Handout 1 Ms.

Knowles Chemistry

The Periodic Table and Atom

Configuration

Let's go through a basic lesson on the periodic table and atomic configuration. This will cover:

1. Introduction to the Periodic Table

2. Structure of an Atom
3. Electron Configuration and the Periodic Table
4. Periodic Trends
Introduction to the Periodic Table
The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, organized based on their
atomic number, electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties. Elements are
presented in increasing order of atomic number (the number of protons in an atom's nucleus).

Key Features of the Periodic Table:

- Groups: Vertical columns in the periodic table. Elements in the same group have similar
chemical properties because they have the same number of valence electrons.
- Periods: Horizontal rows in the periodic table. Each period corresponds to the filling of a
new electron shell around the atom's nucleus.
- Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids:
- Metals are found on the left side and center of the periodic table (e.g., iron, gold,
and copper).
- Nonmetals are found on the right side of the table (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, and
chlorine).
- Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals and are found between
them (e.g., silicon and boron).

Structure of an Atom
An atom consists of three main subatomic particles:
- Protons: Positively charged particles found in the nucleus.
- Neutrons: Neutral particles also found in the nucleus.
- Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus in regions called electron
shells or energy levels.

Atomic Number and Mass Number:

- Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It defines the
element.
- Mass Number (A): The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
Electron Configuration and the Periodic Table

Electron configuration describes the distribution of electrons among the orbitals of an atom.
Electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus, and each shell is made up of subshells
designated by the letters s, p, d, and f.

Electron Shells and Subshells:

- Shells are numbered (n = 1, 2, 3, …) starting from the nucleus.
- Subshells within each shell are named s, p, d, f, with each having a different capacity for
electrons:
 - s subshell: 2 electrons
- p subshell: 6 electrons
- d subshell: 10 electrons
- f subshell: 14 electrons

Order of Electron Filling:

Electrons fill orbitals in an order based on increasing energy levels, following the Aufbau
principle:
1. 1s
2. 2s
3. 2p
4. 3s
5. 3p
6. 4s
7. 3d
8. 4p
9. 5s, etc.

This order can be remembered using the diagonal rule or using the periodic table directly.

Examples of Electron Configuration:

Hydrogen (H): 1s¹

Oxygen (O): 1s² 2s² 2p⁴

Iron (Fe): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d⁶

Key Rules
The order in which electrons fill orbitals based on increasing energy levels is guided by the
Aufbau principle. This principle, along with the Pauli Exclusion Principle and Hund's Rule,
helps predict the electron configuration of atoms.

Detailed Explanation of the Aufbau Principle

Aufbau is a German word that means "building up" or "construction." The Aufbau principle
states that electrons occupy the lowest-energy orbitals available first before moving to
higher-energy orbitals. As electrons fill up an atom's orbitals, they fill them in a specific order
based on the increasing energy levels of those orbitals. This filling order is not strictly sequential
based on the principal quantum number (n), but rather on the combined energy levels of both
the principal quantum number (n) and the azimuthal quantum number (l) which defines
subshells (s, p, d, f).

Order of Orbital Filling

The general order in which orbitals are filled is as follows:

1. 1s (n = 1, l = 0)
2. 2s (n = 2, l = 0)
3. 2p (n = 2, l = 1)
4. 3s (n = 3, l = 0)
5. 3p (n = 3, l = 1)
6. 4s (n = 4, l = 0)
7. 3d (n = 3, l = 2)
8. 4p (n = 4, l = 1)
9. 5s (n = 5, l = 0)
10. 4d (n = 4, l = 2)
11. 5p (n = 5, l = 1)
12. 6s (n = 6, l = 0)
13. 4f (n = 4, l = 3)
14. 5d (n = 5, l = 2)
15. 6p (n = 6, l = 1)
16. 7s (n = 7, l = 0)
17. 5f (n = 5, l = 3)
18. 6d (n = 6, l = 2)
19. 7p (n = 7, l = 1)

How to Determine the Order of Filling

To determine the order of electron filling, you can use the following methods:

1. Diagonal Rule or Aufbau Diagram

The diagonal rule is a visual representation that helps in remembering the order of filling based
on the energy levels. It arranges the orbitals in increasing order of energy, and the filling order
can be determined by following the diagonal arrows from the top left to the bottom right.
You fill the orbitals following the diagonals:

1. Start with 1s.

2. Move to 2s.
3. Then to 2p and 3s.
4. Next, 3p and 4s.
5. Continue with 3d, 4p, 5s, and so forth.

2. (n + l) Rule

This rule states that the filling order of orbitals is determined by the sum of the principal
quantum number (n) and the azimuthal quantum number (l). Orbitals with a lower (n + l) value
are filled first. If two orbitals have the same (n + l) value, the orbital with the lower n is filled first.

For example:
- 4s has n = 4, l = 0, so n + l = 4.
- 3d has n = 3, l = 2, so n + l = 5.
- Since 4s has a lower (n + l) value than 3d, the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbital.

Examples of Electron Configuration Using the Aufbau

Principle

Here are some examples that demonstrate how to use the Aufbau principle to write the electron
configurations of various elements:
1. Hydrogen (H)
- Atomic number: 1
- Electron configuration: 1s¹

2. Carbon (C)
- Atomic number: 6
- Electron configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p²

3. Neon (Ne)
- Atomic number: 10
- Electron configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶
4. Calcium (Ca)
- Atomic number: 20
- Electron configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s²

5. Iron (Fe)
- Atomic number: 26
- Electron configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d⁶
Hund's Rule and Pauli Exclusion Principle

While filling the orbitals, two more rules are observed:

1. Hund's Rule: Electrons will fill degenerate orbitals (orbitals with the same energy level, such
as the three p orbitals) singly before pairing up. This minimizes electron repulsion and
maximizes total spin.
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers. This means an orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons with opposite
spins.

Summary
The order of electron filling is determined by the energy levels of the orbitals. The Aufbau
principle dictates filling from lower to higher energy orbitals, the (n + l) rule helps identify these
energy levels, and Hund's Rule and the Pauli Exclusion Principle ensure that electrons are
arranged in the most stable configuration possible. Understanding these principles allows us to
predict the electron configurations of elements and their chemical behaviors.

Periodic Trends
The periodic table is structured in such a way that certain properties of elements change
predictably as you move across a period or down a group.
Key Periodic Trends:
- Atomic Radius: Generally decreases across a period (left to right) due to increased
nuclear charge pulling electrons closer and increases down a group due to additional
electron shells.
- Ionization Energy: The energy required to remove an electron from an atom. Generally
increases across a period and decreases down a group.
- Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond.
Generally increases across a period and decreases down a group.
- Electron Affinity: The change in energy when an electron is added to a neutral atom.
Typically becomes more negative (releases more energy) across a period and varies
less predictably down a group.