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Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
vi Brief Contents

Chapter 10 The Tower of Babel:

Programming
Languages   480
Chapter 11 Compilers and Language
Translation   542
Chapter 12 Models of
Computation   588

LEVEL 5 Applications   636
Chapter 13 Simulation and
Modeling   638
Chapter 14 Ecommerce, Databases,
and Data Science   670
Chapter 15 Artificial Intelligence   712
Chapter 16 Computer Graphics and
Entertainment: Movies,
Games, and Virtual
Communities   758

LEVEL 6 Social Issues in Computing   790

Chapter 17 Making Decisions about
Computers, Information,
and Society   792

Answers to Practice Problems   833

Index   877

Online Chapters
This text includes five language-specific online-only downloadable
chapters on Ada, C++, C#, Java, and Python, available on the com-
panion site for this text (www.cengage.com) and in MindTap.

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents

Preface to the Eighth Edition    xix

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Computer Science   2

Introduction   2
1.1  
Special Interest Box: In the Beginning . . .    5
1.2  The Definition of Computer Science   6
Special Interest Box: Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn
Musa Al-Khwarizmi (AD 780–850?)    10
1.3  Algorithms   12
1.3.1  The Formal Definition of an Algorithm    12
1.3.2  The Importance of Algorithmic
Problem Solving   17
Practice Problems   18
1.4  A Brief History of Computing    18
1.4.1  The Early Period: Up to 1940    18
Special Interest Box: The Original “Technophobia”    22
Special Interest Box: Charles Babbage (1791–1871)
Ada Augusta Byron, Countess of Lovelace (1815–1852)    24
1.4.2  The Birth of Computers: 1940–1950    24
Special Interest Box: John Von Neumann (1903–1957)    28
1.4.3  The Modern Era: 1950 to the Present    28
Special Interest Box: And the Verdict Is . . .    29
Special Interest Box: The World’s First Microcomputer    31
1.5  Organization of the Text   34
Laboratory Experience 1   38
EXERCISES   39
CHALLENGE WORK   41

LEVEL 1 The Algorithmic Foundations

of Computer Science   42
Chapter 2 Algorithm Discovery and Design    44
2.1  
Introduction   44
2.2  
Representing Algorithms   44
2.2.1  Pseudocode   44
2.2.2  Sequential Operations   48
2.2.3  Conditional and Iterative Operations    50

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202 vii
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
viii Contents

Practice Problems   51
Special Interest Box: From Little Primitives Mighty
Algorithms Grow   60
2.3  Examples of Algorithmic Problem Solving    60
2.3.1   Example 1: Go Forth and Multiply    60
Practice Problems   61
Practice Problems   64
2.3.2  Example 2: Looking, Looking,
Looking   65
Laboratory Experience 2   70
2.3.3   Example 3: Big, Bigger, Biggest    70
Practice Problems   76
Laboratory Experience 3   76
2.3.4   Example 4: Meeting Your Match    77
Special Interest Box: Hidden Figures   84
2.4  Conclusion   84
Practice Problems   85
EXERCISES   86
CHALLENGE WORK   89

Chapter 3 The Efficiency of Algorithms    92

Introduction   92
3.1  
Attributes of Algorithms   92
3.2  
Practice Problems   97
3.3  Measuring Efficiency   97
3.3.1  Sequential Search   97
3.3.2  Order of Magnitude—Order n   100
Special Interest Box: Flipping Pancakes   102
3.3.3  Selection Sort   102
Practice Problem   103
Practice Problems   109
3.3.4  Order of Magnitude—Order n2   109
Special Interest Box: The Tortoise and the Hare    113
Laboratory Experience 4   114
Practice Problem   115
3.4  Analysis of Algorithms   115
3.4.1  Data Cleanup Algorithms   115
3.4.2  Binary Search   123
Practice Problems   123
Practice Problems   129
Laboratory Experience 5   130
3.4.3  Pattern Matching   130
3.4.4  Summary   131
Practice Problem   132
3.5  When Things Get Out of Hand    132
Practice Problems   137
3.6  Summary of Level 1    137
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents ix

Laboratory Experience 6   138

EXERCISES   139
CHALLENGE WORK   149

LEVEL 2 The Hardware World   150

Chapter 4 The Building Blocks: Binary Numbers, Boolean
Logic, and Gates   152
Introduction   152
4.1  
The Binary Numbering System    153
4.2  
B
 inary
Representation of Numeric and
4.2.1  
Textual Information   153
Special Interest Box: A Not So Basic Base    158
Practice Problems   166
4.2.2   Binary Representation of Sound
and Images   167
Practice Problems   175
4.2.3  The Reliability of Binary
Representation   176
4.2.4   Binary Storage Devices   177
Special Interest Box: Moore’s Law and the Limits
of Chip Design   182
4.3  Boolean Logic and Gates   183
4.3.1   Boolean Logic   183
Practice Problems   187
4.3.2   Gates   188
Special Interest Box: George Boole (1815–1864)    192
4.4  Building Computer Circuits   193
4.4.1   Introduction   193
4.4.2   A Circuit Construction Algorithm    195
Practice Problems   199
4.4.3  Examples of Circuit Design and
­Construction   200
Laboratory Experience 7   200
Laboratory Experience 8   208
Practice Problems   209
Special Interest Box: Dr. William Shockley
(1910–1989)   209
4.5  Control Circuits   211
4.6  Conclusion   215
EXERCISES   217
CHALLENGE WORK   220

Chapter 5 Computer Systems Organization   222

Introduction   222
5.1  
The Components of a Computer System   225
5.2  
Memory
5.2.1   and Cache   227
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
x Contents

Special Interest Box: Powers of 10    230

Input/Output and Mass Storage    238
5.2.2  
Practice Problems   239
Practice Problems   244
The Arithmetic/Logic Unit   245
5.2.3  
The Control Unit   249
5.2.4  
Practice Problems   256
5.3  Putting the Pieces Together—the Von Neumann
Architecture   258
Special Interest Box: An Alphabet Soup of Speed
Measures: MHz, GHz, MIPS, and GFLOPS    264
Laboratory Experience 9   265
5.4   Non–Von Neumann Architectures   265
Special Interest Box: Speed to Burn    269
5.5   Summary of Level 2   271
Special Interest Box: Quantum Computing   272
EXERCISES   273
CHALLENGE WORK   276

LEVEL 3 The Virtual Machine   278

Chapter 6 An Introduction to System Software and
Virtual Machines   280
Introduction   280
6.1  
System Software   282
6.2  
The Virtual Machine   282
6.2.1  
Types of System Software    284
6.2.2  
Assemblers and Assembly Language   286
6.3  
6.3.1   Assembly Language   286
Practice Problems   294
6.3.2  Examples of Assembly Language
Code   295
Practice Problems   299
Laboratory Experience 10   300
6.3.3  Translation and Loading   300
Practice Problems   307
6.4  Operating Systems   308
6.4.1   Functions of an Operating System    308
Special Interest Box: A Machine for the Rest of Us    311
Practice Problems   315
6.4.2   Historical Overview of Operating ­Systems
Development   318
Special Interest Box: Now That’s Big!    320
6.4.3   The Future   327
Special Interest Box: Gesture-Based Computing   330
EXERCISES   331
Challenge Work   334
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents xi

Chapter 7 Computer Networks and Cloud

Computing   336
Introduction   336
7.1  
Basic Networking Concepts   338
7.2  
Communication
7.2.1   Links   338
Special Interest Box: The Internet of Things    345
Practice Problems   346
7.2.2  Local Area Networks   346
Practice Problems   349
7.2.3  Wide Area Networks   349
7.2.4  Overall Structure of the Internet    351
Special Interest Box: Firewalls   354
7.3  Communication Protocols   356
7.3.1  Physical Layer   357
7.3.2  Data Link Layer   358
Practice Problems   362
7.3.3  Network Layer   363
Special Interest Box: I Can’t Believe We’ve Run Out    364
7.3.4  Transport Layer   366
Practice Problems   367
7.3.5  Application Layer   371
7.4  Network Services and Benefits   374
Laboratory Experience 11   375
7.4.1  Interpersonal Communications   375
7.4.2  Social Networking   376
7.4.3  Resource Sharing   376
7.4.4  Electronic Commerce   378
7.5   Cloud Computing   379
7.6   A History of the Internet and the World Wide
Web   382
7.6.1  The Internet   382
7.6.2  The World Wide Web    387
Special Interest Box: Geography Lesson   388
Special Interest Box: Net Neutrality   389
7.7   Conclusion   390
EXERCISES   390
CHALLENGE WORK   393

Chapter 8 Information Security   394

Introduction   394
8.1  
Threats and Defenses   395
8.2  
8.2.1  Authentication and Authorization   396
Special Interest Box: The Metamorphosis of Hacking    397
Practice Problems   401
8.2.2  Threats from the Network    402
Special Interest Box: Beware the Trojan Horse    403
Special Interest Box: Your Money or Your Files    404
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xii Contents

Special Interest Box: Defense against the Dark Arts   406

Practice Problem   407
8.2.3  White Hats vs. Black Hats    407
8.3  Encryption   407
Special Interest Box: You’ve Been Hacked    408
8.3.1  Encryption Overview   409
8.3.2  Simple Encryption Algorithms   410
Practice Problems   412
Laboratory Experience 12   413
8.3.3  DES   413
Special Interest Box: Hiding in Plain Sight    413
8.3.4  Public-Key Systems   417
Special Interest Box: Quantum Computing vs. RSA    419
Practice Problem   419
8.4  Web Transmission Security   420
8.5  Embedded Computing   422
Special Interest Box: Mischief-Makers in the Internet
of Things   425
8.6  Conclusion   425
8.7  Summary of Level 3   426
EXERCISES   427
CHALLENGE WORK   429

LEVEL 4 The Software World   432

Chapter 9 Introduction to High-Level Language
Programming   434
The Language Progression   434
9.1  
Where
Do We Stand and What Do We
9.1.1  
Want?   435
9.1.2  Getting Back to Binary    438
9.2  A Family of Languages   439
Special Interest Box: Ada, C11, C#, Java,
and Python Online Chapters    439
9.3  Two Examples in Five-Part Harmony   440
9.3.1  Favorite Number   440
9.3.2  Data Cleanup (Again)   444
9.4   Feature Analysis   454
9.5   Meeting Expectations   454
9.6   The Big Picture: Software Engineering   463
9.6.1  Scaling Up   464
9.6.2  The Software Development Life Cycle    464
Special Interest Box: Vital Statistics for Real Code    466
9.6.3  Modern Environments   472
9.6.4  Agile Software Development   474

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents xiii

Special Interest Box: Software Engineering Failures    475

9.7  Conclusion   476
EXERCISES   477
CHALLENGE WORK   477

Online Chapters
This text includes five language-specific online-only downloadable
chapters on Ada, C++, C#, Java, and Python, available on the com-
panion site for this text (www.cengage.com) and in MindTap.

Chapter 10 The Tower of Babel: Programming

Languages   480
Why Babel?   480
10.1  
Procedural Languages   482
10.2  
Plankalkül   482
10.2.1  
10.2.2  Fortran   483
COBOL   484
10.2.3  
Special Interest Box: Old Dog, New Tricks #1    485
Practice Problems   486
Practice Problem   487
Special Interest Box: Uncle Sam Wants Who?   487
10.2.4  C/C11   488
Practice Problems   492
10.2.5  Ada   492
Practice Problem   493
10.2.6  Java   494
Practice Problem   496
10.2.7  Python   496
10.2.8  C# and .NET   497
Practice Problem   497
Special Interest Box: The “Popularity” Contest    498
Special Interest Box: Old Dog, New Tricks #2    500
Practice Problem   501
10.3  Special-Purpose Languages   501
10.3.1  SQL   501
10.3.2  HTML   502
Laboratory Experience 13   505
10.3.3  JavaScript   505
Special Interest Box: Beyond HTML   506
Special Interest Box: PHP   509
Practice Problems   509
10.3.4  R   510

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xiv Contents

Alternative Programming Paradigms   513

10.4  
Functional
10.4.1   Programming   513
Special Interest Box: It’s All in How You
Look, Look, Look, . . . at It    518
Practice Problems   519
Laboratory Experience 14   520
10.4.2  Logic Programming   520
Practice Problems   525
10.4.3  Parallel Programming   526
Special Interest Box: New Dogs, New Tricks    531
Practice Problems   532
10.5  New Languages Keep Coming   532
10.5.1  Go   532
Special Interest Box: Go is Going Places    533
10.5.2  Swift   534
10.5.3  Milk   535
10.6  Conclusion   535
EXERCISES   537
Challenge Work   540

Chapter 11 Compilers and Language Translation    542

Introduction   542
11.1  
The Compilation Process   545
11.2  
Phase
I: Lexical Analysis    546
11.2.1  
Phase
II: Parsing   550
11.2.2  
Practice Problems   550
Practice Problems   556
Practice Problems   567
11.2.3  Phase III: Semantics and Code
­Generation   568
Practice Problem   577
11.2.4   Phase IV: Code Optimization    577
Laboratory Experience 15   577
Special Interest Box: “Now I Understand,”
Said the Machine   582
11.3   Conclusion   583
EXERCISES   584
CHALLENGE WORK   587

Chapter 12 Models of Computation   588

12.1   Introduction   588
12.2   What Is a Model?   589
12.3  A Model of a Computing Agent   591
Properties
12.3.1  of a Computing Agent    591
Practice Problems   592
12.3.2  The Turing Machine   593
Special Interest Box: Alan Turing, Brilliant Eccentric    593
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents xv

Practice Problems   600
12.4   A Model of an Algorithm   602
12.5   Turing Machine Examples   604
12.5.1  A Bit Inverter   605
Practice Problems   607
12.5.2  A Parity Bit Machine    607
12.5.3  Machines for Unary Incrementing    610
Practice Problem   610
12.5.4  A Unary Addition Machine    614
Practice Problems   616
Laboratory Experience 16   616
12.6   The Church–Turing Thesis   617
Special Interest Box: The Turing Award    618
12.7   Unsolvable Problems   621
Special Interest Box: Couldn’t Do, Can’t Do, Never
Will Be Able to . . .    626
Practice Problems   626
Laboratory Experience 17   627
12.8   Conclusion   627
12.9   Summary of Level 4   628
EXERCISES   629
CHALLENGE WORK   633

LEVEL 5 Applications   636
Chapter 13 Simulation and Modeling   638
Introduction   638
13.1  
Computational Modeling   639
13.2  
Introduction
13.2.1   to Systems and Models    639
Computational
13.2.2   Models, Accuracy,
and Errors   642
13.2.3  An Example of Model Building    644
Practice Problems   653
Laboratory Experience 18   654
13.3  Running the Model and Visualizing Results   654
13.4   Conclusion   664
Special Interest Box: The Mother of All
Computations!   664
EXERCISES   665
CHALLENGE WORK   667

Chapter 14 Ecommerce, Databases, and Data

Science   670
Introduction   670
14.1  
Ecommerce   671
14.2  
Special Interest Box: Shopping on the Web    672
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xvi Contents

Decisions, Decisions   673
14.2.1  
Anatomy of a Transaction    675
14.2.2  
Special Interest Box: A Rose by Any Other Name. . .    677
14.2.3  Designing Your Website   680
Special Interest Box: Less Is More    682
14.2.4  Behind the Scenes   682
Practice Problems   683
14.2.5  Other Ecommerce Models   683
14.2.6  Electronic Payment Systems   685
Special Interest Box: Blockchain: A New Revolution?    687
14.3  Databases   688
14.3.1  Data Organization   688
14.3.2  Database Management Systems   690
14.3.3  Other Considerations   696
Special Interest Box: SQL, NoSQL, NewSQL    697
Practice Problems   698
Laboratory Experience 19   699
14.4  Data Science   699
14.4.1  Tools   700
Special Interest Box: Algorithm Bias   703
Practice Problem   704
14.4.2  Personal Privacy   704
Special Interest Box: What Your Smartphone
Photo Knows   705
14.4.3  For the Greater Good    706
14.5  Conclusion   707
EXERCISES   708
CHALLENGE WORK   711

Chapter 15 Artificial Intelligence   712

Introduction   712
15.1  
Special Interest Box: Victory in the Turing Test?    714
15.2  A Division of Labor   715
Special Interest Box: Predicted AI Milestones     718
15.3  Knowledge Representation   718
Practice Problems   722
15.4  Recognition Tasks   723
Special Interest Box: Brain on a Chip     728
Laboratory Experience 20   729
Practice Problems   730
15.5  Reasoning Tasks   730
15.5.1  Intelligent Searching   730
15.5.2  Swarm Intelligence   733
Special Interest Box: Robot Swarms   734
15.5.3  Intelligent Agents   734
15.5.4  Expert Systems   736

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 Contents xvii

Practice Problems   739
15.5.5  The Games We Play    739
15.6  Robots and Drones   744
15.6.1  Robots   744
Special Interest Box: Wait—Where Am I?    746
15.6.2  Drones   749
15.7  Conclusion   751
EXERCISES   752
CHALLENGE WORK   754

Chapter 16 Computer Graphics and Entertainment: Movies,

Games, and Virtual Communities   758
Introduction   758
16.1  
Computer-Generated Imagery (CGI)   761
16.2  
16.2.1  Introduction
to CGI   761
Special Interest Box: Computer Horsepower   763
16.2.2  How It’s Done: The Graphics
Pipeline   763
16.2.3   Object Modeling   764
16.2.4   Object Motion   767
Practice Problem   768
Practice Problem   772
16.2.5   Rendering and Display   772
16.2.6   The Future of CGI    775
16.3  Video Gaming   776
Special Interest Box: The Good, the Bad, and
the Ugly   780
16.4  Multiplayer Games and Virtual Communities   781
16.5   Conclusion   783
Special Interest Box: The Computer Will See You
Now   784
16.6   Summary of Level 5   785
Exercises   786
Challenge Work   788

LEVEL 6 Social Issues in Computing   790

Chapter 17 Making Decisions about Computers,
Information, and Society   792
Introduction   792
17.1  
Case Studies   793
17.2  
17.2.1  Case 1: Is It Sharing or Stealing?    793
Special Interest Box: Death of a Dinosaur    797
Practice Problems   800
Special Interest Box: The Sound of Music    801

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xviii Contents

17.2.2  Case
2: Legalized Snooping—Privacy vs.
Security   801
Special Interest Box: Hero or Traitor?    803
Practice Problems   809
Case 3: Hackers—Public Enemies
17.2.3  
or Gadflies?   809
Practice Problems   815
17.2.4  Case 4: Genetic Information
and Medical Research   815
Special Interest Box: Professional Codes of Conduct    821
17.3  Personal Privacy and Social Media   822
Practice Problems   826
17.4   Fake News, Politics, and Social Media   827
17.5   Conclusion   830
17.6   Summary of Level 6   830
EXERCISES   831

Answers to Practice Problems   833

Index   877

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 Preface to the Eighth
Edition

Overview
This text is intended for a one-semester introductory course in computer
science. It presents a broad-based overview of the discipline that assumes
no prior background in computer science, programming, or mathematics. It
would be appropriate for a college or university service course for students
not majoring in computer science, as well as for schools that implement
their first course for majors using a breadth-first approach that surveys the
fundamental aspects of computer science. It would be highly suitable for
a high school computer science course, especially the AP Computer Sci-
ence Principles course created by the College Board in cooperation with
the National Science Foundation and colleges and universities around the
United States.

The Non-Majors Service Course

The introductory computer science service course (often called CS 0) has
undergone numerous changes. In the 1970s and early 1980s, it was usu-
ally a class in FORTRAN, BASIC, or Pascal programming. In the mid-to-late
1980s, a rapid increase in computer use caused the service course to evolve
into something called “computer literacy,” in which students learned about
new applications of computing in fields such as business, medicine, law,
and education. With the growth of personal computers and productivity
software, a typical early to mid-1990s version of this course would teach
students how to use word processors, databases, spreadsheets, and email.
The most recent change was its evolution into a web-centric course in which
students learned to design and implement webpages using HTML, XML,
ASP, and Java applets.
In many institutions, the computer science service course is evolving
once again. There are two reasons for this change. First, virtually all col-
lege and high school students are familiar with personal computers and

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xx Preface to the Eighth Edition

productivity software. They have been using word processors and search
engines since elementary school and are familiar with social media, online
retailing, and email; many have designed webpages and even manage their
own websites and blogs. In today’s world, a course that focuses on comput-
ing applications would be of little or no interest.
But a more important reason for rethinking the structure of the CS 0
service course, and the primary reason why we authored this book, is the
following observation:
Most computer science service courses do not teach students the foun-
dations and fundamental concepts of computer science!
We believe that students in a computer science service course should receive
a solid grounding in the fundamental concepts of the discipline, just as
introductory courses in biology, physics, and geology present the central
concepts of their fields. Topics in a breadth-first computer science service
course would not be limited to “fun” applications such as webpage creation,
blogging, game design, and interactive graphics, but would also cover foun-
dational issues such as algorithms, abstraction, hardware, computer organi-
zation, system software, language models, and the social and ethical issues
of computing. An introduction to these core ideas exposes students to the
overall richness and beauty of the field and allows them not only to use
computers and software effectively, but also to understand and appreciate
the basic ideas underlying the discipline of computer science and the cre-
ation of computational artifacts. As a side benefit, students who complete
such a course will have a much better idea of what a major or a minor in
computer science will entail.
This last point was the primary reason for the development of the AP
Computer Science Principles high school course, which is quite similar to
the breadth-first overview model just described. By learning about the field
in its entirety, rather than seeing only the small slice of it called “program-
ming,” high school students will be in a better position to decide if computer
science is a subject they wish to study when they begin college.

The First Course for Majors

Since the emergence of computer science as an academic discipline in the
1960s, the first course in the major (often called CS 1) has usually been an
introduction to programming—from Fortran to BASIC to Pascal, and, later,
C++, Java, and Python. But today there are numerous alternatives, including
a breadth-first overview. A first course for computer science majors using the
breadth-first model emphasizes early exposure to the field’s sub-­disciplines
rather than placing exclusive emphasis on programming. This gives new
majors a complete and well-rounded understanding of the field, including
the concepts and ways of thinking that are part of computer science.
Our book—intended for either majors or non-majors—is organized around
this breadth-first approach as it presents a wide range of subject matter
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 Preface to the Eighth Edition xxi

drawn from diverse areas of computer science. However, to avoid drowning

students in a sea of seemingly unrelated facts and details, a breadth-first
presentation must be carefully woven into a coherent fabric, a theme, a “big
picture” that ties together the individual topics and presents computer sci-
ence as a unified and integrated discipline. To achieve this, our text divides
the study of computer science into a hierarchy of six subareas, called layers,
with each layer building upon concepts presented in earlier chapters.

A Hierarchy of Abstractions
The central theme of this book is that computer science is the study of
­algorithms. Our hierarchy utilizes this definition by initially looking at the
algorithmic foundations of computer science and then moving upward from
this central theme to higher-level issues such as hardware, systems, software,
applications, and ethics.
The six levels in our computer science hierarchy are:
Level 1. The Algorithmic Foundations of Computer Science
Level 2. The Hardware World
Level 3. The Virtual Machine
Level 4. The Software World
Level 5. Applications
Level 6. Social Issues in Computing

Level 1
Following an introductory chapter, Level 1 (Chapters 2–3) introduces “The
Algorithmic Foundations of Computer Science,” the bedrock on which all
other aspects of the discipline are built. It presents fundamental ideas such as
the design of algorithms, algorithmic problem solving, abstraction, pseudo-
code, and iteration and illustrates these ideas using well-known examples. It
also introduces the concepts of algorithm efficiency and asymptotic growth
and demonstrates that not all algorithms are, at least in terms of running
time, created equal.
The discussions in Level 1 assume that our algorithms are executed by
something called a “computing agent,” an abstract concept for any entity
that can carry out the instructions in our solution.

Level 2
However, in Level 2 (Chapters 4–5), “The Hardware World,” we want our
algorithms to be executed by “real” computers to produce “real” results.
Thus begins our discussion of hardware, logic design, and computer orga-
nization. The initial discussion introduces the basic building blocks of com-
puter ­systems—binary numbers, Boolean logic, gates, and circuits. It then
shows how these elementary concepts can be combined to construct a real
computer using the Von Neumann architecture, composed of processors,
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xxii Preface to the Eighth Edition

memory, and input/output. This level presents a simple machine language

instruction set and explains how the algorithmic primitives of Level 1,
such as assignment and conditional, can be implemented in machine lan-
guage and run on the Von Neumann hardware of Level 2, conceptually
tying together these two areas. It ends with a discussion of important new
directions in hardware design—multicore processors and massively parallel
machines.
By the end of Level 2, students have been introduced to basic concepts
in logic design and computer organization, and they can appreciate the
complexity inherent in these ideas.

Level 3
This complexity is the motivation for the material contained in Level 3
(Chapters 6–8), “The Virtual Machine.” This section describes how system
software is used to create a user-friendly, user-oriented problem-solving
environment that hides many of the ugly hardware details just described.
Level 3 looks at the same problems discussed in Level 2, encoding and
executing algorithms, but shows how this can be done easily in a virtual
environment containing helpful tools like a graphical user interface, editors,
language translators, file systems, and debuggers. This section discusses the
services and responsibilities of the operating system and how it has evolved.
It investigates one of the most important virtual environments in current
use, computer networks, and shows how technologies such as Ethernet, the
Internet, and the web link together independent systems via transmission
media and communications software. This creates a virtual environment in
which we seamlessly and transparently use not only the computer on our
desk or in our hand, but also computing devices located around the world.
This transparency has progressed to the point where we can now use sys-
tems located “in the cloud” without regard for where they are, how they
provide their services, and even whether they exist as real physical entities.
Level 3 concludes with a look at one of the most important services provided
by a virtual machine, namely information security, and describes algorithms
for protecting the user and the system from accidental or malicious damage.

Level 4
Once we have created this powerful user-oriented virtual environment, what
do we want to do with it? Most likely we want to write programs to solve
interesting problems. This is the motivation for Level 4 (Chapters 9–12), “The
Software World.” Although this book should not be viewed as a program-
ming text, it contains an overview of the features found in modern procedural
programming languages. This gives students an appreciation for the inter-
esting and challenging task of the computer programmer and the power of
the problem-solving environment created by a modern high-level language.
(More detailed introductions to five important high-level programming lan-
guages are available via online, downloadable chapters accessible through
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface to the Eighth Edition xxiii

MindTap, as well as at www.cengage.com.) There are many different language

models, so Level 4 also includes a discussion of other language types, includ-
ing special-purpose languages such as SQL, HTML, JavaScript, and R, as well
as the functional, logic, and parallel language paradigms. An introduction to
the design and construction of a compiler shows how high-level languages
can be translated into machine language for execution. This latter discussion
ties together numerous ideas from earlier chapters, as we show how an algo-
rithm (Level 1), expressed in a high-level language (Level 4), can be compiled
and executed on a typical Von Neumann machine (Level 2) using system
software tools (Level 3). These “recurring themes” and frequent references to
earlier concepts help reinforce the idea of computer science as an integrated
set of topics. At the conclusion of Level 4, we introduce the idea of comput-
ability and insolvability to show students that there are provable limits to
what programs, computers, and computer science can achieve.

Level 5
We now have a high-level programming environment in which it is possible
to write programs to solve important problems. In Level 5 (Chapters 13–16),
“Applications,” we take a look at some important uses of computers. There is
no way to cover more than a fraction of the many applications of computers
and information technology in a single section. We have included applica-
tions drawn from the sciences and engineering (simulation and modeling),
business and finance (ecommerce, databases, data science), the social sci-
ences (artificial intelligence), and everyday life (computer-generated imag-
ery, video gaming, virtual communities). Our goal is to show students that
these applications are not “magic boxes” whose inner workings are totally
unfathomable. Rather, they are the direct result of building upon the core
concepts of computer science presented in the previous chapters.

Level 6
Finally, we reach the highest level of study, Level 6 (Chapter 17), “Social
Issues in Computing,” which addresses the social, ethical, moral, and legal
issues raised by pervasive computer technology. This section, based on con-
tributions by Professor Bo Brinkman of Miami University, examines issues
such as the theft of intellectual property, national security concerns, the
erosion of personal privacy, and the political impact of the proliferation of
fake news distributed using social media. This chapter does not attempt to
provide easy solutions to these many-faceted problems. Instead, it focuses
on techniques that students can use to think about ethical issues and reach
their own conclusions. Our goal in this final section is to make students
aware of the enormous impact that information technology is having on our
society and to give them tools for making informed decisions.
This, then, is the hierarchical structure of our text. It begins with the
algorithmic foundations of the discipline and works its way from lower-
level hardware concepts through virtual machine environments, high-level
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Other documents randomly have
different content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Oyster:
Where, How and When to Find, Breed, Cook
and Eat It
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: The Oyster: Where, How and When to Find, Breed, Cook
and Eat It

Author: Eustace Clare Grenville Murray

Release date: January 1, 2018 [eBook #56285]

Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Larry B. Harrison and the Online

Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file
was
produced from images generously made available by
the
Library of Congress)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE OYSTER:

WHERE, HOW AND WHEN TO FIND, BREED, COOK AND EAT IT ***
 ANCIENT NATIVES OF BRITAIN, ENCAMPED NEAR
COLCHESTER.

(From a curious Glyptic in possession of the Author.)

 THE OYSTER;
WHERE, HOW, AND WHEN
TO
FIND, BREED, COOK,
AND
EAT IT.

LONDON:
TRÜBNER & CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW.
MDCCCLXI.
 LONDON:
WILLIAM STEVENS, PRINTER, 37, BELL YARD,
TEMPLE BAR.
 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

THE OYSTER IN SEASON.

The R. canon correct; Alimentary Qualities of

the Oyster; Profitable Investment; Billingsgate,
and London Consumption; English Oyster-beds;
Jersey Oysters; French Oyster-beds on the
Coast of Brittany 9

CHAPTER II.

ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

The Ancients; Oysters a Greek and Roman

Luxury; Sergius Orata, and the Oyster-beds of
Baia; Immense Consumption at Rome; Failure
of the Circean and Lucrinian Oyster-beds under
Domitian, and Introduction of Rutupians from
Britain; Agricola, Constantine, and Helena;
Athenian Oysters, and Aristides. 21

CHAPTER III.

MODERN HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

Fall of the Rutupian Supremacy; Louis IV. and
William of Normandy; Conquest of England,
and Revival of Oyster-eating in England; The
Oyster under Legal Protection; American
Oysters 24

CHAPTER IV.

THE OYSTER AT HOME.

Its Nature, Colour, and Structure; Natural Food;

Perception of the changes of Light; Uses of the
Celia; Fecundity and Means of Propagation;
Age; Fossil Oysters in Berkshire and in the
Pacific; Power of Locomotion 28

CHAPTER V.

THE OYSTER IN ITS NEW SETTLEMENT.

Dredging for Oysters; Oyster-beds and their

formation; Sergius Orata; Pliny the Elder; Baia
and the Lucrine Sea; Roman Epicurism and
Gluttony; Martial and Horace, Cicero and
Seneca; Masticate Oysters, and do not bolt
them whole; Mediterranean and Atlantic
Oysters; Agricola and the Rutupians; Apicius
Cœlius, Trajan, Pliny, and the Vivarium 37

CHAPTER VI.

THE OYSTER ON ITS TRAVELS.

The Isle of Sheppey, the Medway, and
Whitstable; Milton, Queenborough, Rochester,
and Faversham Oysters; Colchester and Essex
Beds; Edinburgh Pandores and Aberdours;
Dublin Carlingfords and Powldoodies; Poole and
its Oyster-bank; Cornish Oysters and the
Helford Beds; Poor Tyacke, and How he was
Done; Dredgers and their Boats; Auld Reekie's
Civic Ceremonial; Song of the Oyster; its
Voyage to Market, and Journey by Coach and
Rail 45

CHAPTER VII.

THE OYSTER AT ITS JOURNEY'S END.

Oyster Stalls; How to Open the Oyster; an

Oyster Supper; Beer, Wines, and Spirits;
Roasted, Fried, Stewed, and Scolloped Oysters;
Oyster Soup, and Oyster Sauce; Broiled
Oysters; Oyster Pie; Oyster Toast; Oyster
Patties; Oyster Powder; Pickled Oysters; Oyster
Loaves; Oyster Omelet; Cabbage, Larks, and
Oysters; and Frogs and Oysters 54

CHAPTER VIII.

THE OYSTER AND THE DOCTOR.

Oyster-eating in Prussia; Disgusting Wagers; 68

Oysters better than Pills, A Universal Remedy;
Professional Opinions; When Ladies should eat
them; Repugnance overcome; Oysters as an
External Application; Chemical Analysis; How to
tell if Dead before Opening

CHAPTER IX.

THE OYSTER ABROAD.

British Oysters in Ostend Quarters; the

Whitstable in a Slow Coach; Holstein,
Schleswig, and Heligoland Natives; Norwegian
and Bremer Oysters; American Oysters; French
Oysters; Dutch Oysters; Mediterranean Oysters
and Classical Judges 75

CHAPTER X.

"THE TREASURE OF AN OYSTER."

Sweet names given to Pearls; Barry Cornwall

Proctor's lines; Component parts of Pearls;
Mother-of-pearl; How Pearls are formed,
Sorrows into Gems; Their nucleus; Sir Everard
Home and Sir David Brewster; Curious shapes
and fancy Jewellery; Pearl Fisheries; Bahrein
Island and Bay of Candalchy; Miseries of the
Divers; Pearls as Physic; Immense value of
recorded Pearls; A Perle for a Prince; Most
precious Pearls 82
THE OYSTER
 CHAPTER I.

THE OYSTER IN SEASON.

The R. canon correct; Alimentary Qualities of the Oyster; Profitable Investment;

Billingsgate, and London Consumption; English Oyster-beds; Jersey Oysters;
French Oyster-beds on the Coast of Brittany.

F the Millions who live to eat and eat to live in

this wide world of ours, how few are there
who do not, at proper times and seasons,
enjoy a good oyster. It may not be an
ungrateful task, therefore, if I endeavour to
inform them what species of animal the little
succulent shell-fish is, that affords to man so
much gastronomical enjoyment—how born
and bred and nurtured; when, and where;
and, lastly, how best it may be eaten,
whether in its living and natural state, or
having undergone the ordeal of cooking by
the skill of a superior artist.
I have oftentimes been told that it is a mere question of
fastidiousness, or fashion, that oysters should be served for human
food only at a certain fixed period of the year—those months
possessing the letter r being proverbially the only months when the
oyster is fit for human food. Why not, such reasoners have said, eat
oysters all the year round? Life is short. Why not obtain the first of
gastronomical enjoyments every month of the year and every day of
the month? I can in no manner go with these opinions, either from
my practical knowledge of the oyster, or from any just reasoning.
I am aware that there are many good men and true, and others
calling themselves, somewhat erroneously, sportsmen, beyond the
white cliffs of Britain, who would eat an oyster on the hottest day of
June and July as they would a partridge, a pheasant, or a salmon at
any season of the year. Sufficient the names oyster, partridge,
pheasant—all gastronomical delights—all to be eaten, and by them
eaten whensoever and wheresoever served, what matters it? I am
also aware that in our good City of London, in the hottest and
earliest days of August,[1] oysters are gulped down by the thousand:
it is, nevertheless, an error—a revolting, unhealthy, unclean error—
which ought to be denied, both at home and abroad, by the strong
hand of the law.
I, for my part, utterly and entirely ignore fish or fowl of the game
species, as fit for human food during the seasons of breeding; and
although an oyster may be eatable in August, if the month be hot it
is rarely fresh; and what is more disgusting or more likely to be
injurious to man than a stale oyster? That which I have said,
however, on the oyster in this little book which I offer to the million
—for the million are interested in the subject—will, I hope, induce
those who have hitherto broken through a rule strictly adhered to by
all gastronomes, to abstain in future; and those who have hitherto
enjoyed oyster-eating, fearlessly to eat on and secure the first and
foremost of all gastronomical indulgences provided for man—only in
due season.
On the 25th of July, says Brand, the antiquary, being St. James
the Apostle's Day, the priests of old were wont to bless apples; and a
popular belief too, in 1588, though generally ignored in the more
enlightened days in which we live, was, that whoever ate oysters on
that day would not be without money for the remainder of the year.
This is very probable, for without they were selected with great care,
disease and even death might follow. This conjunction of apples and
oysters on St. James's Day may have suggested Bianca's remark in
the "Taming of the Shrew," when comparing the resemblance of the
old Pedant to that of Vincentio, which she remarks was as complete
as that of an oyster to an apple.
One must, therefore, take care not to eat oysters during the
months of June and July, because they are unwholesome on account
of the spawning-time; and also be careful in their selection in
August. There are instances when persons, after having eaten
oysters during these months, have become ill, and have even died.
Last summer, at Ostend, thirty persons were taken ill in consequence
of having eaten oysters in the month of July. They are, during these
months, very thin, and without taste; in the month of September
they become again fat and eatable, which may be accounted for by
the fact of their being self-generated. The strength of the poor
oysters is entirely spent in fattening themselves, in order the more
to tickle the palate of the epicure in the proper season.
Now let us proceed to open the oyster.
The Oyster! The mere writing of the word creates sensations of
succulence—gastronomical pleasures, nutritive food, easy digestion,
palatable indulgence—then go sleep in peace!
Lobster salads, beef and veal, truffles and chestnuts, all good in
their way, are, nevertheless, attended with evil consequences to the
human frame.
But oysters—ye pleasant companions of the midnight hours, or the
mid-day feast; is there a man, woman or child in all Europe—ay, or
in Asia, Africa, or America—who does not owe you a debt of
gratitude which they repay to the full by the enjoyment of your
society tête-à-tête? You are eaten raw and alive, cooked and
scolloped, in sauce and without sauce. True, true, oh oyster! thou
art the best beloved of the loved!
The oyster, when eaten moderately, is, without contradiction, a
wholesome food, and one of the greatest delicacies in the world. It
contains much nutritive substance, which is very digestive, and
produces a peculiar charm and an inexplicable pleasure. After having
eaten oysters we feel joyous, light, and agreeable—yes, one might
say, fabulously well. He who has eaten for the first time oysters is
best enabled to judge of this; for, soon after having eaten them, he
will experience a sensation he never felt before, and never had an
idea of. This sensation scarcely remains with people who eat oysters
every day; it is more practically felt when oysters are eaten for
breakfast or before dinner, although they are also very wholesome in
the evening, when taken moderately. Gourmets and epicures eat the
oyster in its natural state, except that the beard is taken away. In
England it is eaten with pepper, in Holland with vinegar, in Germany
frequently with lemon-juice; but I am of the opinion, and am
convinced, that when taken with the liquor they still contain, they
are more digestible and more tasty. The opinion that this fluid is salt
water, is an error; it is the white blood of the oyster itself, which it
emits when injured in having its upper shell broken off. If it were
sea-water, it would have a disagreeable bitter taste, and cause
sickness; but as this does not take place, but on the contrary gives a
fine taste to the oyster, the error is evident. The error appears to
arise from the fact that unconscientious oyster dealers wash the
oysters with salt and water in order to give them a better
appearance, as they say.
"The oyster," says a writer in No. 824 of the "Family Herald"—that
most agreeable of all window-seat books—"is a species of food
combining the most precious alimentary qualities. Its meat is soft,
firm, and delicate. It has sufficient flavour to please the taste, but
not enough to excite to surfeit. Through a quality peculiar to itself, it
favours the intestinal and gastric absorption, mixing easily with other
food; and, assimilating with the juices of the stomach, it aids and
favours the digestive functions. There is no other alimentary
substance, not even excepting bread, which does not produce
indigestion under certain given circumstances, but oysters never.
This is a homage due to them. They may be eaten to-day, to-
morrow, for ever, in profusion; indigestion is not to be feared, and
we may be certain that no doctor was ever called in through their
fault. Of course we except cooked oysters. Besides their valuable
digestive qualities, oysters supply a recipe not to be despised in the
liquor they contain. It is produced by the sea-water they have
swallowed, but which, having been digested, has lost the peculiar
bitterness of salt water. This oyster-water is limpid, and slightly
saline in taste. Far from being purgative, like sea-water, it promotes
digestion. It keeps the oysters themselves fresh, prolongs their life
for some time until it is destroyed in our stomachs, or until the
oyster has been transformed into a portion of ourselves."
The degree of importance which different persons attach to
matters connected with the world in which we live, depends, of
course, in a great measure, on the manner in which they view them.
One person considers a loving wife, and four hundred a year,
wealth and happiness; another would be miserable without four
thousand, and could dispense with the wife. Some consider a post
with five thousand a year a tolerable means of existence; others a
commissionership with twelve hundred. Some seek a good
consulship; others, till they have travelled from St. Petersburg and
back in a telega, or sledge, half a dozen times during mid-winter, use
the interest, which in other days would have secured a snug
governorship, even in the Island of Barataria, to obtain a queen's
messenger's place. At least so it used to be. Whether competitive
examinations will lead to our having the right man in the right place,
the round pegs in round holes, and the square pegs in square ones,
still remains to be seen. And so is it with most things in life, whether
personal or gastronomical. Different men are of different opinions;
some like apples, and some like—onions; but I have scarcely ever
yet met with the man who has refused a thoroughly good oyster.
There is not a man, however unobservant, but knows that oysters
are a great source of profit to some of that multitude which rises
every morning without knowing exactly how, when, and where it
shall dine. Billingsgate in the oyster season is a sight and a caution.
Boats coming in loaded; porters struggling with baskets and sacks;
early loungers looking on—it is so pleasant to see other people work
—buyers and cheapeners, the fish salesman in his rostrum, the
wealthy purchaser who can lay out his hundreds and buy his
thousands—all to be met with, together with that noise and bustle,
and, far beyond it, all that incredible earnestness which always
distinguishes an English market.
Oysters, says Dryasdust, in his very useful commercial work—in
which, however, he makes alarming mis-statements—oysters are
consumed in London in incredible quantities, "and notwithstanding
their high price, are largely eaten by the middle and lower classes!"
Thanking Dryasdust for his information, and being one of the
great middle class ourselves, we can safely assert that oysters are
not high in price. Fancy being able to purchase twelve succulent
dainties for one six-pence at Ling's or Quin's, at Proctor's or Pim's, or
any other celebrated shell-fish shop! Twelve "lumps of delight," as
the Mussulman—not mussel man—calls his sweetmeats! and then
fancy Dryasdust saying that they are high in price! Oh shame, where
is thy blush!
A farm of four acres, if well handled, may give occupation, and
even bring pecuniary gain, to the possessor. A garden, for those who
thoroughly understand and enjoy it, may secure untold pleasures,
and perhaps help to pay the rent of the cottage. But an "oyster-bed"
is a pleasure—an el dorado—a mine of wealth, in fact, which fills the
owners' pockets with gold, and affords to the million untold
gastronomical enjoyment and healthy food. On the money part of
the question, the Scientific and Useful column of Number 825 of the
"Family Herald" furnishes the following information: "A very
interesting report has been recently made to the French Government
on the results of experiments made for the improvement of oyster-
beds. The locality chosen was the Bay of St. Brieux, on the coast of
Brittany. Between March and May, 1859, about 3,000,000 oysters,
taken from different parts of the sea, were distributed in ten
longitudinal beds in the above bay. The bottom was previously
covered with old oyster shells and boughs of trees arranged like
fascines. To these the young oysters attach themselves, and so
fruitful are the results that one of the fascines was found at the end
of six months to have no less than 20,000 young oysters on it. The
report further states that 12,000 hectares may be brought into full
bearing in three years at an annual expense not exceeding 10,000
francs."
M. Laviciare, Commissary of the Maritime Inscription, in his 1860
report to M. Coste, of the success of these operations in the Bay of
St. Brieux, states that "a recent examination has fully and
satisfactorily proved the advantageous results obtained on the five
banks which have been laid down, and which have exceeded the
most sanguine expectations. Three fascines, which were taken up
indiscriminately from one of the banks formed in June, 1859,
contained about 20,000 oysters each, of from one inch to two inches
in diameter. The total expense for forming the above bank was
221f.; and if the 300 fascines laid down on it be multiplied by
20,000, 600,000 oysters will be obtained, which, if sold at 20f. a
thousand, will produce 120,000f. If, however, the number of oysters
on each fascine were to be reckoned at only 10,000, the sum of
60,000f. would be received, which, for an expenditure of only 221f.
would give a larger profit than any other known branch of industry."
But the breeding and fattening of the London oyster has long
been a lucrative branch of trade, of which Cockaine may well be
proud. It is carried on "contagious" to London, as Mrs. Malaprop
would say—principally in Essex and Kent. The rivers Crouch,
Blackwater, and Colne are the chief breeding places in the former,
and the channel of the Swale and the Medway in the latter. These
are contiguous to Milton; hence Dibdin's song, and hence also the
corruption of "melting hoysters;" melting they are too. The
corruption is classical, so let it stand.
Exclusive of oysters bred in Essex and Kent, vast numbers are
brought from Jersey, Poole, and other places along the coast, and
are fattened in beds. The export of oysters from Jersey alone is very
considerable, having amounted on an average of the four years
ending with 1832[2] to 208,032 bushels a year. The Jersey fishing
then employed, during the season, about 1500 men, 1000 women
and children, and 250 boats. Think of this, ye oyster-eaters! Think
that ye are doing—such is the wise ordination of an overruling
Providence—some good when you are swallowing your ante-prandial
oyster, and are giving employment to some portion of those 3000
people who work for you at Jersey, besides helping to feed the cold-
fingered fishmonger, who, with blue apron and skilful knife, tempts
you to "Hanother dazzen, sir?"
Of the quantity of oysters consumed in London we cannot give
even an approximate guess. It must amount to millions of bushels.
Fancy, if you can, also, that curiously courteous exchange which
goes on every Christmas between our oyster-eating country cousins
and our turkey and goose-loving Londoners. To the man
"Who hath been long in city pent,
'Tis very sweet to gaze upon the fair
And open brow of heaven;—to breathe a prayer
Full in the face of the blue firmament"—

sings John Keats. Oh, if he had been but an oyster-eater, that article
from the "Quarterly," savage and slaughterly, would not have killed
him; but it is also very sweet to gaze upon a turkey, a leash of birds,
a brace of pheasants, and, as Mrs. Tibbetts hath it, "a real country
hare." Such a present is promptly repaid by a fine cod packed in ice,
and two barrels of oysters. How sweet are these when eaten at a
country home, and opened by yourselves, the barrel being paraded
on the table with its top knocked out, and with the whitest of
napkins round it, as we shall presently have occasion to show. How
sweet it is, too, to open some of the dear natives for your pretty
cousin, and to see her open her sweet little mouth about as wide as
Lesbia's sparrow did for his lump of—not sugar, it was not then
invented—but lump of honey! How sweet it is, after the young lady
has swallowed her half dozen, to help yourself! The oyster never
tastes sweeter than when thus operated on by yourself, so that you
do not "job" the knife into your hand! True labour has a dignity
about it. The only time when I, who have seen most people, from
Tom Thumb to the Benicia Boy, from Madame Doche to the Empress
Eugenie, and from manly, sea-going Prince Alfred to the Staleybridge
Infant and Jemmy Shaw's "Spider"—the only time, I say, that I have
ever seen a nobleman look like a nobleman, was when a noble duke,
a peer not only of England and Scotland, but of la belle France also,
owned that he could do two things better than most people, and
that was, open oysters and polish his own boots. I, like Othello,
when he upbraided Iago for the last time, "looked down to his feet,"
but found that it was no fable.
So important is our illustrious bivalve as an article of trade, that it
is protected by law. It is said that the only two things that George
the Fourth ever did—the great Georgius, whom Mr. Thackeray envies
and satirises—were to invent a shoe-buckle and an exquisite hair-
dye. The brains of the black Brunswicker could do no more. But
there is one act also—an Act of Parliament[3]—which was passed in
his reign, for which he is to be thanked. The man who was at once
the Lucullus and Apicius of his times must have had some hand in
the framing of that Act.
 CHAPTER II.

ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

The Ancients; Oysters a Greek and Roman Luxury; Sergius Orata and the
Oyster-beds of Baia; Immense Consumption at Rome; Failure of the Circean and
Lucrinian Oyster-beds under Domitian, and Introduction of Rutupians from Britain;
Agricola, Constantine, and Helena; Athenian Oysters and Aristides.

H orace, Martial, and Juvenal, Cicero and Seneca, Pliny, Ætius, and
the old Greek doctor Oribasius, whom Julian the Apostate
delighted to honour, and other men of taste amongst the ancients,
have enlarged upon the various qualities of the oyster; and was it
not to Sergius Orata that we owe our present oyster-beds; for he it
was who introduced layers or stews for oysters at Baia, the Brighton
of ancient Rome, as we have them at present. That was in the days
when luxury was rampant, and when men of great wealth, like
Licinius Crassus, the leviathan slave merchant, rose to the highest
honours; for this dealer in human flesh in the boasted land of liberty,
served the office of consul along with Pompey the Great, and on one
occasion required no less than 10,000 tables to accommodate all his
guests. How many barrels of oysters were eaten at that celebrated
dinner, the "Ephemerides"—as Plutarch calls "The Times" and
"Morning Post" of that day—have omitted to state; but as oysters
then took the place that turtle-soup now does at our great City
feeds, imagination may busy itself if it likes with the calculation. All
we know is, that oysters then fetched very long prices at Rome, as
the author of the "Tabella Cibaria" has not failed to tell us; and then,
as now, the high price of any luxury of the table was sure to make a
liberal supply of it necessary, when a man like Crassus entertained
half the city as his guests, to rivet his popularity.
But the Romans had a weakness for the "breedy creatures," as our
dear old friend Christopher North calls them in his inimitable
"Noctes." In the time of Nero, some sixty years later, the
consumption of oysters in the "Imperial City" was nearly as great as
it now is in the "World's Metropolis;" and there is a statement, which
I recollect to have read somewhere, that during the reign of
Domitian, the last of the twelve Cæsars, a greater number of millions
of bushels were annually consumed at Rome than I should care to
swear to. These oysters, however, were but Mediterranean produce
—the small fry of Circe, and the smaller Lucrinians; and this
unreasonable demand upon them quite exhausted the beds in that
great fly-catcher's reign; and it was not till under the wise
administration of Agricola in Britain, when the Romans got their far-
famed Rutupians from the shores of Kent, from Richborough and the
Reculvers—the Rutupi Portus of the "Itinerary," of which the latter,
the Regulbium, near Whitstable, in the mouth of the Thames, was
the northern boundary—that Juvenal praised them as he does; and
he was right: for in the whole world there are no oysters like them;
and of all the "breedy creatures" that glide, or have ever glided down
the throats of the human race, our "Natives" are probably the most
delectable. Can we wonder, then, when Macrobius tells us that the
Roman pontiffs in the fourth century never failed to have these
Rutupians at table, particularly, feeling sure that Constantine the
Great, and his mother, the pious Helena, must have carried their
British tastes with them to Rome at that period.
The Greeks have not said much in praise of oysters; but then they
knew nothing of Britain beyond its name, and looked upon it very
much in the same light as we now regard the regions of the
Esquimaux; and as to the little dabs of watery pulps found in the
Mediterranean, what are they but oysters in name? Indeed, the best
use the Athenians could make of them was to use their shells to
ostracise any good citizen who, like Aristides, was too virtuous for a
"Greek." However, on the plea that oysters are oysters, we presume
—for it could not be on account of their flavour—"oysters," says the
author of the "Tabella Cibaria," "were held in great esteem by the
Athenians." No doubt when Constantine moved the seat of the
Empire from Rome to Constantinople, he did not forget to have his
Rutupians regularly forwarded; so, perhaps, after all it was our
"Natives," which thus found their way into Greece, that they
delighted in; and if so, the good taste of the Athenians need not be
called into question; but, as in literature and the arts, in oyster-
eating too, it deserves to be held up to commendation.
 CHAPTER III.

MODERN HISTORY OF THE OYSTER.

Fall of the Rutupian Supremacy; Louis IV. and William of Normandy; Conquest
of England, and Revival of Oyster-eating in England; The Oyster under Legal
Protection; American Oysters.

W ith the fall of the Empire came also the fall of the Rutupian
supremacy; and even the Roman Britons, driven into Brittany
and the mountains of Wales by their truculent Saxon persecutors,
had to forego these luxuries of the table, unless, perhaps, Prince
Arthur and his knights may now and then have opened a bushel
when they were seated over their wine in that free and easy circle,
which has become so celebrated as to have formed a literature of its
own. From the fourth century, to which Macrobius brought us, to the
reign of Louis IV. of France, the history of the oyster is a blank; but
that king revived the taste for our favourite, and during his captivity
in Normandy brought it again into request with his conqueror, Duke
William; so, when the Normans invaded England under William the
Conqueror—the descendant of that Duke William, little more than a
century later—they were not long in finding out how much Kentish
and Essex oysters were preferable to those of France.
Since then the Oyster has held its own against all comers, as one
of the most welcome accessories to the table of rich and poor, and
has been protected in his rights and immunities by various Acts of
Parliament. "In the month of May oysters cast their spawn," says an
old writer in the "Transactions of the Royal Society," "which the