Summary of Operating Systems (OS)

Definition and Objectives

 An operating system is software that manages computer hardware

and acts as an intermediary between the user and the hardware.
 Two main objectives:

1. Control hardware (CPU, memory, disk, peripherals, etc.).

2. Provide a user interface to run programs and interact with
hardware.

Key Functions

1. Hardware Management:

o Controls resources (processor, memory, storage, devices).

o Handles hardware errors (displays notifications if a device
malfunctions).
2. User Interface:

o Allows users to run applications easily.

o Ensures stable interaction between software and hardware.
3. Program Management:

o Launches, stops, and monitors applications.

o Terminates programs in case of errors and displays error
messages.

Components of a Computer System

1. Hardware
2. Operating System (OS)
3. Utilities (Tools)
4. Applications (Software)
5. End User

System Goals
  Primary: Provide a user-friendly environment for program
execution.
 Secondary: Optimize hardware resource usage.

Perspectives on the OS

 User View:

o Varies depending on the interface (e.g., Windows, macOS,

Linux).
o Designed for ease of use or resource efficiency (depending on
the system).
 System View:

o The OS acts as a resource manager (CPU, memory, storage,

I/O).
o It is also a control program that supervises application
execution.

Types of Operating Systems

1. Mainframe Systems

o Batch Processing:

 No real-time user interaction.

 Sequential job execution (inefficient due to CPU idle
time).
o Multiprogrammed Systems:

 Multiple jobs in memory to maximize CPU usage.

 No user interaction but improved efficiency.

Conclusion

The operating system is essential for computer functionality. It manages

hardware resources, provides a user interface, and optimizes program
execution. Systems have evolved from simple batch processing to more
interactive and efficient environments.
Summary of Advanced Operating System Concepts

1. Spooling (Simultaneous Peripheral Operations Online)

 Purpose: Solves slow I/O issues (e.g., card readers) by using disks
as buffers.
 Function:

o Stores input/output data temporarily for efficient processing.

o Enables remote processing without CPU intervention.
 Advantage: Overlaps I/O operations with computation, improving
CPU and I/O device utilization.

2. Time-Sharing Systems (Multi-User Systems)

 Key Feature: Rapid CPU switching between jobs, allowing

interactive user sessions.
 Advantages:

o Short response time for user commands.

o Concurrent multi-user access (e.g., UNIX, Linux).
 Challenges:

o Requires memory management, file systems, and complex

CPU scheduling.
o More complex than multiprogramming.

3. Personal Computer (PC) Systems

 Evolution: Emerged in the 1970s as affordable, single-user

microcomputers.
 Focus: User convenience over hardware optimization.
 Security Issues: Early PCs lacked file protection, leading to
viruses/worms (e.g., Windows 98, Linux).

4. Multiprocessor Systems (Parallel/Tightly Coupled)

 Types:
 o Symmetric (SMP): All processors run the same OS (e.g.,
Linux, Windows NT).
o Asymmetric (Master-Slave): Dedicated processors for
specific tasks (e.g., SunOS).
 Advantages:

o Throughput: Faster execution with multiple CPUs.

o Reliability: Fault tolerance (failure of one CPU doesn’t halt
the system).
o Cost Efficiency: Shared peripherals and resources.

5. Distributed Systems (Loosely Coupled)

 Feature: Processors with local memory communicate via networks

(LAN/WAN).
 Protocols: TCP/IP for data exchange.
 Advantages:

o Resource sharing (e.g., computational power, files).

o Enhanced reliability and scalability.

6. Real-Time Systems

 Purpose: Time-critical operations (e.g., medical imaging, industrial

control).
 Types:

o Hard Real-Time: Strict deadlines (e.g., missile systems).

o Soft Real-Time: Tolerable delays (e.g., multimedia
streaming).
 Limitations: Minimal secondary storage; advanced OS features
often absent.

Core OS Functions
 1. Process Management

o Handles process creation, scheduling, synchronization, and

deadlock resolution.
2. Memory Management

o Tracks memory usage, allocates/deallocates space, and loads

processes.
3. File Management

o Manages files/directories on storage media (disks, tapes).

4. I/O Management

o Abstracts hardware details via device drivers and buffering.

5. Secondary Storage

o Disk management (scheduling, space allocation).

6. Networking

o Enables communication in distributed systems (e.g., routing,

security).
7. Protection/Security

o Controls resource access to prevent unauthorized use.

8. Command Interpretation

o User-OS interface (e.g., shell commands).

System Calls

 Process Control: create/terminate process, wait/signal events.

 File Manipulation: open/read/write files, set attributes.
 Device Management: request/release devices, I/O operations.
 Information Maintenance: get/set system time, OS metrics.
Conclusion

Modern OSs balance performance, security, and usability across diverse

systems—from single-user PCs to distributed networks. Key advancements
include multiprocessing, real-time capabilities, and efficient resource
management.

1. Process Management and Inter-Process Communication (IPC)

 Process Attributes:

o The OS tracks process information (e.g., PID, state, priority).

o System calls like get process attributes and set process
attributes allow access/modification.

 Communication Models:

o Message Passing:

 Client-server communication via system calls ( open/close

connection, read/write message).

 Example: A server process grants access via accept

connection.

o Shared Memory:

 Processes access a common memory region using map

memory.

 Requires synchronization to prevent race conditions.

2. System Programs

Provide an environment for program development and execution:

 File Operations: create, delete, copy, rename.

 System Monitoring: Date, available memory, disk space.
 File Editing: Text editors (e.g., Vim, Nano).
 Language Support: Compilers (GCC), assemblers.
  Program Loading: Executables loaded into memory via loaders.
 Networking Tools: SSH, FTP for remote communication.
 Utilities: Web browsers, word processors.

3. OS Architectures

 Simple Structure:

o Examples: MS-DOS (monolithic), UNIX (limited modularity).

o Poor maintainability due to lack of clear layers.
 Layered Approach:

o Hierarchical design (hardware → user interface).

o Pros:

 Modularity, easier debugging (layer-by-layer).

o Cons:

 Rigid layer definitions required.

 Overhead from stacked system calls.
 Virtual Machines (VMs):

o Illusion of independent machines (e.g., VMware, IBM VM).

o Challenges:

 Hardware emulation (CPU, virtual disks).

 Performance overhead from resource sharing.

4. Input/Output (I/O) Management

 Device Controllers:

o Each hardware component (disk, keyboard) has a dedicated

controller with buffers/registers.
 o CPU initiates I/O via register commands.
 I/O Methods:

o Synchronous I/O:

 CPU waits for operation completion (blocking).

o Asynchronous I/O:

 CPU continues execution during I/O (interrupts/DMA).

Conclusion

Modern operating systems integrate:

 Advanced process management (attributes, IPC).

 System tools for development (editors, compilers).
 Modular architectures (layers, virtual machines).
 Optimized I/O for performance and responsiveness.

These concepts balance efficiency, security, and usability across

PCs to distributed systems. Operating System I/O and Storage
Management Summary

1. I/O Management

 Synchronous vs Asynchronous I/O

o Synchronous: CPU waits for I/O completion before continuing

(blocking)
o Asynchronous: CPU continues execution while I/O operates in
background (non-blocking)
o Interrupt handling prioritizes queued I/O requests
 DMA (Direct Memory Access)

o Enables high-speed data transfers (block-level vs byte-level)

o CPU delegates transfer control to DMA controller
o Cycle Stealing: DMA temporarily suspends CPU memory access
 o Interrupt signals transfer completion

2. Storage Hierarchy

 Primary Storage

o RAM: Volatile, directly addressable by CPU

o Memory-Mapped I/O: Device registers mapped to memory
addresses
 Secondary Storage

o Magnetic Disks:

 Logical structure: Platters → Tracks → Sectors →

Cylinders
 Performance metrics: Seek time + Rotational latency =
Positioning time
o Magnetic Tapes:

 Sequential access (backup/archival)

 Higher capacity but slower than disks

3. OS Core Services

1. Program Execution: Load/terminate processes

2. I/O Operations: Standardized device access
3. File Management: Create/delete/read/write files
4. Inter-Process Communication: Shared memory/message passing
5. Error Handling: Arithmetic/memory/CPU time violations
6. Resource Allocation: CPU scheduling for multi-user systems
7. Accounting: Track resource usage
8. Protection: Hardware/software security

4. Process Management

 Process vs Program

o Program: Passive disk entity

o Process: Active instance with PC, registers, stack/heap
  Process States
Diagram

Code

Download

New
Ready
Running
Waiting
Terminated

 Scheduling Queues

o Job Queue: All system processes

o Ready Queue: Memory-resident processes awaiting CPU
o Device Queues: Processes waiting for I/O

Key Performance Tradeoffs

Feature Advantage Limitation

Asynchronous
CPU utilization Complex error handling
I/O

DMA High-speed transfers Cycle stealing slows CPU

Magnetic Disk Random access Mechanical latency

Magnetic Tape High capacity/cost ratio Sequential access only

This architecture enables modern OS features like:

 Multi-tasking (via process scheduling)

 Virtual memory (combining RAM/disk)
 Device abstraction (through I/O subsystems)