CHAPTER :2

Models of Abnormality
LECTURE OUTLINE
I. MODELS OF ABNORMALITY
A. In science, the perspectives used to explain events are known as models or paradigms
1. Each model spells out basic assumptions, gives order to the field under study,
and sets guidelines for investigation
2. Models influence what investigators observe, the questions they ask, the
information they seek, and how they interpret this information
B. Until recently, clinical scientists of a given time and place tended to agree on a
single model of abnormality—a model greatly influenced by the beliefs of their
cultures
C. Today, several models are used to explain and treat abnormal functioning
1. Sometimes in conflict, each model focuses on one aspect of human functioning
and no single model can explain all aspects of abnormality

II. THE BIOLOGICAL MODEL

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A. This model adopts a medical perspective
B. The main focus is that psychological abnormality is an illness brought about by
malfunctioning parts of the organism—typically point to problems in brain
anatomy or brain chemistry
C. How do biological theorists explain abnormal behavior?
1. The first area of examination is brain anatomy
a. The brain is composed of approximately 100 billion nerve cells (called
neurons) and thousands of billions of support cells (called glia)
b. Within the brain, large groups of neurons form distinct areas called brain
regions
c. Clinical researchers have discovered connections between certain
psychological disorders and problems in specific brain areas
(a) Example: Huntington’s disease and the basal ganglia and cortex
2. A second avenue of examination is brain chemistry
a. Information is communicated throughout the brain in the form of electrical
impulses that travel from one neuron to one or more others
b. An impulse first is received at a neuron’s dendrites, travels down the axon,
and is transmitted through the nerve endings to other neurons (See Figure
3-2 on text p. 58.)
c. Neurons don’t actually touch—they are separated by a space (the synapse)
across which a message moves
d. When an electrical impulse reaches a nerve ending, the ending is stimulated
to release a chemical (a neurotransmitter or “NT”) that travels across the
synaptic space to receptors on the dendrites of neighboring neurons
(a) Some NTs tell receiving neurons to “fire”; other NTs tell receiving
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 neurons to stop firing
(b) Researchers have identified dozens of NTs
(i) Examples: serotonin, dopamine, GABA
e. Studies indicate that abnormal activity in certain NTs can lead to specific
mental disorders
(a) For example: Depression has been linked to low activity of serotonin
and norepinephrine
f. In addition, researchers have learned that mental disorders are sometimes
related to abnormal chemical activity in the endocrine system
(a) Endocrine glands release hormones that propel body organs into action
(b) Abnormal secretions have been linked to psychological disorders
(i) Example: Cortisol release is related to anxiety and mood disorders
3. A third area of investigation is genetic abnormalities
a. Abnormalities in brain anatomy or chemistry are sometimes the result of
genetic inheritance
b. Each cell in the human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, each with
numerous genes that control the characteristics and traits a person inherits
c. Studies suggest that inheritance plays a part in mood disorders,
schizophrenia, and other mental disorders
(a) It appears that in most cases, several genes combine to produce our
actions and reactions
4. A fourth area of focus is on biological abnormalities passed on through evolution
a. Genes that contribute to mental disorders are viewed as unfortunate
occurrences:
(a) Such genes may be mutations
(b) Such genes may be inherited after a mutation in the family line
(c) Such genes may be the result of normal evolutionary principles
b. Evolutionary theorists argue that human reactions and the genes responsible
for them have survived over the course of time because they have helped
individuals thrive and adapt
(a) One example of this is the fear response
c. In today’s world, however, those genes and reactions may not be so adaptive
d. This model has been criticized and remains controversial, yet it receives
considerable attention
5. The fifth avenue of research examines biological abnormalities as a result of
viral infections
a. Viral infection provides another possible source of abnormal brain structure
or biochemical dysfunction
(a) Example: schizophrenia and prenatal viral exposure
b. The scientific interest in viral explanations of psychological disorders has
been growing in the past decade
(a) Example: anxiety and mood disorders
D. Biological treatments
1. Biological practitioners attempt to pinpoint the physical source of dysfunction to
determine the course of treatment
2. There are three general types of biological treatment:
a. Drug therapy
(a) The 1950s heralded the advent of psychotropic medications and changed
the fairly bleak outlook for a number of mental disorders, yet the
revolution has produced some major problems
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 Four groups:
(b)
(i) Antianxiety drugs (anxiolytics; minor tranquilizers)
(ii) Antidepressant drugs
(iii) Antibipolar drugs (mood stabilizers)
(iv) Antipsychotic drugs
b. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
(a) Its use is indicated for severe depression, particularly when drugs and
other therapies have failed
(b) This treatment is used on tens of thousands of depressed persons annually
c. Psychosurgery (or neurosurgery)
(a) Psychosurgery finds its historical roots in trephination
(b) The first lobotomy was performed in the 1930s
(c) The procedure now is much more precise than in the past but is
considered experimental and used only in extreme cases
E. Assessing the biological model
1. Strengths of the model:
a. The biological model earns considerable respect in the field
b. It constantly produces valuable new information
c. Biological treatments often bring great relief
2. Weaknesses of the model:
a. The biological model can limit rather than enhance our understanding
(a) It is criticized as being too simplistic
b. Biological treatments produce significant undesirable (negative) effects

III. THE PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL

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Unconscious: Modern Views]
A. The psychodynamic model is the oldest and most famous psychological model
B. It is based on the belief that a person’s behavior (whether normal or abnormal) is
determined largely by underlying dynamic—that is, interacting—psychological
forces of which he or she is not aware
1. Abnormal symptoms are the result of conflict among these forces
C. The father of psychodynamic theory and psychoanalytic therapy was Sigmund
Freud (1856–1939)
D. How did Freud explain normal and abnormal functioning?
1. Freud argued that all behavior was caused by three unconscious forces:
a. The id, guided by the Pleasure Principle, comprises instinctual needs,
drives, and impulses; it is sexual and fueled by libido (sexual energy)
b. The ego is governed by the Reality Principle; it seeks gratification but guides
us to know when we can and can’t get and express our wishes
(a) Ego defense mechanisms protect us from anxiety
(b) These defenses include repression, denial, projection, rationalization,
displacement, intellectualization, and regression (See Table 3-1, text p.
64.)
c. The superego is considered the moral center of the psyche and is guided by
the morality principle; it is also called a “conscience” and unconsciously is
adopted from our parents
2. According to Freud, these three parts of the personality are often in some
degree of conflict
a. A healthy personality is one in which an effective working relationship, an
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 acceptable compromise, has formed among the three forces
b. If the id, ego, and superego are in excessive conflict, the person’s behavior
may show signs of dysfunction
3. Freud proposed that humans must negotiate five stages of psychosexual
development in their journeys to adulthood
a. These stages include:
(a) Oral (0 to 18 months of age)
(b) Anal (18 months to 3 years of age)
(c) Phallic (3 to 5 years of age)
(d) Latent (5 to 12 years of age)
(e) Genital (12 years of age to adulthood)
b. Freud believed that at each stage of development, new events and
pressures require adjustment in the id, ego, and superego
(a) If one is successful negotiating these stages, he or she will achieve
personal growth
(b) If one is unsuccessful, fixation will occur at the developmental stage and
will lead to psychological abnormality
(i) Because parents are the key environmental figures in early life, they
often are seen as the cause of improper development
E. How do other psychodynamic explanations differ from Freud’s?
1. Although new theories depart from Freud’s ideas in important ways, each
retains the belief that human functioning is shaped by dynamic (interacting)
forces:
a. Ego theorists emphasize the role of the ego and consider it independent
and more powerful than did Freud
b. Self theorists emphasize the unified personality over any one component
c. Object relations theorists emphasize the human need for (healthy)
interpersonal relationships, especially between children and caregivers
F. Psychodynamic therapies
1. These therapies range from Freudian psychoanalysis to more modern therapies
2. All psychodynamic therapies seek to uncover past trauma and inner conflicts
and believe that an understanding of early life experience is critically
important
3. The therapist acts as a “subtle guide”
4. Psychodynamic therapists utilize various techniques, including:
a. Free association—A technique in which the patient describes any thought,
feeling, or image that comes to mind, even if it seems unimportant or
irrelevant
b. Therapist interpretation, including addressing issues such as:
(a) Resistance—An unconscious refusal to participate fully in therapy
(b) Transference—A process that occurs during therapy, in which patients
act toward the therapist as they did or do toward important figures in
their lives
(c) Dream interpretation—A process in which the therapist examines the
manifest and latent content of a patient’s dream
c. Catharsis—The reliving of past repressed feelings in order to settle internal
conflicts and overcome problems
d. Working through—The process of facing conflicts, reinterpreting feelings,
and overcoming one’s problems
5. Contemporary psychodynamic therapists also may use short-term dynamic or

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 relational psychoanalytic approaches to therapy rather than more traditional
but longer/intense psychoanalysis
G. Assessing the psychodynamic model
1. Strengths of the model:
a.The psychodynamic model was the first to recognize the importance of
psychological theories and treatment
b. This model described abnormal functioning as rooted in the same processes
as normal functioning
c. Proponents of this model were the first to apply theory and techniques
systematically to treatment, a practice that had a monumental impact on the
field
2. Weaknesses of the model:
a. The ideas proposed by the model largely are unsupported and difficult or
impossible to research
(a) The model addresses components of functioning that are non-observable
and inaccessible to human subjects (unconscious)

IV. THE BEHAVIORAL MODEL

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A. Like the psychoanalytic perspective, behaviorism also is deterministic, based on
the idea that our actions are determined largely by our life experiences
B. The model concentrates wholly on behaviors and environmental factors
C. Behavioral theorists base their explanations and treatments on principles of
learning, the process by which these behaviors change in response to the
environment
D. The historical beginnings of behaviorism is in laboratories where conditioning
studies were conducted
E. How do behaviorists explain abnormal functioning?
1. There are several forms of conditioning addressed by this model, all of which
may produce normal or abnormal behavior:
a. Operant conditioning
(a) According to this conditioning paradigm, humans and animals learn to
behave in certain ways as a result of receiving rewards whenever they
do so
b. Modeling
(a) In a modeling paradigm, individuals learn responses simply by
observing and repeating behavior
c. Classical conditioning
(a) Classical conditioning is learning by temporal association
(i) When two events repeatedly occur close together in time, they
become fused in a person’s mind and, before long, the person
responds in the same way to both events
(b) The father of classical conditioning was Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
(1849–1936)
(i) In his classic study, Pavlov examined the effects of hearing a bell on a
dog’s salivation response
(ii) Relevant components of the model are the unconditioned stimulus
(US), the unconditioned response (UR), the conditioned stimulus
(CS), and the conditioned response (CR)
1. If, after conditioning, the CS repeatedly is presented alone, it will

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 eventually stop eliciting the CR, a process called extinction
(c) This model explains many familiar behaviors (both normal and abnormal)
F. Behavioral therapies
1. The aim of behavioral therapy is to identify the behaviors that are causing
problems and replace them with more appropriate ones
2. Behavioral therapists may use classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or
modeling approaches
a. In this model, the therapist is a “teacher” rather than a “healer”
3. Classical conditioning treatments may be used to change abnormal reactions
to particular stimuli
a. Example: step-by-step systematic desensitization for phobia
(a) Learn relaxation skills
(b) Construct a fear hierarchy
(c) Confront feared situations (covertly or in vivo)
G. Strengths of this model:
1. This model has become a powerful force in the field
2. It can be tested in the laboratory
a. The behaviorists’ basic concepts can be observed and measured
3. There has been significant research support for behavioral
therapies
H. Weaknesses of this model:
1. There is still no indisputable evidence that most people with psychological
disorders are victims of improper conditioning
2. Behavioral therapies have limitations
3. This model has been criticized as being too simplistic
a. There is a new focus on self-efficacy and cognitive-behavioral theories

V. THE COGNITIVE MODEL

A. This model proposes that we can best understand abnormal functioning by
looking at cognitive processes—the center of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions
1. Proponents of the model argue that clinicians must ask questions about
assumptions, attitudes, and thoughts of a client
B. How do cognitive theorists explain abnormal functioning?
1. According to cognitive theorists, abnormal functioning can result from several
kinds of cognitive problems
2. Theorists have identified several kinds of faulty thinking, including:
a. Faulty assumptions and attitudes
b. Illogical thinking processes
(a) Example: overgeneralization
C. Cognitive therapies
1. According to cognitive therapists, people with psychological disorders can
overcome their problems by developing new, more functional ways of
thinking
2. The main therapy model is Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
a. The goal of this therapy is to help clients recognize and restructure their
thinking
b. Therapists also guide clients to challenge their dysfunctional thoughts, try
out new interpretations, and apply new ways of thinking into their daily
lives
(a) This form of treatment is widely used in treating depression

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 D. Assessing the cognitive model
1. Strengths of this model:
a. This model has very broad appeal
b. It has been shown to be clinically useful and effective
(a) There is a demonstrated correlation between symptoms and
maladaptive cognition
(b) Therapies have been found effective in treating several disorders,
especially depression
c. The focus of the model is on a uniquely human process
d. Treatments adapt well to technology
e. The model and treatment are research-based
2. Weaknesses of this model:
a. The precise role of cognition in abnormality has yet to be determined
b. While effective for many disorders and clients, the model does not help
everyone
a. Some changes may not be possible to achieve
(a) In response, a new wave of therapies has emerged, including Acceptance
and Commitment Therapy and mindfulness-based techniques

VI. THE HUMANISTIC-EXISTENTIAL MODEL

A. This is a combination model, uniting the humanist and existential views
1. The humanist model emphasizes people as friendly, cooperative, and
constructive; focus is on the drive to self-actualization through honest
recognition of strengths and weaknesses
2. The existentialist model places an emphasis on self-determination, choice, and
individual responsibility; focus is on authenticity
B. The primary theory and therapy associated with the humanistic component of the
model is Rogers’ Humanistic Theory and Therapy
1. Rogers argued that there is a basic human need for unconditional positive regard
a. If this is received, it leads to unconditional self-regard
b. If this is not received, it leads to “conditions of worth”
(a) Example: “I only have worth if I earn straight As”
(b) People who do not have unconditional self-regard are, according to
Rogers, incapable of self-actualization because of internal distortion—
they don’t know what they really need, etc.
2. Rogers’ therapy is termed “client-centered”
a. In it, the therapist provides the client with unconditional positive regard
through accurate and genuine empathy and reflective listening
(a) To date, there has been little research support for this model, but it has
had a positive impact on clinical practice
C. Another primary theory in the humanistic model is gestalt theory and its associated
therapy
1. Developed by Fritz Perls, the goal is to achieve client self-recognition through
patient-challenging techniques, including:
a. Skillful frustration
b. Role-playing
c. Therapy rules, including “Here and Now” and “I” language
2. There has been little research support for this model
D. For most of the twentieth century, clinical scientists viewed religion as a
negative—or at best neutral—factor in mental health
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 1. This historical alienation seems to be ending
2. Researchers have learned that spirituality can, in fact, be of psychological
benefit to people
3. Many therapists now make a point of including spiritual issues when they treat
religious clients
E. More general theoretical and therapeutic models represent the existential half of
the combined model
1. Like humanists, existentialists believe that psychological dysfunction is caused
by self-deception: people hide from life’s responsibilities and fail to recognize
that it is up to them to give meaning to their lives
2. Therapy is focused on patient acceptance of personal responsibility for their
problems and recognition of freedom of action
3. For these therapists, the goals of treatment are more important than the use of
any specific technique. These therapists tend to be eclectic in their use of
therapy tools
4. There is a great emphasis placed on the client-therapist relationship
5. Existential therapists do not believe that experimental methods can adequately
test the effectiveness of their treatments; as a result, little controlled research
has been conducted
F. Assessing the humanistic-existential model
1. Strengths of the model:
a. H-E emphasizes the individual and taps into domains missing from other
theories
(a) This is a nondeterministic model and, as such, is more optimistic than
most models seen in abnormal psychology
b. The emphasis of this model is on health rather than illness
2. Weaknesses of the model:
a. H-E focuses on abstract issues and has been criticized for not dealing with
“serious” mental health problems
b. The model has not had much influence on the field, due, in part, to its
disapproval of the scientific approach, but this is changing somewhat

VII. THE SOCIOCULTURAL MODEL: THE FAMILY-SOCIAL AND

MULTICULTURAL PERSPECTIVES
A. According to two sociocultural perspectives—the family-social perspective and
the multicultural perspective—abnormal behavior is best understood in light of
the broad forces that influence an individual; as such, they address the norms of,
and people’s roles in, society
B. This model comprises two major perspectives: the family-social perspective and
the multicultural perspective
C. How do family-social theorists explain abnormal functioning?
1. Proponents of this model argue that theorists should concentrate on forces that
operate directly on an individual, including:
a. The role of social labels and roles
(a) Diagnostic labels (e.g., Rosenhan study)
b. The role of social connections and support
c. Family structure and communication
(a) Grounded in family systems theory
(i) Abnormal functioning within a family leads to abnormal behavior in its
members (i.e., an insane environment causes insane behavior)
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 (ii) Example: enmeshed, disengaged structures
D. Family-social treatments
1. Treatments based on this model may include traditional individual therapy, but
the model has been credited with broadening therapy to include:
a. Group therapy—A therapy format in which people with similar problems
meet together with a therapist to work on those problems
(a) May include “self-help” (or mutual help) groups comprising people with
similar problems who help and support each other without the direct
leadership of a therapist
b. Family therapy—A therapy format in which the therapist meets with all
members of a family and helps them change in therapeutic ways
c. Couple therapy—A therapy format in which the therapist works with two
people who share a long-term relationship
(a) May follow the principles of any of the major therapy orientations, for
example, cognitive-behavioral couple therapy
(b) May include integrative couple therapy
d. Community treatment—A treatment approach that emphasizes community
care, such as agencies, group homes, and community mental health centers
(CMHCs)
(a) May include primary, secondary, and/or tertiary prevention work
E. How do multicultural theorists explain abnormal functioning?
1. The role of culture
a. Culture refers to the set of values, attitudes, beliefs, history, and behaviors
shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to the
next
b. Multicultural, or culturally diverse, psychology is a growing field of study
c. Multicultural psychologists seek to understand how culture, race, ethnicity,
gender, and similar factors affect behavior and thought and how people of
different cultures, races, and genders differ psychologically
d. The model holds that an individual’s behavior is best understood when
examined in the light of that individual’s unique cultural context
2. The impact of poverty
a. Researchers have learned that psychological abnormality is more common
among poorer people than among wealthier people
3. The role of prejudice and discrimination
F. Multicultural treatments
1. Studies have found that members of ethnic and racial minority groups tend to
show less improvement in clinical treatment than do members of majority
groups
2. Two features of treatment can increase a therapist’s effectiveness with minority
clients:
a. Greater sensitivity to cultural issues
b. Inclusion of cultural models in treatment, especially in therapies for children
and adolescents
3. Given such findings, some clinicians have developed culture-sensitive
therapies as well as gender-sensitive, or feminist, therapies
G. Assessing the sociocultural model
1. Strengths of this model:
a. This model has added greatly to the clinical understanding and treatment of
abnormality
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 (a) This model has increased awareness of clinical and social roles
b. Practitioners have demonstrated clinical success with this model when other
treatments have failed
2. Weaknesses of this model:
a. Research is difficult to interpret due to the overwhelming number of possible
confounds and the difficulty in designing true experiments
(a) Research findings also are limited by the correlational design of most
sociocultural research
b. While the model can successfully explain abnormality within and across
cultures, it is unable to predict abnormality in specific individuals

VIII. INTEGRATION OF THE MODELS

A. Today’s leading models vary widely, and none of the models has proved
consistently superior (See Table 3-4, text p. 92.)
B. A growing number of clinicians favor explanations of abnormal behavior that
consider more than one cause at a time
1. Many theorists, clinicians, and practitioners adhere to a biopsychosocial model,
which asserts that abnormality results from the interaction of genetic,
biological, developmental, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, and
societal influences
C. Some biopsychosocial theorists favor a diathesis-stress approach
1. This approach asserts that a biological, psychological, or social predisposition
to a disorder (the diathesis) is triggered by an environmental stressor,
resulting in abnormality
D. Integrative therapists are often called “eclectic”—taking the strengths from each
model and using them in combination (See Figure 3-4, text p. 72.)

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