ry Integrated Training System TTS Integrated Training System Module 7 Maintenance Practices 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop Module 7.1 Seely Precauionsitral and Workshop 14 a aneup’ Integrated Training System Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop Safety Precautions - General ‘Aircraft by thei very nature and design, make fo @ dangerous woiking environment. The danger is further increased bythe wide variety of machines, tools and materials required to support and maintain aircraft Personal safety stars with being appropriately dressed forthe work being undertaken, ‘combined with the correct use of eye and ear protection whenever necessary. “Technicians should only operate equipment wilh which they are familiar and which they can ‘operate safely. Hand tools should be kept in good working order. Good ‘housekeeping’ in workshops, hangars, and on fight line ramps is essential to safe and efficient maintenance, Pedestrian and fire lanes should be clearly marked and NEVER obstructed. They should always bbe used to keep non-technical personnel clear from the work area. Any spillage of cls, greases and fuels should be immediately covered with absorbent material ‘and cleaned up, to prevent fire or injury. Spillage should be prevenied, from running into floor drains. Itis very important, that all personnel know the location ofthe fixed points where fire fighting ‘equipment and Fist Aid treatment are available. They must also be aware of the types of ‘emergency that can occur in the workplace (whether in the workshop, hangar or on the ramp), land ofthe procedures to be followed in any emergency. While the goal of an aviation technician is to maintain aircraft in such a manner as to assure safe fight, you must also be concerned with creating a safe environment while an aircrafts on the ground, For example, the fuel tanks of transport aitcraft contain large amounts of highly flammable fuel and, therefore, can pose a considerable risk offre In addition, rotating propellers and operating turbojet engines present a serious risk of njury or death to ground personnel, Therefore, you must make every effort to prevent inury to personnel and damage to Blrcran while maintenance and servicing are being performed, ‘Accidents in the workplace are one ofthe leading causes of death and. One reason for this is that after working at ajob fora period of time, many people become complacent and do not give ‘workplace safety the attention it requires. Aircraft operation areas contain many dangers to personnel, but a sound safety program and an aware workforce can reduce these dangers ‘dramatically. Make workplace safety one of your primary job duties, Module 7.1 Galty Procautione irra and Weckshop 18 bit TS a aeIntegrated Training System , Material Safety Data Sheets COSHH regulations require an employer to have copies of relevant Material Safety Data Sheets that are readly available to all shop personnel at all imes. These data sheets allow for quick reference in case of a chemical spil or injury. In the case of a chemical injury, a copy of the Pertinent data sheet(s) should be sent along to the emergency room to ensure immediate ‘medical attention. ‘A Material Safety Data Sheet consists of nine basic sections: 1. Product identification including trade name, and the address and emergency phone ‘number of the manufacturer/supphier. 2. Principal ingredients including percentages of mbture by weight. 3. Physical data describing the substances appearance, odour, and specific technical information such as boiling point, vapour pressure, solubility, etc. ire and explosion hazard potential Reactivity data including stabilty and incompatibiity with other substances, First aid and health hazard data ‘Ventilation and personal protection gloves, goggles, respirator. etc. Storage and handling precautions, Spill laak, and disposal procedures. 4 Module 7.1 Safely Precautions Arf and Workshop ‘TrSinagate Tag Sem segteseiacte Seep 6 =up’ Integrated Training System ‘Material Safty Data Shett Figure 1.1 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) provide Information on hazardous materials that are present in the workplace, Furthermore, all employers must maintan, ‘current copies of the Material Safety Data Sheets for reference at any time. Module 71 Sooty Procautons-Acraftand Werkshop ad Shosntaes, "1S ineped ing Sytem ition ‘omnen 210Integrated Training System j 4 Container Labelling ‘Chemical hazard labels vary in size, style, and the amount of information they convey. However, all hazardous materials uiize the same colour coding and hazard indexing information. A typical hazard label consists of four colour-coded diamonds arranged into one large diamond, The colours used in the table are red, blue, yellow, and white. Within three ofthe ‘coloured areas a number from zero to four appears. The label area coloured red indicates a ‘materials flammabilly hazard, A zero indicates materials that are normally stable and that do rot bum unless heated. A rating of four, however, applies to highly combustible gases and ‘volatile iquids with flash points below 73°F and boling points below 100°F. The blue area ofthe label rates @ substances health hazard from no significant risk (0), to lf threatening or permanently damaging with single or repeated exposures (4). The yellow area of the label rates ‘a substances reactivity. A zero rating applies to materials which are normaly stable, even under fire conditions, and which do not react with water. On the other hand, materials rated at four are ‘readily capable of detonation or explosive decomposition at normal temperatures and pressures, ‘The white area of the label indicates a personal protection index. Unlike the other three ratings given, the personal protection index incorporates an alphabetical rating system using the letters 'R through 'K. Each letter indicates different combinations of protective equipment to be worn when working with hazardous materials. For example, the letter A indicates the minimum required equipment, including safety glasses or goggles. A°K" rating requires the use ofa full body suit, Boots and head mask with independent air suppl. You should always use the recommended safety equipment when handling hazardous materials. Ss Figure 1.2: Ine material described by this sample hazard label presents a serious flammability hazard (red), a moderate hazard to health (blue), and a ‘minimum stability hazard (yellow). When handling this material, the use of goggles, gloves and respirator IG) is required for personal protection, 18 Module 71 Safety Procoutons-Aireraft and Weckshop ‘TS nares Ting yam msn eno Comment 2010| Santanaup’ Integrated Training System Safety Around Machine Tools Many kinds of high-speed cutting tools are commonly found in aviation maintenance shops and can be dangerous if misused. However. these tools pose litle threat when used for their intended purpose and reasonable safety precautions are observed. For example, do not use ‘any machine tools with which you are nat familar, or any tool whose safety features you are ‘unfamiliar with. The guards and safety covers found on many tools have been put there to protect the operator. Some of these guerds may appear to interfere with the operation of the ‘equipment. However, they must never be removed or disabled. The slight inconvenience they ‘cause is mote than compensated for by the added safety they provide, Dull cutting tools present a greater threet of injury than sharp tools since @ dull or improperly sharpened tool requires excessive forces to do its ob. As result, the work can be grabbed or ‘thrown out ofthe machine. Therefore, always make sure the cutting tool is sharp and ‘serviceable before you use it Figure 1.3: Be sure the feye-protection shields are in place when using ‘bench grinder When using a drill press be sure that the material being worked is securely clamped tothe drill press table before you begin driling a hole. If this fs not done, itis possible forthe dil othe cutter to grab the metal and spin it around, effectively slicing anything in its way. Furthermore, ‘ever leave a chuck key in a dril motor ora dil press. Ifthe switch is accidentally turned on the key will be thrown out with considerable force. ‘The use of eye protection cannot be overstressed. Chips coming off metalworking tools can ‘easily penetrate deeply into your eves. In addition, if someone working near you is using ‘compressed air, a blast of air can easily pick up dit or dust and spray nto your face. To prevent eye injuries, always wear eye protection when using power tools. ot when you must enter areas here they are being used. {In addition to eye protection. you should always wear the appropriate clothing when in the shop. For example. you should never wear ties or other clothing that could get caught in a spinning tool. Furthermore, if you wear your hair long, tie it back to keep it out of the way. Module 74 Saety Precautions wn Werkstop 19 em ‘Tein egsIntegrated Training System « \When adjusting or changing the blade or hit on a power tool, disconnect the too! from its power ‘source. When maintenance is performed on a power too! that cannot be disconnected from its power source, the electrical junetion box for that tool should he turned off and locked out, 10 prevent someone from accidentally tuning the power back on. Figure 1.4: Face shields ‘or goggles should be ‘used when drilling, ‘grinding, or sawing. Powertools are one othe greatest imesavers found in a maintenance shop. but you must not allow their convenience to cause you to misuse the tool. In other words, never be in a hurry ‘round a power tool and never use a tool for a purpose for which itis notintended. Most impottant of al, think before using any tool. Welding ‘Welded repairs are common in aircraft maintenance and shops should provide a means of ‘safely accomplishing he task. Welding should be performed only in areas that are designated for the purpose, if part needs to be welded, temuveit and take itto the welding area. Welding ‘eas should be equirped with proper tables. ventilation, tool storage. and fire extinguishing ‘equipment. If welding sto be accomplished in a hangar, no other aircraft should be within 35 feet of the hanger, and the area should be roped off and clearly marked, 140 Module 71 Safety Precautons-Aerat ana Workshop “Teenie in tm fects Seapea re "Seinoup Integrated Training System Fire Safety ‘Aviation maintenance shops harbor al of the requirements for fies, $0 fie prevention i a vital concern, All combustible materials should be stored in proper containers in areas where spontaneous combustion cannot occur. Since dope and paint solvents are So volatile. they should he stored in a cool, Ventilated area outside ofthe shop. Spilled gasoline, sanding dust, and dried paint overspray should never be swept with a dry broom, since static electricity can cause a spark and ignite them. Always flush these ‘combustible products with water before sweeping them. ‘Always be aware ofthe possibilty of fie and pro-vide for axits when putting aircraft in the hangar. Be sure that fire extinguishers are properly serviced, clearly marked and never obstructed. The key to fire safety is a knowledge of what causes fir, how to prevent them, and hhow to put them out Fire Protection ‘Since aircraft fuels, paints, and solvents are highly flammable, you must take every precaution to pre-vent fires where these materials are present. However, you should also be aware of the proper procedures to observe ifa fre does star. Figure 1.5: Be sure that all fre ‘extinguishers are properly serviced, and are clearly marked to indicate the type offre they are suited fr. ‘A fire is @ chemical reaction between a material and oxygen, in which the material is reduced to its elements with the release of a great deal of heat. Three conditions must be met fora fire to ‘occur. Fist, there must be fuel, which is any material that combines with oxygen. Second, there Mode 74 Safety Precautions Arcrat and Workshop ao Sapam ea eer Iontegrated Training System ‘must be a supply of oxygen. Third, the temperature of the fuel must be raised to its kinding Point, which is the temperature at which combustion occurs. Different types of fuel have different kindling temperatures. For example, gasoline combines with oxygen at a relatively low temperature. On the other hand, materials such as wood must reach a considerably higher temperature before they ignite. ‘The concentration of available oxygen also affects a materials combustibilty. A petroleum product such as oll or grease ignites at room temperature if itis blanketed with pure oxygen. ‘Steal alloy is normally not combustible, butt burns when its heated red-hot and a stream of pure oxygen is fed into it ‘The very nature of aircraft makes them highly susceptible to fire. They carry large amounts of highly flammable fuel, as well as oxygen under high pressure. Because of this, aviation technicians must take proper precautions to prevent fires in aircraft and have the knowledge ‘and tools to deal with fre when it happens. Personnel, engaged in the maintenance, overhaul and repair of aicraf, should be fully conversant with the precautions required to prevent outbreaks of any fre. They should be ‘Qualified in the operation of any fire protection equipment that's provided, and should krow the action to be taken in the event of discovering a fre The ‘Fire Triangle* Fire resus from the chemical reaction that occurs when oxygen combines rapidly wit fuel to produce heat, (and light). Three essentials ofthis process form the Fire Triangle’ (refer to figure: 16). Figure 4.6: The fre triangle [As can be seen, fire requires three components to burn, and the removal of any one of these ‘components will extinguish the fire. The requirements ofthe three components, forming the ‘Fre Triangle’, are: ‘+ Fuel: a combustible material, which may be a solid, liquid or gas ‘Oxygen: in sufficient volure to support the process of combustion ‘+ Heat: of sufficient intensity to raise the temperature of the fuel to its ignition (or kindling) point. +42 Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop | Seeranoe Sheaup’ Integrated Training System Classes of Fire In Europe, the standard for fire extinguishers is BS ENS. This differs slightly to the American standards. Only the European standards are discussed here. “There are, generaly, six classes of fies, each determined by the type of material thats being ‘burned, In alphabetical, order the classes of fire are: SOLIDS such as paper, wood, plastic ete FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS such as paraffin, petrol ol ete FLAMMABLE GASES such as propane, butane, methane etc IETALS such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium etc ires involving ELECTRICAL APPARATUS, ‘Cooking OIL & FAT etc Fire Extinguishants ‘The methods of extinguishing fres have led to the development of several types of ‘extinguishants to cater for diferent types offre. These methods include: ‘+ Cooling the fuel + Excluding the oxygen Separating the fuel from the oxygen ‘The materials, used as general ‘domestic and commercial extinguishants, differ from those Used in aircraft Fire Protection systems and, while the aircraft systems are discussed in other Modules ofthis course, consideration is given here only tothe extinguishants and extinguishers, ‘which conform to the EN3 Standard fre extinguisher code. The materials used in these extinguishers are: Water (Water/Gas) ‘Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) + Carbon Dioxide (C03) + Dry Powder ‘Applying the incorrect extinguishant to a fre can do more harm than good and may, actually, be ‘dangerous, Its, therefore, important that extinguishers are well marked for quick identification inan emergency. It is also vital that all personnel are aware of the markings, which appear on “exlinguishers,s6 thatthe correet one ia chosen to deal with a specific fre Prior to 1st Jan 1997, the code of practice fr fre extinguishers in the UK was BS $423, which advised the colour coding of fire extinguishers as follows: Water - Red Foam - Cream Dry Powder - Blue Carbon Dioxide (C02) - Black Halon - Green (now ‘ilegal except fora few exceptions such as the Police, Armed Services and Aircraf) Module 74 Safty Procautons erat and Workshon 113 eae TS ree eeIntegrated Training System New extinguishers should conform to BS EN 3, which requires that the entire body of the ‘extinguisher be coloured ted. A zone of colour of up to 5% of the extemal area can be used to identify the contents using the old colour coding shown above. Generally, the requirements are thatthe extinguishers are! up’ | + coloured red; ‘+ tohave a zone or tock of colour, comprising 5% of the body, whose purpose isto indicate the type of extinguishing medium. This block should be located on the font of the extinguisher sothat it can be seen from 1800 when correctly mounted; + tohave a capacity of 1, 2, 3,6, or 9 litres kg; and *= labelled using standard labeling using pictorials to describe the fire classification and use. “Table 2 shows how the EN3 Standard fire extinguisher code has replaced the older Standard, whereby the extinguisher containers were colour-coded all over to signify their contents. The ENS Standard has the bodies of every fie extinguisher coloured red all over, with an icentitying band of colour, coparated by white line, identifying the extinguichant contained in tho: extinguisher. in CAA exams however, you may also be asked questions on the old colour codes. Twee [01d oe B5 EN Colour ode Fire Gave = water [8° | signin A Ted wha Gram pal above fe opera E roan [ream | egw ale Dy |Frrch | Redwine Bhs palate beoronine |atalelol © Poder [Bie | Rabun bonded Red with a Black | above the operating E Dioxide | Black —_| Red witha Black pane 8 coz Wet Iyaw [Redvane Caray Yoiowpemiaomes | 4 : Eri Seat neuetone ‘Table 1: Fite Extinguisher Identification and Uses Water or Water/Gas extinguishers are ONLY to be used on fires involving ‘burning solids (Class A fires), Water could also cause liquid fires to spread ‘and, obviously, using water on electrical equipment could have lethal results, ‘s0 these extinguishers must NOT be used on Class B nor on Class C fires. ‘Water should, also, NOT be used on burning metal (Class D) fies, as the ‘oxygen, in the water, wil cause the fres to burn more fiercely and its use ‘could lead to violent explosion. Figure 4.8: A water extinguisher 114 Module 71 Sooty Procautons-Acaft and Workshop Timegas atng smn soete teintwe’ Integrated Training System Figure 1,9: A foam extinguisher ‘Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFF) is best suited {or Class B fres, due to its smothering and cooling action and tothe fact that is finer particles will not ‘cause the fire to spread. AFFF extinguishers can also bbe used on Class A fires (though its cooling action is not a6 effective as the waler extinguishers), but, because Foam does contain water, AFFF extinguishers are considered to be NOT safe on electrical fires where high voltages are encountered. Carbon Dioxide (C0; is the ‘universar fire extinguisher and, being ‘non-corrosive, non-conductive, and leaving no residue, itis suitable {or almost al types of fre. CO; extinguishers must NOT, however. be used on Class D fires, asthe extinguishant reduces the termperature Very quicky, which (ina similar way to the use of water extinguishers) could cause serious explosions. Due to the fact that CO2 gas tends to dissipate quickly, the ‘extinguisher is provided with a horn deviee, which helps to ‘concentrate the COz atthe site ofthe fre. This horn must NOT be held with bare hands, as the intense cold ofthe released CO» will {freeze the skin tothe hor, resulting in severe injury to the hands. A, rubber, insulated coating is provided on the discharge tube and the ‘CO; must be directed towards the fre by grasping and ‘manipulating the insulated tube, Figure 1.10: A COs extinguisher Dry Powder is another extinguishant hich is suitable for most classes offre, ‘and, in particular, those involving burning metals (aircraft wheel brake fires). Its, however, limited in its use on ‘electrical fires, as the powder particles ‘are capable of conducting high voltages {in excess of 1000 V) and, possibly, lesser voltages if they are used at distances of less than 1 metre from electrical fres. Dry Powder (ina similar ‘way to Foam), leaves a messy residue after its use, which could present a Problem to electrical contacts and ‘ircuitr. Figure 1.11: A powder extinguisher Module 7.1 Satety Precautone-Acraft and Workshop 116 pemeraenee ‘TiS tnmpaed Tang Sse SSnna ‘Cconrn 20Integrated Training System up’ Note: It is possible that the older Standard ‘Halon’ fie extinguishants (in greer-coloured containers) may be found at many indoor locations. Unfortunately, while Halons (Halogenated Hydrocarbons) are extremely effective as extinguishants of vitually every class of fre, itis felt that they contribute to the depletion of the ezone layer surrounding Earth and, so, inthe UK the ‘se of Halon gas is now ilegal except under certain situations, Buckets of dry sand may also be placed at the FIRE POINT in workshops (and especially in hangars) a8 an additional aid to fre fighting. 16 “Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Aircraft and Workshop Roe SSFire Regulations ‘+ Whenever possible portable fire-fighting equipment should be grouped to form a fre Point. The ire point should be clearly indicated so that t can be readily identified. ‘+ In premises that are uniform in layout extinguishers should, whenever possible, be located at the same point on each floor. + Iffor any reason extinguishers are placed in positions hidden from direct view their postion should be indicated by suitable signs, as described in BS 6499 : Parts 1 and 3. NJ s eae te Figure 1.12: Fre signs ‘+ No person should have to travel more than 30 metres from the sits of a fre to reach an. extinguisher. ‘Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Airerat and Workshop at a “Totes angenIntegrated Training System j aI ig Sys Bp’ ‘Type and Number of Portable Fire-fighting Equipment The basic provision of extinguishers within a bulling should be one exting.isher, of at least 13A rating, for every 200m* of floor area, or part thereof, with at leasttwo per oor 1» However, for those buildings where an upper floor area is less than 100m one single 4A rated extinguisher may be acceptable on each floor. 1+ Should the premises contain risks from flammable liquids, then B rated exinguishers ‘should be provided. «Under normal circumstances a 34B rated extinguisher would equate to a 13A in this respect. n of Portable Fire-fighting Equipment + Extinguishers should be sited in conspicuous positions where they are visble to anyone using ar escape route, 1+ They should be mounted on brackets fixed tothe wall or some other convenient structural feature, “+ Ideally, arger extinguishers should be mounted so that they can be conveniently de- mounted for use without undue effort or risk of injury. In effect, his will mean mounting the extinguisher with the handle ne more than 1m ffom the floor but, circumstances may dictate variations from this recommendation. ‘+ Smaller and more easily handled extinguishers may be mounted with the nandle about 4.5m from the floor level ‘© Suitably constructed floor cradles may be acceptable in certain locations. 1 Wnere there are special risks, extinguishers should be grouped conveniently in positions ‘where eny user will not be placed in danger whilst attempting to use them. «+Other suitable positions include near exits to rooms or store's, corridors or lobbies, stairways and landings. «+ Extinguishers should not be sited behind doors or inaccessible positions such as deep recesses or in cupboards. 1s Itisalso necessary to consider their exposure to extremes of heat or cold as well a the tisk of aceddental damage during the normal day-to-day use ofthe premises. The ‘operation of an extinguisher willbe affected by temperature and this could even cause ‘accidental discharge. ‘+ Inpremises where theft and vandalism are a problem, extinguishers may be located in secure areas, but always Under the supervision of trained staf Hose Reols and Fire Blankets Where hose reels are provided, they should be located where they are conspicuous and always accessible, such as in corridors. «+ Fite blankets should be located inthe vicinity ofthe fre hazard they are to be used on, but in g position that can be safely accessed in the event of a fre. They are classified as either ight duty of heavy-duty. Light-duty fire blankets are suitable for dealing with smalt fires in containers of cooking olis or fats and fires involving clothing. Heavy-duty fire blankeis are for Industrial use where there is @ need for the blanket to resist penetration by motien materials. «+ you are unsure about the number, type or, location of portable fire-fighting equipment ‘of hose reels you need, you should check with the local fire authority before purchasing ‘any euch equipment 118 Module 7.1 Saat Pracaslons eat and Workshoo “TS mega ana Sytem peered eager Saneap’ Integrated Training System Sprinkler Systems ‘+ In smaller workplaces, portable fre extinguishers will probably be sufficient to tackle small fires, However, in more complex buildings, or where its necessary to protect the ‘means of escape andlor the property or contents ofthe building, it may be necessary to onsider a sprinkler system, + Sprinkler systems are traditionally acknowledged as an efficient means of protecting aulldings against extensive damage from fire. They are also now acknowledged as an ffective means of reducing the risk to life from fre. Systems are being developed which ‘may be suitable for use in workplaces with residential areas, such as care homes and houses in multiple occupancy. ‘+ Sprinkler systems need to be specifically designed and installed to the appropriate hazard category in accordance with an approved code of practice. * Further information on the requirements for sprinkler systems can be obtained from your local fre safety department. ect 71 Sealy Precaon Art and Worshoo 148 fauna" eeIntegrated Training System oy First Aid Ithas been previously discussed that, when working indoors, whether itis in an office, a ‘workshop of a hangar, there will be fed points where fire-fighting equipment is available ‘Similarly, there will be First Aid points where emergency kits, eye washing equipment and cal bells are installed and there willbe trained First Aid personnel to assist in the treatment of injures. It's the responsibilty of every person at work to know: +The location ofthe First Aid Points 2 The methods of caling for help +The locations of alarm bells, and the siting of appropriate telephones which may be tsed to summon help in an emergency +The identity of the trained First Aid personne in their vicinity Inthe event ofan injury (however slight), itis important thatthe injured person, or the attending First Aider, should complete an entry in the Accident Book, which is usually Kept near the First ‘Aid Point. 420 Modul 7.1 Sate Precautons-Aerat and Wexksoy Teamtsg rare Ome Calneup’ Integrated Training System Electricity Every aircraft maintenance shop uses electrical power for day to day activites. While electricity performs many useful functions, you must remember that it can injure or kil if mishandled, ‘Therefor, itis the responsibilty of everyone that uses electrical power to be aware ofthe safety procedures regarding it. ‘The human body conducts electricity. Furthermore, electrical current passing through the body disrupts the nervous system and causes burns at the entry and exit points. Common 220/240- volt, AC house current is particularly dangerous because it affects nerves in such a way that @ person holding a current-carrying wire is unable to release it. Since water conducts electricity, Yyou must avoid handing electrical equipment while standing on a wet surface or wearing wet shoes. The water provides a path to ground and heightens the possibly of electric shock. ‘To understand how common hand tools can create an electrical hazard. consider a typical electric dil that has an AC motor inside a metal housing. One wite is connected to the power terminal of the motor, and the other terminal connects to ground through a white wire. there are only two wires in the cord and the power lead becomes shorted to the housing, the retuin current flows to ground through the operators body. However, ifthe dil motor is wired with a three-conductor cord, return current flows through the third (green) wie to ground, ‘To minimize the risk of shock, make sure that all electrical equipment is connected with three- wire extension cords of adequate capaciy. Furthermore, do not use cords that are frayed, or that have any of the wires exposed, and be sure to replace any plugs that are cracked, ‘The human body conducts electricity. Furthermore, electrical current, passing through the body, disrupts the nervous system and causes bums at the entry and exit points. The current, used in domestic 220-240 vol, S0Hz ac electricity, is particularly dangerous because it affects nerves in such a way that a person, holding a current-carrying conductor, is unable to release it Table 1.2 ‘shows some typical harmful values and effects of both ac and de electricity supplies, Valtage/Current | Possible Outcome ‘OV ac or 100V de _| May give rise to dangerous shocks mA Harmless tingle 1=12mA___| Painful, but can be released 32-20mA _| Very painful, cannot be released 20-50mA __| Paralysis of respiration > 50 mA Heart stoppage Table 1.2; Harmful Values of Electricity ‘Since water also conducts electricity, great care must be taken to avoid handling electrical equipment of all kinds when standing on a wet surface or when wearing wet shoes. ‘The water provides a path to earth and heightens the possibilty of electric shock. To ensure that fats - (Module 7.4 Safety Preceulions Aircraft and Workshop a 121 Erg mo comanttaIntegrated Training System up Juipmentis safe, the minimum requirement is through the use of three-core cable (which includes an earth iead) and, possibly, a safety cut-out device. In conjunction, more often than not, wth ignorance or earelassnass, electrical hazards generally arise due to one or more ofthe fllowing factors: + Inadequate or non-existent earthing {Worn er damaged wiring, insulation, plugs, sockets and other installations Bad wiing systems and the misuse of good systems 2 Incorrect use of fuses: {Inadequate inspection and maintenance of power tools and equipment ‘All electrical equipment must be regularly checked and tested for correct operation and tlestrical safely. To show that this has been done, a dated label should be attached, showing then the equipent was last tested and when the next inspection is due. ‘Any new item of equipment must have a test label attached. The presence of a test label does pal however, absolve the user from checking the equipment for any external signs of damage, Such as a frayed power cord (or missing safety devices) before use. In the event of person witnessing another person receiving an electric shock, the basic ‘actions, to be fellowed by the witness, are: ‘Shout for help and ensure there is no danger of also becoming a victim 1+ Switch off the electrical curent or remove the victim from the supply by means of insulated material Ifthe vitim has ceased breathing, iniiate resuscitation Callfor professional medical help Hf the vieim is suffering from bums, exclude “Treat for shock by keeping the victim warm ir from wounds ‘The approved methods of artificial resuscitation must, by law, be displayed on wall chars in workplaces. 12 Module 7.1 Safety Precautons-Acaf and Workshop Tieng ane Stem iwe Integrated Training System High-Pressure Gases Compressed gases are frequently used in the maintenance and servicing of aircraft. The use of Compressed gases requires a special set of safety measures. The following rules apply for the use of compressed gases: + Oylinders of compressed gas must be handled in the same way as any high-energy (and therefore potentially explosive) sources ‘+ Eye protection must always be wom when handling compressed gases 2 Never use a oylinder that cannot be positively kentiiod = When storing or moving a cylinder, have the cap securely in place to protect the valve stem ‘= When large cylinders are moved, ensure that they are securely attached to the correct trolley or vehicle ‘= Use the appropriate regulator on each gas cylinder ‘+ Never direct high-pressure gases at a person ‘= _Donot use compressed gas or compressed air to blow away dust and dir, as the ‘esuiting fying particles are dangerous + Release compressed gas slowly. The rapid release of a compressed gas will cause ‘an unsecured gas hose to whip about and even build up a static charge, which ‘could ignite a combustible gas + Keep gas cylinders clean. Cil or grease on an oxygen cylincer can cause ‘spontaneous combustion and explosions. ‘Safety Around Compressed Gasos ‘Compressed gases are found in all aircraft maintenance shops. For example, compressed air powers pneumatic dil motors, rivet guns. paint spray guns, and cleaning guns. In addition, ‘compressed nitrogen is used to inflate tres and shock struts while compressed acetylene is, Used in welding, Most shop compressed airs held in storage tanks and routed throughout the shop in high pressure lines. This high pressure presents a serious threat of injury. Fer example, if a Concentrated stream of compressed air is blown across a cut in the ski, itis possible forthe alr to enter the bloodstream and cause severe injury or death. For this reason, air dusting guns are usually equipped with a restrictor that reduces the pressure a their discxarge to 30 PSI or Be very careful when using compressed air not to blow dirt or chips into the face of anyone standing nearby. To prevent eye injury. you should wear eye protection when using pneumatic tools. To prevent injury from a ruptured hose, always keep air hoses and fitings in good condition, Far too many accidents occur when inflating or deflating tires. Therefore, wheel assembles being worked on should be placed in a safety cage to minimize injury ifthe wheel or tire fails during inflation. Always use calibrated tyre gauges, and make certain to use a regulator that is in good working condition, High-pressure compressed gases are especialy dangerous if they are mishandled. Oxygen and ade 7.4 Salty Precauione-Acraand Weshop 428 =, "slog sen Et seersIntegrated Training System i) ig Syster ap’ nitrogen are often found in aviation maintenance shops stored in steel cylinders under a pressure of around 1,800 PSI. These cylinders have brass valves screwed into them. fa cylinder should be knocked over and the valve broken off, the escaping high-pressure gas ‘would propel the tank like a rocket, Because this would create a substantial hazard, you should ‘make sure that all gas cylinders are properly supported. A common method of securing high pressure cylinders in storage is by chaining them to a building. Furthermore, a cap should be Securely instal onan ark that not connected into a ystems, Ths protect he van rom lamage. itis extremely important that oxygen cylinders be treated with special care. In addition to having all of the dangers inherent with other high-pressure gases, oxygen aways possesses the risk of ‘explosion and combustion. For example. you must never allow oxygen to come in contact with petroleum products such as ol or grease, since oxygen causes these materials to ignite ‘spontaneously and bur. Furthermore, never use an oll rag, or took that are oly or greasy, to install a fiting ora regulator on an oxygen cylinder. ‘To minimize the risk of fre. use only an approved MIL Specification thread lubricant when assembling oxygen system components, When checking oxygen systems for leaks, use only an. ‘approved leak check solution that contains no oil Figure 1,13: Be sure the protective cap is screwed on a cylinder Containing high-pressure gas to 5 prevent damage to the vave when {he oylinder is not connected into a (oon 3 system 124 Moa uy cre se i Seana aSwp Integrated Training System Gas Bottlo Identification High-pressure gas cylinders contain various types of gas, the most common used on ‘commercial aircraft being nitrogen and oxygen. To ensure correct identification of these ‘containers, they are colour coded and the name of the gas is stenciled on the side. Inthe UK, gas containers use BS 381C as the standard to determine the correct colour and shade for each gas type. Nitrogen bottles are painted grey on the body witha black neck, whilst ‘oxygen bottles are black with a white neck. Be aware that bottles of US manufacture use an ‘altematve system, the main difference being oxygen bottles are painted green all over. High-Pressure Gas Replenishing When repleniching aircraft eervces euch ac tyroe and hydraulio aocumulatore with high pressure gas, care must be taken to ensure that only the required pressure enters the Container. When ful, a gas storage bottle can hold as much as 200 bar (3000 PSI) whilst an ircraft tyre pressure may only require 7 bar (100 PSI) To safely control the gas, two pressure regulating valves are used, one atthe storage bottle end ‘and one at the delivery end of the system. If one valve fails the other will prevent the receiving ‘vessel from taking the full botle pressure with the consequence of an explosion. For added safety the gas bottle valve opening key should be left in the valve whilst decanting ‘operations are completed. If problems occur then the high-pressure bottle can be quickly isolated before the situation becomes dangerous. The transfer of high-pressure gases from a large storage bottle tothe aircraft component is often called decanting and must be done at a very slow rate. Ifthe gas is decanted rapidly the temperature ofthe receiving component will increase in accordance with the gas laws, ‘Again using the same gas laws the temperature of the gas inthe container will drop to ambient, ‘and the pressure in that vessel will reduce. The component pressure will now be incorrect and, require the decanting process to be repeated. In workshops, compressed air is, sometimes, produced by a compressor (which is housed in @ ‘emote building), and fed, via galeries, to work stations. Care must be taken to ensure that no damage occurs to the piping whilst in use. la concentrated stream of compressed airs blown across a cut in a person's skin, then air can tenter the blood stream and cause injury or death, For this reason, air-dusting guns are Testricted to about 2000 kPa (30 PSI) Aircraft tyres can require very high pressures and must be inflated inside a strong cage. This ‘cage would protect the personnel working on the wheels in the event of a tyre oF whee! bursting, Module 7.1 Safety Precautons-Arrat ana Werksnop, 1.25 Seemann “TS egies Tang Str Ise ‘enn 20Integrated Training System Integral ining Sys a ‘Oxygen Systems Modem aircraft fly at attudes where life support systems are needed. Even though most cf these aircraft are pressurised, emergency oxygen must be carried in the event thatthe pressurisation system fails. Smaller aircraft can carry oxygen in cylinders whilst the lager, civil Bireraft have individual oxygen generator units “These units are stowed in the overhead cargo bins, above the passenger seats, and are known as the passenger service units or PSUs. A PSU produces axygen, by means of a chemical Teaction, and is actvated when its mask (which drops from the overhead bin in an emergency) is pulled by a passenger. Note: When PSUs reach thelr life expiry and have to be returned to thei manufacturer, itis vital that all precautions are folwed to make the units ‘safe' for transit. PSUs get very hot when ‘working and have caused the destruction, due to fre, of an aircraft, which was carrying these ‘nits as cargo. “The main oxygen systems are serviced from trolleys or vehicles that carry a number of high pressure bottes of oxygen, which can be at 140 bar (2,000 PSI) of more. Some trolleys may {Also have a botle of nitrogen, to allow the replenishment of hydraulic accumulators and landing ‘gears. The two types of botles must be separated, in order to prevent the accidental mixing of the gases. Itis extremely important that oxygen cylinders be treated with special care, because, in addition to having all the dangers inherent wit all other high-pressure gases, oxygen always possesses: the risk of combustion and explosion. {As previously stated, oxygen must never be allowed to come into contact with petroleum products such a8 oll and grease, eines oxygen causes these materials to ignite spontaneously ‘and to burn. Furthermore, an ol-soaked rag, or tools that are oily or greasy (or badly oilstained Overalls), must never be used when instaling an adapter or a regulator on an oxygen cylirder. ‘Due to the risk of fre and explosion, replenishing trolleys must never be parked close to hydraulc ol replenishing rigs, or in any area where petroleum products are likely to come into contact with the oxygen servicing equipment. Similarly only specially approved thread lubricants, ‘can be used when assembling oxygen components. 128 Medusa 71 Safety Precautions Aiea and Werkshon “rs negate eg Syn Seer0wp Integrated Training System Aviation Oils and Fuels ‘Aviation oils, generally, are fairy low-risk material when compared withthe more volatile, higher distilates of petroleum such as the aviation fuels - petrol (gasoline) and parafin (kerosene). Most lubricating ois are flammable, if enough heat is generated but, when the ‘materials are kept away from excessive heat sources, they are (comparatively) quite benign, ‘Synthetic lubricating oils, methanol and some hydraulic olls may be harmful or even toxic if their vapours are inhaled. Also, if they come into contact with the skin or eyes, they can cause injury or blindness. Particular note should be taken of any wamings of dangers to heaith that may be Contained in the relevant maintenance manuals and the recommended procedures for the handling ofthese iquids should always be observed. Oils and fuels also have an adverse effect on paintwork, adhesives and sealants and, thus, may inhibit corrosion-prevention schemes. Care should, therefore, be taken not to spill any of these liquids but, fa spilage should occur, it must be cleaned up immediately Note: Sweeping up gasoline spilage with a dry broom can cause a build up of static electricity, with the accompanying risk of explosion ‘With gasoline and kerosene there is a much greater chance of fre, so more thorough precautions are required. These start with the basic rules, such as not wearing footwear with nails or studs (o prevent sparks), not carrying matches or cigarette lighters and ensuring that ALL replenishing equipment is fully serviceable Note: All references to refueling, normally, also include the action of de-uelling and both are ‘considered under the common form of fuelling, During any fuelling operation, in a workshop, a hangar or on the fight line, the relevant fre ‘extinguishers must be in place. Module 7.4 Safely Precautions Aircraft and Workshop 427 Sepecee ‘TSiampate Toni Ste [nae ‘enrgt 20Integrated Training System ‘Chemical and Physiological Hazards Many chemical compounds, both liquid and sold, are used in aircraft maintenance and these may need specific precautions, Any precautions can be found inthe relevant maintenance ‘manuals and in the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) leafets applicable to ‘those materials. ‘The range of adhesives used for repair and sealing during the maintenance of aircraftis vast. A large number of these produce vapours which, generally, can be dangerous in any enclosed ‘space, both from the results of inhalation of narcotic fumes and from the fie risk associated with those which give off volatile, flammable, vapours. Surface finishes present another area where the various types of material used (etchants, ccolluloses, acrylics, enamels, polyurethanes etc.), dictate specific precautions. The solvents Used, before the actual painting and afterwards, need safety precautions with regards to ‘ventiation, reaction with other materials and, most importantly, their possible corrosive, toxic, intant and addictive effects on personnel ‘Some materials have a mildly radioactive property, although they emit tle ionising radiation in normal citcumstances. These materials are sometimes referred to as ‘heavy metals’ and can be found in balance-weights as well]ea in amoke detectors, luminescent EXIT” signs and instruments, “This radiation differs from that used for non-destructive testing (NDT) procedures, where high levels of radiation are employed, by specially trained personnel, and which, therefore, require ‘many safety precautions to avoid personal injury. The safety precautions for NDT procedures Will be found within the manuals applicable to their employment. 4.28 Made 71 Salat Procautore Aral and Werkahop “Tis taapate Tatng Sten snr arms Seep a0 Septup’ Integrated Training System General Flight-Line Safety ‘Many sources of accidents on the fight line are involved with propellers and rotor blades, They ‘are difficult to see when they are tuning, and personnel (despite being familar withthe hazards (of propellers and rotors), sometimes become distracted and forget about the danger. The main, difference between these, and other fight-ine accidents, is that they are almost always fatal Propellers - Most blades have high-visibilty markings, to ensure that they can be seen when they are turning. These markings vary ‘rom a yellow blade tip marking, to black and white alternate ‘stripes along the full blade length, toreaootterecot A propel and rr to olow strict rules as to the correct way to. approach and leave the iinty of an aircraft or copter whilst i Urderpower For Fen "4: fact of example (and propeller high visibility allowing forthe fact markings that there are spectic rules laid down for each aircraft), instaling and emoving chocks should normally be done from the Figure 1.15: Propeller tes and wingtip direction. Boarding and leaving a helicopter engine and exhaust blanks Should avaye be done fom the sie, Jet Engines - When dealing with running jet engines there are similar dangers. These come not Dnly rom the noe risk, whit cat sul Ueatess, bu ais fam Ue sk of lake suction, ‘which has resulted in ramp personnel being sucked into the engine and being kiled. At the rear ofthe aircraft there isthe risk of jt blast, which, at maximum thrust is quite capable of ‘overturning @ vehicle iit passes too close behind the aircraft (ef to igure 1-18). Pston- powered aera (depending on ther size) wil have similar danger areas. ‘Module 7.1 Safety Precautions-Alrcraft and Workshop 128 = ear orIntegrated Training System y Figure 1.18: Typical aircraft danger arees Aircraft Doors - Never open or ‘lose an aircraft passenger door or ‘cargo door without frst receiving {raining on how to do this satety, Most aircraft passenger doors have ‘an emergency operation mode, Which activated inadvertently could ‘cause damage and serious injury. Aircraft cargo doors are usually ‘electrically or hydraulically ‘activated. Incorrect operation on these doors will lso cause damage or injury Figure 1.17: ‘Door Armed’ warning Alrcratt access panels and engine cowlings - Always ensure that all aircraft access panels: {and engine cowlings are supported by their hold open stays, where fited. Supporting them on steps of ground equipment Is likely to cause damage. When closing access panels and engine Comings, make sure open stays are correctly stowed, al tools spares ari ulle ites used ‘during maintenance are removed, and that all panel and cowng latches and fasteners are locked, +30 Modute 7.1 Safty Precautions Aircraft and Workshop {Toga Trang Syston Perce} Seopa.up’ Integrated Training System Fire Precautions - When carrying out maintenance tasks such as engine ground runs, ot system function checks, ensure correct fre extinguishing appliances are avaliable, usually a ‘win cylinder e0 2 trolley and a power extinguisher. All fuel spills such as fuel, oil and hydraulic fuid should be cleaned up immediately. If fuel spi is extensive, then the airport fire service should be contacted to deal with it Blanks and Blanking - Be aware of blanks and covers that can be fited to all aircraft during ‘maintenance of as the situation requires, these include: Engine intake and Exhaust unit blanks Pitot probe and ptot static blanks ‘Wheel covers Windscreen covers ‘The above are general, but aircraft type specific blanks are also availabe. When removing and fiting aircraft components, ‘always ensure that blanking caps and covers are eee ee eee transferred from the new component to the old one. If removing a component for maintenance purposes that isnot going to be replaced Immediately, ensure that the component and the aircraft connections, pipe lines, electrical Connections, are all blanked, Failure to do this will allow the ingress of foreign materials, which if go undetected, could cause future system failure. ‘When handling electric or electronic equipment, ‘special anti-static blanks and packaging is always used. It must be remembered that when removing and fing these bianks, normally coloured black, ‘care must be taken not to touch the pin ‘connections undemeath, as static discharge from Figure 1.19: Engine blanks with flags the fingers, wil damage the internal electronic _visible form cockpit ‘components Ground Locks - Several systems, especially fight controls and landing gear, are equipped with locks. These are designed to safety hydraulic actuators during maintenance, itis essential, that where available these locks are used to ensure personal safety, and stop systems damage, All locks and pins are equipped with a red pennant, with the words “REMOVE BEFORE FLIGHT" printed on it. It is of course essential for fight safety, that all locks are removed before flight. A record of ground locks fitted during maintenance is raised on a job card, or in the aircraft technical log, Module 7.4 Salty Procautons Ail sn Wisk +31 Seyi ‘rsa Tig Sten ae ‘ecomron 20Integrated Training System Figure 1.20: Engine and pitot tube blanks and “Remove Belore Fight’ flags Circult Breakers - Circuit breakers are provided to isolate ‘electrical actuation or electrical control systems, This ‘enables the fight crew to isolate a system during an femergency, and allows ground crew to isolate a system for ‘maintenance, > es Poor eee Circuit breakers are tsually identified in groups by & sae ividually by shorted words and/or Figure *.21: Circuit breaker tags Ia circuit breaker is pulled to deactivate a system, a safety tag must be attached to it to Indicate this to other maintenance personnel. ‘On no account should circuit breaker be reactivated until the person who isolated it has been consulted. 182 Module 71 Safety Precatons-Aerat and Werkshop “rs tnaptg ating Syston ates Seep 2030 Seisj Integrated Training System a oe See etn W A'RIN ING DO\WWOT me ORERATE Figure 1.22: Circuit breaker, switch and lever label —front and rear Aircraft Systems isolation Prior to carrying out maintenance or system breakdown, some aircraft systems will requite depressurization, draining, venting or cooling. Hydraulic systems require depressurization ofthe system, and depressurization ofthe reservoir head pressure, this is usually pneumatic, (On some aircraft, electrically operated valves wil isolate sections ofthe hydraulic system, when operated, Fuel systems often require draining and venting, this is certainly the case with fue tanks. Fuel ‘supply systems can sometimes be isolated with the use of electrically operated valves, ‘+ Pneumatic systems sometimes require depressutization, ‘+ Aircraft tolet and water systems require draining and flushing *+ Engine ol systems require depressurization and cooling ‘+ Allsystoms require deactivation oftheir motive power, prior to maintenance or breakdown, Mote 7 Sale Precautions Arr and Wexahop 138 aa i eeeeaetoeeIntegrated Training System A Weather Radar ‘The heating and radiation effects of weather radar can be hazardous to lf. Personnel should oman a sate distance from the radar if it's in operation. There are published figures and charts, in the maintenance manual of each aircraft, showing the safe distances for personnel, ‘depending on the power of the radar in use, ‘Asan example, the aerial in the nose of the alrcraft should have an unobstiucted view" of eSrething tke 30 metres, with the aera ited upwards. There should also be a barrier erected Spout 3 metres or 80 from the nose ofthe aircraft, to prevent personnel geting 00 close. Finally, there should be no fueling operations in progress during the testing of weather radar. +4 Module 7.1 Saety Precautions Alera and Workshop “Tretnagerinre Sten See opr ane| se| ap Integrated Training System Exposure YS om Mie ‘3Integrated Training System LS TTS Integrated Training System Module 7 Maintenance Practices 7.2 Workshop Practices ode 72 Workshop PacesIntegrated Training System “i Module 7.2 Workshop Practices Despite the enormous acvances in the mechanisation and computerisation ofthe engineering industy in general, there remains the requirement fora high degree of hand skils on the part of techniclans who are engaged in the day-to-day maintenance of aircraft and their associated ‘components. ‘While the majority of aerospace components are manufactured under stringent standards, in actory (and laboratory) conditions, itis necessary to remove many items of equipment for ‘Seaning, inspection, overhaul and, if needed, repair before they are, subsequently, re-installed in their appointed locations. “These actions may ental the use of many specialist tools and materials, which are used while following writen procedures, while it's quite possible that some, comparatively simple, repairs may call upon such basis hand skils as the cutting, fling, driling, riveting and painting of metals or other materials. No matter whether there are specialist or basic skis required, all wll demand a certain quality ‘of the work practices (and ofthe work-force) involved. Care of Tools Engineers are responsible for the maintenance oftheir personal tools, whilst other personnel, in Gesignated Tool Stores, must care for al the different, specialist tools for which they have the ‘Ssponatbity tis also he responsibilty of engineers to ensure that any tools, or other items of ‘equipment they use, are not lft in an aircraft or associated components “The care required for diferent tools can vary. Ordinary hand tools may merely require racking or Tocating within sturdy too! boxes, with careful, daily, maintenance restricted to litte more than a visual check. Precision instruments however, require great care both in storage and in use. They may need to be kept in special, soft-ned, boxes within other slorage facilties. Prior to use they should have {a zero’ check or calibration, Some tools require that they have a light coating of machine oil, to prevent the onset of corrosion Each tool (whether itbe a hammer or a micrometer), will require some special cere, to ensure its optimum performance for, without this care, even the most expensive tools very quickly ‘become second rate ard useless. Module 72 Workshop Practices 25 Petr 7 apm Tne Sts Sipe SStemer reIntegrated Training System Control of Tools Control of tools is important to good engineering practices and is also vial to fight safety. A variety of systems can be used to control tools but, whichever system is used, it must allow a 100% check of the tools in use before it can be considered ae acceptable. Figure 2.1: Tool shadow board (One form of controt is the ‘shadow board’ and ‘tool tag’ system, (refer to figure 2.1). Each tool is positioned over its silhouette, on the tool board. Technicians are issued with identification ‘tokens (numbered ‘ags’) which are exchanged forthe tool and, usually, a tag is hung above the sihouette, to be reciaimed, in exchange forthe tool, when it ie returned to the board. The ‘shadow board/too! tag system works equally well when the tools are held within a designated Too! Store arrangement. 28 Module 72 Workshop Prectces Seapeenaeroe aoIntegrated Training System up tear ining Sy: In workshops and bays itis normal fora toolkit to be held by the department in addition to its tngineers holding personal sets of tools. The tools held by the department are often referred fo sefspedial tole meaning that they are only for maintenance work on the items being servised in that workshop. ‘Avwhee! bay, for example, may have sets of special spanners, levers, seal applicators and pre- cot torque wrenches, which are used primarily forthe servicing of particular types of aircraft ‘Sihecis This dedicated toolkit makes tool control much simpler and safer, withthe tools all being clearly marked as belonging to that specific bay. No matter where tools are being used, itis the responsibilty of each technician to Keep track of [ALU of the tools used during a particular task. The most important check of al is the final, ‘End Gf Work’ too} check, when all fools must be collected and checked off against personal Miventories, ensuring all borrowed tools (from the Tool Store for example), ae returned anc any ‘personal oo! tags collected. Use of Workshop Materials Many ofthe wide variety of materials, used in workshops, require some form of contro in their handling. This control can involve: + Safety: relating o such topics asthe toxicty, corrosiveness or other health risks associated withthe use of certain materials 1+ Management: referring tothe storage, use and correct handing ofall materials whether they are solid quid, or, in some instances, gaseous «+ Economy: involving such matters as to the using ofthe correct dosage or proportions then mixing compounds, using only as much material as required for a specific tas and tothe Keeping in stock of only sufficient materials and thus avoiding "ifed' items reaching their expty dates before being used. [Abrasive papers, solder and brazing materials, wire wool, tyre powder, ol spill powder and so pera require control of issue and use, though they may not, normally, require stringent safety precautions. ‘A.huge range of liquids can be used in the workshop situation, some of which are harmless and ‘ome of which ate extremely toxic. Its vital thatthe work-force make themselves aware cf the sone involved when dealing with ANY materials, and especially when working within enclosed areas. ‘Some materials are flammable and must, therefore, be stored outdoors. These include oil, greases, some adhesives, sealing and glazing compounds in addition to many paints, enamels ond epoxy surface finishes, which are stored in metal cabinets and, usually, located (nthe Northem hemisphere) on the North side of a workshop or hangar. This ensures that the cabinet femains in the shade of the building and does not get exposed tothe sun's hot rays during the Morile 1.2 Workshop Practzes 27 Poco ‘78mg Trig Sten Sane SeonIntegrated Training System up’ day. It is also important that only the minimum amount of these materials is taken indoors for the work which i being done, When handling materials that give off fumes, it may be necessary tohave the area well ventilatee andior have the operator wearing a mask or some form of remote breathing ‘apparatus. The finished work may also give off fumes for some time afterwards, so care must be taken fo keep it ventilated if necessary, Obviously all liquids must only be used forthe purpose for which they are designed and never ‘mixed together, unless the two materials are designed to be mixed, such as with two part epoxy. adhesives and sealants, ‘Many liquids used in workshops and in the hangar have (as mentioned earlier a fixed ‘life’. This and tolerance in the design of mating part features, + Clearance Fit. Fit that allows for sliding or rotation between mating parts, ‘Maximum Material Condition: The condition where a feature ofa certain size contains * Interference Fit: force or shrink ft which results in surface contact and surface forces ‘due tothe overlap of physical material for the entire range of tolerances between mating pars, *+ Transition Fit: fit between mating parts which may be a clearance or interference ft Used for accurate location of parts. ‘+ Geometric Tolerancing: Tolerances that involve shape features ofthe part. ‘+ Datum: A theoretically exact axis, point, ine, or plane, 248 Module 72 workshop Practices: Simp Trang Sten Beer Seaman Satinej Integrated Training System a’ itegt 1 Tolerances ually and accuracy are major considerations in making machine parts or structures, Interchangeable parts require a high degree of accuracy to fit together. Dimensions of parts ‘Given on blueprints and manufactured to those dimensions should be exactly like and ft cropeny, Unfortunately, iis impossible to make things oan exact or dimoncion. Most vimnttone have a varying degree of accuracy and a means of specifying acceptable limitations in dimensional variance that an object vil tolerate and stil function, Tolerance - Tolerance is the total amount a specific dimension may vary stated @s @ minimum and maximum limitation. ‘To understand tolerances, you should understand some ofthe definitions associated with the Jetnmaton of tolerance. These definitions may be generally categorized as relating to size, allowance, orf «Size: The size of an object or its mate is known as nominal, bas, oF design size. + Allowance: The maximum and minimum allowable dimensions are known as lit, ‘allowance, unilateral, and bilateral tolerances. «Fit Fit clearance, interference, or transition fit refer to how the object fits an assembly. ‘ize - To specity the size of an object, you dimension it with a nominal size, basic size, oF design size. ‘+ Nominal size: Nominal size generally identifies the overall sizeof an object + Basic Size: The basic size isthe decimal equivalent of a nominal or numericaly stated ‘ze. Itis the dimension from which you derive the limits of size by the application of allowances and tolerances. «Design size. The size from which you derive the limits of siz by the use of tolerances. + 907 7 888 l= 338 4 | 1.500 > 1 4 1 | fees ll { [ Nominal Size Basic Size Design size Figure 2.9: Normal, Basic and Design size Module 7.2 Workshop Practices 219 ae. “78h ro Sheena pen 8Integrated Training System J at 1g Sys Bp Allowance - Limits, allowance, unilateral tolerance, and bilateral tolerance refer to size allowable variations ‘+ Limits: The maximum and minimum sizes indicated by a toleranced dimension. For ‘example, the limits for a hole are 1.500 ‘and 1.504 inches and for a shaft 1,498 ‘and 1.497 inches, LIMIT ALLOWANCE, + Allowance: The intentional atference between the maximum material limits of mating parts. This is a minimum Clearance (posite allowance) or UNILATERAL TOLERANCE, ‘maximum interference (negative + allowance) between mating parts, EF ‘+ Unilateral tolerance: Unilateral tolerances meee tedageatens ‘one direction, 38 - oe '* Bilateral tolerance: Bilateral tolerances BILATERAL TOLERANCE basa iene both directions. The actual size ofthe yt Soiree aamisatte Tt | $e a ac Zt oa Seahorse pe hosinianscriivaescbe sae sam] Lsccos oo os | Figure 2.4: Limit Allowance, Unilateral Tolerance, Bilateral Tolerance 220 Mexhte 7.2 Workshop Prectoes {TS egal ag ym Seat cen ‘© Copyrgn 2080 bedcs Integrated Training System TTS Integrated Training System Module 7 Maintenance Practices 7.3 Tools Module 7. Tools of ee SSIntegrated Training System a Module 7.3 Tools Common Hand Tools ‘The best results are always obtained by using the correct tool forthe task. Care and ‘maintenance ofall to's is very important, since damaged or inefficient tools can lead to injury of the user or damage to the components. A range of commen hand tools is considered in this part of the course, Engineer's Rule ‘An engineers rule (refer to figure 3.1) is made from high-carbon steel and is graduated in Imperial and Metric units. Rules are classified by the length and width of their graduated portion ‘must be kept free from rust and should not be subjected to rough usage. The most common engineer's rule has a length of 300mm (1f) but rules can be obtained in lengths of up to 1,800mm (6A). ‘The increment graduation marks are etched into the rule surface providing a grooved recess. ‘These grooves enable cividers tobe set to a greater accuracy, as the divider points can be felt {0 drop in’ tothe recess, Figure 3.1: Engineer's Stes! Rule marked in MM and Inches ao Modi 7.3 Tooks ay eee 79nd Traing rms etIntegrated Training System wp Metric Seale ‘Figure 32: Engneer’s Stee! Rule with divider point grooves a Module 73 Tools nai eeeIntegrated Training System yp’ re Scriber ‘A scriber (refer to fgure 3.3) is used for marking lines on the surface o' metals. Scribers are ‘made from high-carbon steel and are classified by thei length, One end of the scrber is usually bent at right angles to enable lines to be scribed in difficult places such as through a hole. ‘Due to the nature of metal, and the accuracy generally sought after when machining it, a thick Pencil or ink line would either be impossible to lay down acourately or prone to erasure during ‘the machining operation. The crisp, bright mark exposed by the scratch ofa scrber is semi- Permanent and thin, The process of using the scrberis referred to as marking-out and may Fequire the addilor of ter hand tools ang equipment. Figure 3.3: Various forms of scriber Usually a layout stain of some form is used to increase the contrast between the scribed line and the background surface and is washed off wth solvent on completion ‘All scribed lines on soft materials must only be cuting (boundary) lines, and none must be let ‘on the surface of the metal on completion, as they can cause cracks. Other lines, including ‘bend lines and lines for the positon of rivets must be marked with a sharp pencil ‘Soriber points must be kept sharp and fine by careful ‘stoning’ with an oi stone, rather than an abrasive whee! (grindstone). Using a wheel is likely to generate too much heat, which will suit in the temper being drawn from the steel and the point of the scriber becoming soft and useless, ‘When not in use (and as with other tools with sharp points), placing pleces of cork, plastic or similar material over their points wil protect them. Module 73 Tools 30 dont, ‘Ts megateg aa Stn Sotto eyIntegrated Training System Key-Seat Rule Key-seat rules are used for marking-off lines, parallel to the axis, cn the surface of tubes or round bars (refer to figure 3.4). Sometimes referred to as ‘Box Squares’, key-seat rules are Usually graduated and are classified by their length Figure 3.4: Serbing lines with a key-seat rule on shaft for smarking-off keyway ea Module 7.3 Tools “TS age an yt Sa Pee ty SatisIntegrated Training System ay Fitter's Square ‘The fiter's square is used fer setting out lines at right angles to an edge or surface, and for c’checking right angular work for ‘truth’. Squares are made, to very fie limits. of high-carbon stee! and are classified by the length ofthe blade. ‘The blade and the stock have their opposing edges ground truly parallel with the two limbs set at exactly 90° to each other. To preserve its accuracy itis essential that itis handled carefully at al times and, when notin use, kept in a protective case or box. When testing a square for accuracy, it may be checked for truth against an accurately machined ‘ight angular test piece such as a 'V’' block or master square. If his is not possible, a test may be carried out (refer to igure 35) as follows: ‘+ Place the stock against the true edge ofa flat surface and scribing a line on the surface, Using the outside edge ofthe blade ‘+ Turn the square over and check the outside aelge of the blade against the previously scribed line. Ifthe square is accurate, the blade edge and the scribed line willbe in line. In a simitar manner, the inside edge of the blade can be tested, Length blade Sze of square Noten for clesrance Testing teers square Blade and stock veted together Figure 3.6: Fitters square fe Module 7:3 Tools ant Stendtsaa ee)Integrated Training System Combination Set ‘The Combination Set (refer to figure 3.6, 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9), consists of a graduated steel rule, which has a mechined groove running aiong the centre o its entire length. The rue can be slid into three different heads’ and secured, by a locking screw device, so thatthe combination of rule and "head will enable certain tasks to be accomplished. “The Centre Head is used, withthe rule, to locate the centre line of bars or round tubes. “The Square Head (or Stock Head) has one working surface at 90° and another at 45° to the locked rule. Ths allows the tool to be used, either in a similar manner tothe Fite’s Square (to check the squareness of work), oF it may be used forthe marking out of mitre joints and bevels. {A spirit level ard scriber are sometimes accommodated in the base of the Square Head, to permit a check o be done on the horizontal or vertical accuracy of workpieces, “The Protractor Head also has a spit level, which rotates withthe head, and allows the hoad to be used, singly, a8 a clinometer or, in conjunction with the rule, t may be used tomark out and. ccheck angles cn workpieces. Figure 38: Components of a Combination Set oa oul 7.3 Tools ween odIntegrated Training System ae Figure 8.7, Combination Set checking he th an Angle with the Frowector head Figure 3.8: Using the Protractor Head and the Stock Head Moc 7.3 Tools aa ‘TSinepai Ying Sse ‘SapnaIntegrated Training System ap “Contring the ond of bar withthe ‘Genter Head 4 Figure 3.9: Using the Centre Head to find the centre of a bar ‘Surface Plates ‘Surface plates (and surface tables which are larger), while not actualy being classed as ‘marking out oF measuring tools, are simply blocks of grey cast iron with finely machined faces (which can be used as a standard of fatness. They may also be used to provide a true surface, from which marking out, mezsuring and testing can be done, Surface plates are usually mounted on a bench and, normally, only have three suppor, or feet, to ensure steadiness, if the surface of the bench were to be slightly ‘uneven. Surface tables are free standing, on the ‘workshop floor, and their sheer weight provides the requited steadiness. ‘The standard ofthe surface finish varies. ‘The better grades are scraped and the Vinsapad ches wataoray pared Mie re trea ‘accuracy of a planed table depends upon the accuracy of the machine producing i. ‘Surfaces of grade ‘A’ standerd would only be used in Standards Rooms, grade ‘B' surfaces are for inspection work while grede °C’ surface plates and tables would be found in typical workshops. ate Module 7.3 Tels “TTS ersng Training Sytem omnis Teoma 10