vol. i.).
[31] Prose e poesie, cit., pref. and passim.
[32] In Orsi, Considerazioni, ed. cit. ii. pp. 8, 9.
[33] Réflexions, cit. sect. 34.
[34] Discours sur la tragédie, 1730.
[35] Opuscoli of Agatopisto Cromaziano, Venice, 1797.
[36] Danzel, Gottsched, p. 206 seqq.
[37] Elements of Criticism, iii. pp. 144-145, note.
[38] See conversation of Napoleon with Goethe, in Lewes, The
Life and Works of Goethe, ii. p. 441.
[39] Manzoni, Epistol. i. pp. 355-356; cf. Lettera sul romanticismo,
ibid. pp. 293-299.
[40] Lettera di Grisostomo, opere, ed. Cusani, p. 227.
[41] Lettera sul romanticismo, ibid. p. 280.
[42] La giovinezza di F. de S. chs. 26-28.
[43] Philos, d. Kunst, pp. 639-645.
[44] Op. cit. pp. 657-659.
[45] Op. cit. p. 687.
[46] Philosophie d. Schönen, ch. 2, § 2.
[47] See, e.g., Volkelt, Ästh. d. Tragischen, Munich, 1897; Lipps,
Der Streit über Tragödie, etc.
 [48] See his other works, L'évolution des genres dans l'histoire de
la littérature, Paris, 1890 seqq., and Manuel de l'hist. de la littér.
française, ibid., 1898.
[49] Croce, Per la storia della critica e storiografia letter, pp. 23-
25.

III

THE THEORY OF THE LIMITS OF THE ARTS

To Lessing must be ascribed the merit and the sole glory of having
discovered that every art has its special character and inviolable
limits. But his merit lies not in his own theory, which, in itself, is
scarcely tenable,[1] but in having, though by an error, aroused
discussion of a highly important æsthetical point till then wholly
overlooked. After some slight notice from Du Bos and Batteux, some
preparation of the field by Diderot[2] and Mendelssohn,[3] and long
disquisitions by Meier and other Wolffians upon natural and
conventional symbols,[4] Lessing was the first to raise clearly the
question of the value attaching to the distinction between the
various arts. Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance had
enumerated the arts according to denominations of current
phraseology, and had composed numbers of technical hand-books
distinguishing major and minor arts; but in Aristoxenus or Vitruvius,
Marchetto da Padova or Cennino Cennini, Leonardo da Vinci or Leon
Battista Alberti, Palladio or Scamozzi, it would be vain to look for the
problem proposed by Lessing, for the spirit of these technical
treatise-writers is entirely different. Some rudiments of the question
may be detected in the comparisons made, and the questions of
precedence raised, between poetry and painting or painting and
sculpture, to be found now and then in stray paragraphs of their
books (Leonardo da Vinci pressed the claims of painting, Michæl
Angelo those of sculpture): the theme eventually became a favourite
one for academic discussion, and was not despised by Galileo
himself.[5]
Lessing was induced to raise the question in the
attempt to controvert the strange views of Spence The limits of the
arts in Lessing.
concerning the close union between painting and Arts of space and
poetry among the ancients, and of Count Caylus, arts of time.
who held that the excellence of a poem must be
judged by the number of subjects it offers to the brush of the
painter. He was further instigated by the comparisons between
poetry and painting upon which were commonly founded the most
ridiculous rules for tragedy: the maxim Ut pictura poësis, whose
original motive was to emphasize the representative or imaginative
character of poetry, and the community of nature among the arts,
had been converted by superficial interpretation into a defence of
the most vicious intellectualistic and realistic prejudices. Lessing
argued in this wise: "If painting in its imitations employs precisely a
medium or symbol different from that of poetry (the former
employing spatial forms and colours, the latter temporal articulated
sounds), since the symbol must certainly be in close relation with
that which is signified, coexistent symbols can only express
coexistent objects or parts of objects, and consecutive symbols can
only express consecutive objects or parts of objects. Objects
mutually coexistent, or having mutually coexistent parts, are called
bodies. Bodies, then, through their quality of visibility, are the true
objects of painting. Objects successively consecutive amongst
themselves, or whose parts are consecutive, are called in general
actions. Actions, then, are the suitable objects of poetry." Painting,
undoubtedly, may represent action, but only by means of bodies
which indicate it; and poetry may represent bodies, but only by
indicating them by means of actions. When a poet using language,
i.e. arbitrary symbols, sets himself to describe bodies, he is no
longer a poet but a prose-writer, since a true poet only describes
bodies by the effect they produce on the soul.[6] Retouching and
developing this distinction, Lessing described action or movement in
a picture as an addition made by the imagination of the beholder; so
true is this, says he, that animals perceive nothing save immobility in
a picture. He further studied the various unions of arbitrary with
natural symbols, such as that of poetry with music (in which the
former is subordinate to the latter), of music with dancing, of poetry
with dancing, and of music and poetry with dancing (union of
arbitrary consecutive audible symbols with natural visible symbols):
of the pantomime of antiquity (union of arbitrary consecutive visible
symbols with natural consecutive visible symbols): of the language
of the dumb (the only art that employs arbitrary consecutive visible
symbols): and, lastly, of imperfect unions, such as that of painting
with poetry. If not every use to which language is put is poetic,
Lessing holds that not every use of natural coexistent signs is
pictorial: painting, like language, has its prose. Prosaic painters are
those who represent consecutive objects notwithstanding the
character of coexistence in their signs, allegorical painters those who
make arbitrary use of natural signs, and those who pretend to
represent the invisible or the audible by means of the visible.
Desirous of preserving the naturalness of symbolism, Lessing ended
by condemning the custom of painting objects on a diminished scale,
and concludes: "I think that the aim of an art should be that only to
which it is specially adapted, not that which can be performed
equally well by other arts. I find in Plutarch a comparison which
illustrates this admirably: he who would split wood with a key and
open the door with an axe not only spoils both utensils but deprives
himself of the unity of each alike."[7]
The principle of limitations or of the specific
character of individual arts, as laid down by Limits and
classifications of
Lessing, occupied the attention of philosophers in the arts in later
later days, who, without discussing the principle philosophy.
itself, employed it in classifying the arts and
arranging them in series.
Herder here and there continued Lessing's
Herder and Kant.
examination in his fragment on Plastic (1769);[8]
Heydenreich wrote a treatise (1790) on the limits of the six arts
(music, dance, figurative arts gardening, poetry and representative
art), and criticized the clavecin oculaire of Father Castel, a
contrivance for the combination of colours which should act in the
same way as the series of musical notes in harmony and melody,[9]
Kant appealed to the analogy of a speaking man, and classified the
arts according to speech, gesture and tone as arts of speech,
figurative arts, and arts producing a mere play of sensations
(mimicry and colouring).[10]
Schelling differentiated the artistic identity
according as it consisted in the infusion of the Schelling.
infinite into the finite, or of the finite into the
infinite (ideal art or real art): into poetry and art proper. Under the
heading of real arts he included the figurative arts, music, painting,
plastic (which comprehended architecture, bas-relief and sculpture):
in the ideal series were the three corresponding forms of poetry,
lyrical, epical and dramatic.[11]
With a similar method, Solger placed poetry, the
universal art, side by side with art strictly so called, Solger.
which is either symbolical (sculpture) or allegorical
(painting), and, in either case, is a union of concepts and bodies: if
you take corporality without concept, you have architecture; if
concept without matter, music.[12] Hegel makes poetry the bond of
union between the two extremes of figurative art and of music.[13]
We have already seen how Schopenhauer
destroyed the accepted limitations of art and built Schopenhauer.
them up again, following the order of the ideas
which they represent.[14] Herbart clung to Lessing's two groups,
simultaneous arts and successive arts, and defined the former as
"permitting themselves to be inspected from every side," the latter
as "rejecting complete investigation and remaining in semi-
darkness": in the first group he placed architecture, plastic, church
music and classical poetry; in the second ornamental gardening,
painting, secular music and romantic poetry.[15]
Herbart was implacable against those who look in
one art for the perfections of another; who "look Herbart.
on music as a sort of painting, painting as poetry,
poetry as an elevated plastic and plastic as a species of æsthetic
philosophy,"[16] while admitting that a concrete work of art, such as
a picture, may contain elements of the picturesque, the poetic and
other kinds, held together by the skill of the artist.[17]
Weisse divided the arts into three triads, intended
Weisse. Zeising.
to recall the nine Muses.[18] Zeising invented-a
cross-division into figurative arts (architecture, sculpture, painting),
musical arts (instrumental music, song, poetry), and arts of mimicry
(dance, musical mimicry, representative art), and into macrocosmic
arts (architecture, instrumental music, dance), microcosmic arts
(sculpture, song, musical mimicry) and historical arts (painting,
poetry and representative art).[19]
Vischer classified them according to the three
forms of imagination (figurative, sensuous and Vischer.
poetic), into objective arts (architecture, plastic and
painting), a subjective art (music) and an objective-subjective art[20]
(poetry). Gerber proposed to recognize a special "art of language"
(Sprachkunst), distinguishable alike from prose and poetry and
consisting in the expression of simple movements of the soul. Such
an art would correspond with plastic in the following scheme: arts of
the eye—(a) architecture, (b) plastic, (c) painting; arts of the ear—
(a) prose, (b) the art of language, (c) poetry.[21]
The two most recent systems of classification are
furnished by Schasler and Hartmann, who have M. Schasler.
also submitted the schemes of their predecessors
to searching criticism. Schasler[22] arranges the arts in two groups,
adopting the criterion of simultaneity and succession: the arts of
simultaneity are architecture, plastic and painting; of succession,
music, mimicry and poetry. He says that by following the series in
the order indicated, it will be seen that simultaneity, originally
predominant, yields place to succession, which predominates in the
second group and subordinates without wholly displacing the other.
Parallel with this, another division is evolved, deduced from the
relation between the ideal and material elements in each separate
art, between movement and repose; which begins with architecture
"materially the heaviest, spiritually the lightest of all the arts," and
ends with poetry, in which the opposite relation is observed. Curious
analogies are established by this method between the first and
second group of arts: between architecture and music; between
plastic and mimicry; between painting in its three forms of
landscape, genre and historical, and poetry in its three forms of lyric
(declamatory), epic (rhapsodic) and drama (representative).
Hartmann[23] divides the arts into arts of
E. v. Hartmann.
perception and arts of imagination: the former
tripartite into spatial or visual (plastic and painting), temporal or
auditory (instrumental music, linguistic mimicry, expressive song)
and temporal-spatial or mimic (pantomime, mimic dances, art of the
actor, art of the opera-singer); the second contains but one single
species, which is poetry. Architecture, decoration, gardening,
cosmetic and prosewriting are excluded from this system of
classification and lumped together as non-free arts.
Parallel with this search for a classification of the
arts, the same philosophers were led into the quest The supreme art.
Richard Wagner.
of the supreme art. Some favoured poetry, others
music or sculpture; others again claimed the supremacy for
combined arts, especially for Opera, according to the theory of it
already advanced in the eighteenth century[24] and maintained and
developed in our day by Richard Wagner.[25] One of the latest
philosophers to raise the question "whether single arts, or arts in
combination, had the greater value," concluded that single arts as
such possess their own perfection, yet the perfection of united arts
is still greater, notwithstanding the compromises and mutual
concessions enforced upon them by their union; that single arts,
from another point of view, have the greater value; and lastly, that
both single and combined arts are necessary to the realisation of the
concept of art.[26]
The capriciousness, emptiness and childishness of
such problems and their solutions must have Lotze's attack on
classifications.
excited feelings of impatience and disgust, but we
rarely find a doubt thrown on their validity. One such dissentient is
Lotze when he writes: "It is difficult to see the use of such attempts.
Knowledge of the nature and laws of individual arts is but little
increased by indication of the systematic place allotted to each." He
further observed that in real life the arts are variously conjoined,
forming themselves into no systematic series, while in the world of
thought an immense variety of orders can be created; he therefore
selected one of these possible orders, not because it was the sole
legitimate one, but because it was convenient (bequem). His series
begins with music, "the art of free beauty, determined only by the
laws of its matter, not by conditions imposed by a given task of
purpose or of imitation"; followed by architecture, "which no longer
plays freely with forms, but subjects them to the service of an end";
and then by sculpture, painting and poetry, excluding minor arts
which cannot be co-ordinated with the others, since they are
incapable of expressing with any approach to completeness the
totality of the spiritual life.[27] A recent French critic, Basch, opens
his treatise with the following excellent remarks: "Is it necessary to
show there is no such thing as an absolute art, differentiating itself
later by means of one knows not what immanent laws? What exists
is the particular forms of art, or rather artists who have striven to
translate, as best they can, according to the material means at their
command, the song of the ideal in their souls." But later on he thinks
it possible to effect a division of the arts by starting "from the artist,
instead of the art in itself," by proceeding "according to the three
great types of fancy, visual, motor and auditory"; and as for the
debated point of the supreme art, he thinks it must be settled in
favour of music.[28]
Schasler is not altogether wrong in his spirited counterattack on
Lotze's criticism; he protests against the principle of indifference and
convenience, and remarks that "the classification of the arts must be
regarded as the real touchstone, the real differential test of the
scientific value of an æsthetic system; for on this point all theoretical
questions are concentrated and crowd together to find a concrete
solution."[29]
The principle of convenience may be excellent as
applied to the approximative grouping of botanical Contradictions in
Lotze.
or zoological classifications, but it has no place in
philosophy; and as Lotze, in common with Schasler and other
æstheticians, conformed to Lessing's principle of the constancy,
limits and peculiar nature of each art, and therefore held that the
concepts of the individual arts were speculative and not empirical
concepts, he could not evade the duty of fixing the mutual relations
of these concepts, arranging them in series, subordinating and co-
ordinating them, and arriving at each of them either deductively or
dialectically. He ought, in order to get definitely rid of these barren
attempts at classification and at discovering the supreme art, to
have criticized and dissolved Lessing's principle itself: to keep the
principle and deny the need for a classification, as Lotze did, was
obviously inconsistent. But not a single æsthetician has ever re-
examined or investigated the scientific foundation of the distinctions
enunciated by Lessing in his fluent and elegant prose; no one has
probed to the bottom the truth which was illumined by Aristotle in a
single lightning-flash, when he refused to allow an extrinsic
difference, that of metre, as the real distinction between prose and
poetry:[30] no one, that is to say, save perhaps Schleiermacher, who
at least called attention to the difficulties of the current doctrine.
He proposed to start from the general concept of
art and prove by deduction the necessity of all its Doubts in
Schleiermacher.
forms; and after finding two sides to artistic
activity, the objective consciousness (gegenständliche) and the
immediate consciousness (unmittelbare), and observing that art
stands wholly neither in the one nor in the other and that the
immediate consciousness or representation (Vorstellung) gives rise
to mimicry and music, while the objective consciousness or image
(Bild) gives rise to the figurative arts, he then, proceeding to analyse
a painting, found the two forms of consciousness to be in this case
inseparable, and remarks: "Here we arrive at the precise opposite:
searching for distinction, we find unity." Nor did the traditional
division of the arts into simultaneous and successive seem to him
very solid, for "when looked at attentively, it evaporates entirely"; in
architecture or gardening, contemplation is successive, while in the
arts labelled as successive, such as poetry, the chief thing is
coexistence and grouping: "from whichever side we look at it, the
difference is but secondary and the antithesis between the two
orders of art merely means that every contemplation, like every act
of production, is always successive, but, in thinking out the relation
of the two sides in a work of art, both seem indispensable:
coexistence (Zugleichsein) and successive existence (das
Successivsein)." In another passage he observes: "The reality of art
as external appearance is conditioned by the mode, depending on
our physical and corporeal organism, in which the internal is
externalised: movements, forms, words.... That which is common to
all arts is not the external, which is rather the element of
diversification." When these observations are compared with the
sharp distinction he himself drew between art and technique, it
would be easy to deduce that he held the partitions of the arts and
the concepts of the particular arts to be devoid of æsthetic value.
But Schleiermacher does not draw this logical inference, he wavers
and hesitates: he recognizes the inseparability of the subjective and
objective, musical and figurative, elements in poetry, yet he
struggles to discover the definitions and limits of the individual arts;
sometimes he dreams of a union of the various arts from which a
complete art would spring; and when composing the syllabus of his
lectures on Æsthetic, he arranged the arts into arts of
accompaniment (mimicry and music), figurative arts (architecture,
gardening, painting, sculpture) and poetry.[31] Nebulous, vague,
contradictory as this may be, Schleiermacher had the acumen to
distrust the soundness of Lessing's theory and to inquire by what
right particular arts are singled out from art in general.

[1] See above, pp. 113-115.

[2] D. Diderot, Lettre sur les aveugles, 1749; Lettre sur les sourds
et muets, 1751; Essai sur la peinture, 1765.
[3] M. Mendelssohn, Briefe über Empfind., 1755; Betrachtungen,
cit., 1757.
[4] J. Chr. Wolff, Psychol. empirica, §§ 272-312; Meier,
Anfangsgründe, §§ 513-528, 708-735; Betrachtungen, § 126.
[5] Letter to Lodovico Cardi da Cigoli, June 26, 1612.
[6] Laokoon, §§ 16-20.
[8] Laokoon, appendix, § 43.
[9] Plastik einige Wahrnehmungen über Form und Gestalt aus
Pygmalions bildenden Träume, 1778 (Select Works of Herder in
the collection Deutsche Nationlitteratur, vol. 76, part iii. § 2).
[10] System der Ästhetik, pp. 154-236.
[11] Kritik d. Urtheilskr. § 51. 5 Phil. d. Kunst, pp. 370-371.
[12] Vorles. üb. Ästh. pp. 257-262.
[13] Op. cit. ii. p. 222.
[14] See above, pp. 305-306.
[15] Einleitung, § 115, pp. 170-171.
[16] Schriften z. prakt. Phil, in Werke, viii. p. 2.
[17] Einleitung, § 110, pp. 164-165.
[18] Cf. Hartmann, Dtsche. Ästh. s. Kant, pp. 539-540.
[19] Ästh. Forsch. pp. 547-549.
[20] Ästh. §§ 404, 535, 537, 838, etc.
[21] Gustav Gerber, Die Sprache als Kunst, Bromberg, 1871-1874.
[22] Das System der Künste, 2nd ed., Leipzig-Berlin, 1881.
[23] Phil. d. Sch. chs. 9, 10.
[24] E.g. by Sulzer, Allg. Theorie, on word Oper.
 [25] Rich. Wagner, Oper und Drama, 1851.
[26] Gustav Engel, Ästh. der Tonkunst, 1884, abstracted in
Hartmann, Dtsche. Ästh. s. Kant, pp. 579-580.
[27] Lotze, Geschichte d. Ästh. pp. 458-460; cf. p. 445.
[28] Essai critique sur l'Esth. de Kant, pp. 89-496.
[29] Das System der Künste, p. 47.
[30] Poet. ch. i.
[31] Vorles. üb. Ästh. pp. 11, 122-129, 137, 143, 151, 167, 172,
284-286, 487-488, 508, 635.

IV

OTHER PARTICULAR DOCTRINES

I. Schleiermacher also rejected the concept of

Natural Beauty, giving Hegel greater praise than he The æsthetic
theory of Natural
deserved in the matter, because Hegel's denial of Beauty.
this concept was, as we have seen, more verbal
than real. At all events, Schleiermacher's radical denial of the
existence of a natural beauty external to and independent of the
human mind marked a victory over a serious error, and appears to
us imperfect and one-sided only so far as it seems to exclude those
æsthetic facts of imagination which are attached to objects given in
nature.[1] Important contributions towards the correction of this
imperfect and one-sided element were supplied by the historical and
psychological study of the "feeling for nature," promoted successfully
by Alexander Humboldt in his dissertation to be found in the second
volume of Cosmos,[2] and continued by Laprade, Biese, and others
in our own time.[3] In his criticism of his own Ästhetik, Vischer
completes the passage from the metaphysical construction of beauty
in nature to the psychological interpretation of it, and recognizes the
necessity of suppressing the section devoted to Natural Beauty in his
first æsthetic system, and incorporating it with the doctrine of
imagination: he says that such treatments do not belong to æsthetic
science, being a medley of zoology, sentiment, fantasy and humour,
worthy of development in monographs in the style of the poet G. G.
Fischer's on the life of birds, or Bratranek's on the æsthetic of the
vegetable world.[4] Hartmann, as heir of the old metaphysics,
reproaches Vischer for this exclusion, and maintains that, in addition
to the beauty of imagination introduced by man into natural things
(hineingelegte Schönheit), there exist a formal and a substantial
beauty in nature, coinciding with realisation of the immanent ends or
ideas of nature.[5] But the way chosen ultimately by Vischer is the
only one by which Schleiermacher's thesis can be successfully
developed so as to show the precise meaning which may be given to
the assertion of (æsthetic) beauty in nature.
II. That æsthetic senses or superior senses exist
and that beauty attaches to certain senses only, The theory of
æsthetic senses.
not to all, is a very old opinion. We have seen
already[6] that Socrates, in the Hippias maior, mentions the doctrine
of beauty as "that which pleases hearing and sight" (τὸ καlὸν eστὶ τὸ
δι' ἀκοῆs τε καὶ ὃψεως ήδύ): and he adds, it seems impossible to
deny that we take pleasure in looking at handsome men and fine
ornaments, pictures and statues with our eyes, and hearing beautiful
songs or beautiful voices, music, speeches and conversations with
our ears. Nevertheless Socrates himself in the same dialogue
confutes this theory by perfectly valid arguments, amongst which is
that, besides the difficulty arising from the fact that beautiful things
may be found outside the range of the sensible impressions of eye
and ear, there is no reason for creating a special class for the
pleasure arising from impressions on these two senses, to the
exclusion of others. He also states the more subtle and philosophical
objection that that which is pleasing to the sight is not so to the
hearing, and vice versa; whence it follows that the ground of beauty
must not be sought in visibility or audibility, but in something
differing from either and common to both.[7]
The problem was never again, perhaps, attacked with such acumen
and seriousness as in this ancient dialogue. In the eighteenth
century Home remarked that beauty depended on sight, and that
impressions received by the other senses might be agreeable but
were not beautiful, and distinguished sight and hearing as superior
to those of touch, taste and smell, the latter being merely bodily in
nature and without the spiritual refinement of the other two. He held
these to produce pleasures superior to organic pleasures though
inferior to intellectual; decorous pleasures, that is to say; elevated,
sweet, moderately exhilarating; as far removed from the turbulence
of the passions as from the languor of indolence, and intended to
refresh and soothe the spirit.[8] Following suggestions of Diderot,
Rousseau and Berkeley, Herder drew attention to the importance of
the sense of touch (Gefühl) in plastic art: of this "third sense, which
perhaps deserves to be investigated first of all, and is unjustly
relegated to a place amongst the grosser senses." Certainly "touch
knows nothing of surface or colour," but "sight, for its part, knows
nothing of forms and configurations." Thus "touch cannot be so
gross a sense as it is reputed, if it is the very organ by which we
sensate all other bodies, and rules over a vast kingdom of subtle and
complex concepts. As the surface stands to the body, so does sight
stand in respect of touch, and it is merely a colloquial abbreviation
to speak of seeing bodies as surfaces and to suppose that we see
with our eyes that which we have gradually learnt in infancy simply
by the sense of touch." Every beauty of form or corporeity is a
concept not visible, but palpable.[9] From the triad of æsthetic
senses thus established by Herder (sight for painting; hearing for
music; touch for sculpture), Hegel returned to the customary dyad,
saying that "the sensory part of art has reference only to the two
theoretic senses of sight and hearing"; that smell, taste and touch
must be excluded from artistic pleasures, since they are connected
with matter as such and the immediate sensible quality it may
possess (smell with material volatilization; taste with material
solution of objects; and touch with hot, cold, smooth and so forth);
and that hence they can claim no concern with the objects of art,
which are obliged to keep themselves in real independence, rejecting
all relation with the merely sensory. That which pleases these senses
is not the beautiful of art.[10]
It was Schleiermacher once more who recognized the impossibility of
disposing of the matter in this summary fashion. He refused to admit
the distinction between confused senses and clear senses, and
asserted that the superiority of sight and hearing over the other
senses lay in the fact that the others "are not capable of any free
activity, and indeed represent the maximum of passivity, whereas
sight and hearing are capable of an activity proceeding from within,
and are able to produce forms and notes without having received
impressions from outside"; were eye and ear merely means of
perception, there would be no visual or auditory arts, but they also
operate as a function of voluntary movements which supply a
content to the dominion of the senses. From another standpoint,
however, Schleiermacher thinks that "the difference seems to be one
rather of degree or quantity, and a minimum of independence must
be recognized as existing in the other senses as well."[11] Vischer
remains faithful to the traditional "two æsthetic senses," "free
organs and no less spiritual than sensuous," which "have no
reference to the material composition of the object," but allow this
"to subsist as a whole and work upon them."[12] Köstlin was of
opinion that the inferior senses offer "nothing intuitible separate
from themselves, and are only modifications of ourselves, but taste,
smell and touch are not devoid of all æsthetic importance, since they
assist the superior senses; without touch an image could not be
recognized by the eye as being hard, resistant or rough; without
smell certain images could not be represented as sweet or scented."
[13]

We cannot go into a detailed account of all doctrines connected with

sensationalistic principles,[14] for all the senses are naturally
accepted as æsthetic by the sensationalists, who use "æsthetic"
interchangeably with" hedonistic": it will suffice if we recall the
"learned" Kralik, who was ridiculed by Tolstoy for his theory of the
five arts of taste, smell, touch, hearing and sight.[15] The few
quotations already given show the embarrassing difficulty caused by
the use of the word "æsthetic" as a qualification of "sense,"
compelling writers to invent absurd distinctions between various
groups of senses, or to recognize all senses as being æsthetic, thus
giving æsthetic value to every sensory impression, as such. No way
out of this labyrinth can be found save by asserting the impossibility
of effecting a union between such wholly disparate orders of ideas
as the concept of the representative form of the spirit and that of
particular physiological organs or a particular matter of sense-
impressions.[16]
III. A variety of the error of literary kinds is to be
found in the theory of modes, forms or kinds of The theory of
kinds of style.
style (χαρακτῆρες τῆς φράσεως), considered by the
ancients as consisting of three forms, the sublime, the medium and
the tenuous, a tripartition due, it would seem, to Antisthenes,[17]
modified later into subtile, robustum and floridum, or amplified into
a fourfold division, or designated by adjectives of historic origin as in
the Attic, Asiatic or Rhodian styles. The Middle Ages preserved the
tradition of a tripartite division, sometimes giving it a curious
interpretation, to the effect that the sublime style treats of kings,
princes and barons (e.g. the Aeneid); the mediocre, of middle-class
people (e.g. Georgies); the humble, of the lowest class (e.g.
Bucolics;) and the three styles were for this reason also called tragic,
elegiac and comic.[18] It is a well-known fact that kinds in style have
never ceased to afford matter for discussion in rhetorical text-books
down to modern times; for instance, we find Blair distinguishing
styles by such epithets as the diffuse, the concise, the nervous, the
daring, the soft, the elegant, the flowery, etc. In 1818 the Italian
Melchiorre Delfico, in his book on The Beautiful, energetically
criticized the "endless division of styles," or the superstition "that
there could be so many kinds of style"; saying that "style is either
good or bad," and adding that it is not possible "it should exist as a
preconceived idea in the artist's mind," but that "it should be the
consequence of the principal idea, i.e. that conception which
determines the invention and the composition."[19]
IV. The same error reappears in the philosophy of
language, as the theory of grammatical forms or The theory of
grammatical
parts of speech,[20] first created by the sophists forms or parts of
(Protagoras is credited with having first speech.
distinguished the gender of nouns), adopted by the
philosophers, notably by Aristotle and the Stoics (the former was
acquainted with two or three parts of speech, the latter with four or
five), developed and elaborated by the Alexandrian grammarians in
the famous and endless controversy between the analogists and the
anomalists. The analogists (Aristarchus) aimed at introducing logical
order and regularity into linguistic facts, and described as deviations
all such as seemed to them irreducible to logical form. These they
called pleonasm, ellipsis, enallage, parallage, and metalepsis. The
violence thus wrought by the analogists upon spoken and written
language was such that (as Quintilian tells us) some one wittily (non
invenuste) remarked that it appeared to be one thing to talk Latin
and quite another to talk grammar (aliud esse latine, aliud
grammatice loqui).[21] The anomalists must be credited with
restoring to language its free imaginative movement: the Stoic
Chrysippus composed a treatise to prove that one thing (one same
concept) may be expressed by different sounds, and one and the
same sound may express different concepts (similes res dissimilibus
verbis et similibus dissimiles esse vocabulis notatas.) Another
anomalist was the celebrated grammarian Apollonius Dyscolus, who
rejected the metalepsis, the schemes, and the other artifices by
which the analogists tried to explain facts which did not fit their
categories, and pointed out that the use of one word for another, or
one part of speech for another, is not a grammatical figure, but a
blunder, a thing hardly to be attributed to a poet such as Homer. The
upshot of the dispute between anomalists and analogists was the
science of Grammar (τεχνη γραμματική), as handed down by the
ancients to the modern world, which is justly considered as a sort of
compromise between the two opposed parties because, if the
schemes of inflection (κανόνες) satisfy the demands of the
analogists, their variety satisfies those of the anomalists; hence the
original definition of Grammar as theory of analogy was changed
subsequently to "theory of analogy and anomaly" (ὁμοίον τε καὶ
ἀνoμoίου θεωρία). The concept of correct usage, with which Varro
hoped to settle the controversy, fell into the trap (common to
compromises), merely stating the contradiction in set terms, like the
"convenient ornament" of Rhetoric or the kinds accorded a "certain
licence" in the literature of precept. If language follows usage (that
is to say, the imagination), it does not follow reason (or logic); if it
follows reason, it does not follow usage. When the analogists upheld
logic as supreme at least inside the individual kinds and sub-kinds,
the anomalists hastened to show that even this was not the case.
Varro himself was forced to confess that "this part of the subject
really is very difficult" (hic locus maxime lubricus est).[22]
In the Middle Ages grammar was cultivated to the point of
superstition. Divine inspiration was found lurking in the eight parts of
speech because "octavus numerus frequenter in divinis scripturis
sacratis invenitur," and in the three persons of verbal conjugation,
created simply "ut quod in Trinitatis fide credimus, in eloquiis inesse
videatur."[23] Grammarians of the Renaissance and later
recommenced the study of linguistic problems and worked to death
ellipsis, pleonasm, licence, anomaly and exception; only in
comparatively recent times has Linguistic begun to question the very
validity of the concept of parts of speech (Pott, Paul and others).[24]
If they still survive, the reason may lie in the facts that empirical,
practical grammar cannot do without them; that their venerable
antiquity disguises their illegitimate and shady origin; and that
energetic opposition has been worn down by the fatigue of an
endless war.
V. The relativity of taste is a sensationalistic theory
which denies a spiritual value to art. But it is rarely Theory of
æsthetic criticism.
maintained by writers in the ingenuous categorical
garb of the old adage: De gustibus non est disputandum (concerning
which it would be useful to enquire when the saying was born, and
what it fust meant: whether, too, the word gustibus referred solely
to impressions of the palate, and was only later extended to include
æsthetic impressions); as though sensationalists, as if dimly
conscious of the higher nature of art, have never been able to resign
themselves to the complete relativity of taste. Their torments in the
matter really move one to pity. "Is there," Batteux asks, "such a
thing as good taste, and is it the only good taste? In what does it
consist? Upon what depend? Does it depend upon the object itself or
the genius at work upon it? Are there, or are there not, rules? Is wit
alone, or heart alone, the organ of taste, or both together? How
many questions have been raised on this familiar often-treated
subject, how many obscure and involved answers have been given!"
[25] This perplexity is shared by Home. Tastes, he says, must not be
disputed; neither those of the palate nor those of other senses. A
remark which seems highly reasonable from one point of view; but,
from another, somewhat exaggerated. But yet how can one dispute
it? how can one maintain that what actually pleases a man ought
not to please him? The proposition then must be true. But now no
man of taste will assent to it. We speak of good taste and bad taste;
are all criticisms which turn upon this distinction to be considered
absurd? have these everyday expressions no meaning? Home ends
by asserting a common standard of taste, deduced from the
necessity of a common life for mankind or, as he says, from a "final
cause"; for without uniformity of taste, who would trouble to
produce works of art, build elegant and costly edifices, or lay out
beautiful gardens and so forth? He does not fail to draw attention to
a second final cause; that of the advisability of attracting citizens to
public shows and uniting those whom class-differences and diversity
of occupation tend to keep apart. But how shall a standard of taste
be established? This is a new perplexity, which one cannot think to
be escaped by observing that, as in framing moral rules we seek the
counsel of the most honourable of educated men, not of savages; so
to determine the standard of taste we should have recourse to the