AGR 2201 GENERAL AGRICULTURE 2021/2022 SESSION

Agriculture is derived from Latin words Ager and Cultura. Ager means land or field and Cultura
means cultivation. Therefore the term agriculture means cultivation of land. i.e., the science and
art of producing crops and livestock for economic purposes. It is also referred as the science of
producing crops and livestock from the natural resources of the earth. The primary aim of
agriculture is to cause the land to produce more abundantly, and at the same time, to protect it
from deterioration and misuse. It is synonymous with farming–the production of food, fodder
and other industrial materials.
BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE
Crop production - It deals with the production of various crops, which includes food crops,
fodder crops, fibre crops, sugar, oil seeds, etc. It includes agronomy, soil science, entomology,
pathology, microbiology, etc. The aim is to have better food production and how to control the
diseases. Horticulture - Branch of agriculture deals with the production of flowers, fruits,
vegetables, ornamental plants, spices, condiments (includes narcotic crops-opium, etc., which
has medicinal value) and beverages.
Agricultural Engineering - It is an important component for crop production and horticulture
particularly to provide tools and implements. It is aiming to produce modified tools to facilitate
proper animal husbandry and crop production tools, implements and machinery in animal
production.
Forestry - It deals with production of large scale cultivation of perennial trees for supplying
wood, timber, rubber, etc. and also raw materials for industries.
Animal Husbandry – is the management and care for farm animals.
Fishery Science - It is for marine fish and inland fishes including shrimps and prawns.
Home Science - Application and utilization of agricultural products in a better manner. When
utilization is enhanced production is also enhanced.

Scope of agriculture
Agriculture has been the primary occupation of human beings, It provides a variety of products –
(crops) that are essential for humankind. Agriculture not only supports humans for their
subsistence, but helps a large number of industries too.

Agriculture forms the raw material for numerous farm products based industries. The basic
products, resulting from agricultural activities, are processed in big factories, before the final
product is marketed. As such, agriculture generates employment, both for people working in the
farming sector as well as those in the industrial, agriculture-based sector.

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Agriculture is not just limited to crop cultivation, dairy farming has become an indispensable
part of the agricultural process. Dairy farming is the practice of farming in which cattle are kept
for milk and milk products. Oftentimes, poultry is also included. In fact, the scope of agriculture
has widened, with interrelated sectors over-lapping one another; and in the present scenario, each
of these sectors is as important as any other!

History of agriculture

Excavations, legends and remote sensing tests reveal that agriculture is more than 10,000 years
old. Women by their intrinsic insight first observed that plants come up from seeds. Men
concentrated on hunting and gathering during that time. Women were the pioneers for cultivating
useful plants from the wild flora. They dug out edible roots and rhizomes and buried the small
ones for subsequent harvests. They used animal meat as main food and their skin for clothing. A
primitive form of agriculture in which people working with the crudest of tools, cut down a part
of the forest, burnt the underneath growth and started new garden sites. After few years, when
these plots lost their fertility or became heavily infested with weeds or soil-borne pests, they
shifted to a new site (this is known as shifting cultivation). During 18th century, modern
agriculture started with crop sequence (crop rotation), organic recycling, introduction of exotic
crops and animals, use of farm implements in agriculture etc. During 19th century, research and
development (R&D) in fundamental and basic sciences were brought under applied aspects of
agriculture. Agriculture took the shape of a teaching science. Laboratories, farms, research
stations, research centres, institutes for research, teaching and extension (training and
demonstration) were developed. Books, journals, popular and scientific articles, literatures were
introduced. New media, and audio-visual aids were developed to disseminate new research
findings and information to the rural masses. Today Present Day Agriculture 21st Century)
agriculture is not merely production oriented but is becoming a business consisting of various
enterprises like livestock (dairy), poultry, fishery, piggery, sericulture (silk worm production to
produce silk), apiary, plantation cropping etc. Now, a lot of developments on hydrological,
mechanical, chemical, Genetical and technological aspects of agriculture are in progress.
Governments are apportioning a greater share of national budget for agricultural development.
Small and marginal farmers are being supplied with agricultural inputs on subsidy.

Importance of agriculture
For decades, agriculture has been associated with production of essential food crops. At present,
agriculture above and beyond farming includes forestry, dairy, fruit cultivation, poultry, bee
keeping, mushroom, arbitrary, etc. Today, processing, marketing and distribution of crops and
livestock products etc. are all acknowledged as part of current agriculture. Below are the
importances of agriculture:

 A shift in monoculture economy i.e. diversifying from over reliance on crude oil.

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  Provision of food and raw materials through development of agriculture to the Nigeria
teaming population and the development of the manufacturing sector respectively. Which
in turn will also discourage heavy dependence on importation.
 Agriculture sector is also capable of reducing the country's level of unemployment on the
account that the sector is labour intensive.
 Agriculture will also curb the effect of rural-urban migration which will help to
decongest the urban areas and make life easier for people both in the rural or urban area.
 Agriculture will also help the government to make more effort in developing the
degrading infrastructural facilities throughout the nation in attempt to ease movement of
goods from one location to the other, likewise for preservation of Agricultural output.
 Development of the Agriculture sector will also help in improving other sectors.

Source of Livelihood:The main source livelihood of many people is agriculture. Approximately

70 % of the people directly rely on agriculture as a mean of living.
Contribution to National revenue: Agriculture is the main source of national income for most
developing countries. However, for the developed countries, agriculture contributes a smaller per
cent age to their national income.
Supply of Food as well as Fodder: Agricultural sector provides fodder for domestic
animals .Cow provides people with milk which is a form of protective food. Moreover, livestock
also meets people’s food requirements.
Significance to the International Trade: Agricultural products like sugar, tea, rice, spices,
tobacco, coffee etc. constitute the major items of exports of countries that rely on agriculture. If
there is smooth development practice of agriculture, imports are reduced while export increases
considerably. This helps to reduce countries unfavorable balance of payments as well as saving
foreign exchange.
Marketable Surplus: The growth of agricultural sector contributes to marketable surplus. Many
people engage in manufacturing, mining as well as other non- agricultural sector as the nation
develops. All these individuals rely on food production that they might meet from the nation’s
marketable surplus. As agricultural sector development takes place, production increases and this
leads to expansion of marketable surplus.
Source of Raw Material: The main source of raw materials to major industries such as cotton
and jute fabric, sugar, tobacco, edible as well as non-edible oils is agriculture. Moreover, many
other industries such as processing of fruits as well as vegetables and rice husking get their raw
material mainly from agriculture.
Significance in Transport: Bulks of agricultural products are transported by railways and
roadways from farm to factories. Mostly, internal trade is in agricultural products. Moreover, the
revenue of the government, to a larger extent, relies on the success of agricultural sector.
Foreign Exchange Resources: The nation’s export trade depends largely on agricultural sector.
For example, agricultural commodities such as jute, tobacco, spices, oilseeds, raw cotton, tea as
well as coffee accounts for approximately 18 % of the entire value of exports of a country. This

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demonstrates that agriculture products also continue to be important source of earning a country
foreign exchange.

Great Employment Opportunities: Construction of irrigation schemes, drainage system as well

as other such activities in the agricultural sector is important as it provides larger employment
opportunities. Agriculture sector provides more employment opportunities to the labor force that
reduce the high rate of unemployment in developing countries.

Economic Development: Since agriculture employs many people it contributes to economic

development. As a result, the national income level as well as people’s standard of living is
improved. Therefore, economic development relies on the agricultural growth rate.

Source of Saving: Development in agriculture may also increase savings. The rich farmers we
see today started saving particularly after green revolution. This surplus quantity may be invested
further in the agriculture sector to develop the sector.

Food Security: A stable agricultural sector ensures a nation of food security. The main
requirement of any country is food security. Food security prevents malnourishment that has
traditionally been believed to be one of the major problems faced by the developing countries.
Most countries rely on agricultural products as well as associated industries for their main source
of income.
AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

In all agricultural production systems, the multitude of cultural operations which enhance
optimum crop yields also impact on the farm environment in particular, and the macro-
ecosystems in general. Even in intensive agriculture, the advanced technologies of farming and
livestock production such as land preparation, conventional tillage, pesticide and fertilizer
application for producing good-quality crops also have adverse effects on the natural
environment. In the poultry industry, extensive odours from huge piles of faecal droppings cause
serious pollution of the environment.

However, agricultural activities cause serious environmental problems because they alter the
natural ecosystem, and in the process, produce harmful by-products. The ultimate consequence
of the alteration is the degradation of ecosystems through the following adverse effects:

 This arises from the reduction of forests and other habitats after farming as well as the
reduction in genetic diversity and increased vulnerability of high yielding varieties to
pests which thus necessitate heavy pesticide use.

 Increasing contamination of waterways and wetlands by excess nitrogen and phosphorus

release to rivers and lakes.

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  Fertilizer application leads to soil salinization.

 Detrimental effects of inappropriate and heavy use of pesticides (herbicides, fungicides,

insecticides, other biocides) such as contamination of food and environment, and health
hazards to farmers.

 Pest resistance to agro-chemical pesticides is currently very appreciable, necessitating the

development of more effective, but hazardous chemicals and their mixtures.

 Large-scale slash-and-burn techniques of subsistence farming result in nutrient-poor soil,

especially in tropical forest environments. It is particularly ecologically destructive of the
forest integrity.

 Extraction of biomass in harvests of wood or charcoal diminishes further growth of any

vegetation type due to poor residual soil productivity.

 Soil Erosion and Sedimentation: Further problems are caused by soil erosion and
sedimentation. Soil is comprised of many layers and it is only the topmost layer that can
support farming or grazing. Due to inefficient farming practices, this soil is left open for
erosion and leads to declining fertility each year.

 Intensive agriculture depletes soil fertility over time, and potentially leads to
desertification. Unfortunately, further growth of any vegetation type is practically
impossible for future generations.

 Global climate changes, especially global warming due to excess CO2 and NO2
emissions into the atmosphere
 Animal wastes animal husbandry especially poultries cause to negative effects on
environment because of manure, urine, animal and animal products processing wastes.
These organic wastes contaminate to soil and stream beside dust, gas and smell effects on
environment Animal wastes play an important role in environmental pollution.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF TROPICAL AGRICULTURE AND

HOW THEY AFFECT PRODUCTION

Tropical agriculture has the potential of high production due to factors such as abundant
exposure to sunlight and high temperatures. The amount of sunlight received in tropical and sub-
tropical locations is about twice that of temperate areas. A number of natural conditions in
tropical areas may render rational and modern agriculture a difficult, uncertain and technically
demanding business.

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Abundant sunshine may be reduced because most of it coincides with periods without
precipitation and soil moisture. Without irrigation, optimization of the sunlight is therefore very
difficult in many areas. In periods of rainfall, the amount of sunlight is no higher in the tropics
than in temperate areas, because of the cloud cover.

The pattern of precipitation is generally characterized by separate rainy and dry seasons, but it is
also marked by significant and unpredictable variation.

When the rainfall occurs, it may be very heavy and concentrated in time, causing problems such
as e.g. runoff and soil erosion.

Strong winds may also lead to damage to crops and soil. Strong winds combined with heavy
rainfall may increase the abrasive effect of the rain, and warm steady winds may dry the soil out
and blow away fine particles (wind erosion). Tropical soils show great variation.

A widespread common property is low content of nutrients and organic substances, and high
acidity. The soil may have great difficulty retaining organic nutrients, and certain types of soil
bind the nutrients so that they become inaccessible to plant roots.

Heavy rainfall and a significant percolation of water through the various layers of soil may lead
to leaching of nutrients to layers below the root zone of the cultivated plants. The downward
transport often involves the deposit of minerals in specific strata where compact layers of soil
gradually develop, stopping the plant roots' downward penetration into the soil (pan formation,
hardpan). This hardpan also obstructs the movement of water from deeper layers upwards to the
root zone, making the soil susceptible to drought. Tropical agricultural production is also
characterized by a range of biotic problems, e.g. weeds, pests, viruses, bacteria, fungi, etc. The
extent and intensity of these problems is often far greater than in temperate areas.

On top of natural factors such as climatic, soil-related and biological conditions come social
frameworks which may inhibit increases in production and development in agriculture. Taken
together, the combination of all of these features makes maintaining fertility and production
levels in tropical agriculture more demanding and often more expensive than in temperate areas.
Certain types of modern farming system are particularly vulnerable under such conditions.

LAND USE AND TENURE

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 Land Use

Nigeria’s total land area is 92.4 m ha. About 91 m ha of this is suitable for cultivation. Also,
approximately half of this cultivable land is effectively under permanent and arable crops
while the rest is covered by forest wood land, permanent pasture and built-up areas. The use
of land can generally be divided into two major groups. Those are the agricultural
uses and non-agricultural uses.

1 Agriculture: In Nigeria, most land is used for farming. Land can be used for the following
agricultural production:

i. Crop production: the most important use of land for agricultural purpose
is the cultivation of crops. Such crops include: food crops, tree crops,
fruits, vegetables, fiber crops etc.

ii. Animal production: Animal rearing requires the use of land for
grazing as well as for the provision of shelter for the non-ruminant
animals. For grazing purpose land can be used to produce pasture and
forage for feeding livestock. In some places animals are allowed to graze
on nature pasture.

iii. Fishery: Apart from the natural water for fishing, artificial lakes and
ponds are constructed on land for the purpose of rearing fish.

iv. Forestry: Large areas of land are used for the establishment of agro-
forestry. Some areas that are not suitable for arable crops production can
be converted to forest. Generally, forest can be established in poor
land and land that is under dispute between two communities

v. Wildlife Conservation: many areas of land in Nigeria are reserved for

wildlife management. Wildlife conservation is necessary to preserve
some species of wild animals and prevent them from extinction.

2 Non-agricultural land: The use of land for housing, roads, railways, sea-ports, airports,
reservoirs, shops, industries and warehouses. Others are military installations, offices,
hospitals, parks and wildlife resorts. Non-agricultural land use involves a small
proportion of total land area in Nigeria, in spite of the increasing population and
industrial growth.

Factors Causing Changes in the Usage of Agricultural Lands

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 i. The establishment of forest reserves.

ii. Road and railway construction.

iii. Construction of houses, hospitals, office complexes and nonagricultural structures

essential for human welfare, which commands some prices on land sale by the
farmer.

iv. Population growth and the need to increase food crop production for consumption and
export earnings for national development.

Land tenure
Land tenure is defined as the system of land ownership by individuals, family, community or
government agency either for temporary use or as permanent property. Land tenure is the system
of land holding in any given society. It is also define as the holding of land or the right to hold
land.
The concept of land tenure has been described as a systematization of the rules which
function by specifying what different classes of persons may or may not must or must not do,
with reference to the occupancy, use, abuse or disposition of land. Such rules define the
privileges and obligations, the rights and duties of persons in relation to each other, with
reference to land. The system of land tenure also sets out the method of administration with
regard to acquisition, distribution, exploitation and use of specific portions of land.

Classes of Land Tenure System

i. Communal Land Tenure: The land belongs to the entire community, as represented
by a family, a village, or a clan. This is a typical traditional practice in Nigeria. Every
member of the community is entitled to a piece of the land for agriculture. Also,
allottees have the freedom to grow choice crops, to use the land for any purpose and
freedom to make desired improvements on the land without restriction. However, the
individual allotted can neither sell any part of the land nor under normal
circumstances, transfer the land to a stranger. The land tenure system involves a small
population of users and subsistence farming, which hampers mechanization and
economic exploitation in spite of abundance of land.

ii. Inheritance Land Tenure: This involves the acquisition of land by inheritance from
parent(s) or generation to generation. In Nigeria, most agricultural lands are acquired
through inheritance.

iii. Leasehold System: This system involves the payment of a certain amount of money
for the use of the land over a specified period of time.

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 iv. Rent Land Tenure: This system involves the payment of a certain amount of money
as rent for the use of a land by a farmer over a short period of time.

v. Individual Land Tenure: This involves the ownership of a piece of land by an

individual through either freehold or rent tenancy.

MEASURES OF IMPROVING NIGERIAN AGRICULTURE

There are problems affecting the development of agriculture with particular reference to
Nigeria. Some of the problems highlighted include:- land tenure system, infrastructural
amenities, finances, transportation, communication, storage facilities, processing
facilities, illiteracy level of farmers, extension services, tools and farm machines,
government polices and programmes, marketing systems, pest and diseases, production
uncertainties, farm inputs, altitudes towards farming, environmental degradation,
customs, poverty and farmers organizations. we shall discuss the solutions to the above
problems.

The Nigeria government and other developing countries of the world have realized the
importance of agriculture in their overall economy development and are taking steps to
eliminate these problems. The following are some of the steps taking by Nigerian
government and other agencies connected with the development of agriculture:-

 Land use Decree: Land use decree vested all land ownership on the hand of
government rather than individuals; the decree was promoted to assist
prospective and genuine landless farmers. With this decree the problem of land
tenure supposed to be over. What is left to be done now is the enforcement of the
law in the rural areas. The law is only effective in the urban centers where land is
demanded for building purpose and not for agricultural purposes.

 Provision of Infrastructural Facilities: One of the major problems of

agricultural development identified was lack of infrastructural amenities
especially in the rural areas. Government should provide good access roads to
the areas of food production to facilitate the transportation of the farm
products to the urban areas. The farming communities should have electricity,
water, health care facilities, schools and recreational centers to make life more
pleasant for the farmers and hence prevent or reduce drift to the urban centers.

 Formation of Cooperative Societies: Cooperative society is a voluntary

organization, formed, owned and organized by farmers for their mutual benefits.

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 Government should therefore encourage the farmers to form themselves into
cooperative bodies that can carry out farming on a large scale. By this they
will be better organized, better financed and more credit-worthy to financial
institutions than individual farmers.

 Provision of Credit Facilities: The establishment of the Nigerian Agricultural

and Rural Development Bank (NARDB) to cater for farmers credit need is in
the right direction government should ensure that the rural farmers benefit
from the credit facilities of this bank. Government should also ensure that the
loan facilities are not diverted to other sectors. Governments should also assist
farmers in obtaining loans by ordering the commercial banks and other financial
institutions to grant some loans to the farmers without demanding the usual
collateral which the government can guarantee for them.

 Establishment of Efficient Communication System: Efficient communication

systems will combine with extension service in the dissemination of modern
agricultural information to farmers. In this regard government can establish
radio stations and television stations. In addition substantial time should be
alloted to agricultural programmes. News papers and magazines should be
established by the ministries of agriculture and Agricultural Development
Project (ADP). All these measures will ensure efficient dissemination of
agricultural information to the grassroots.

 Efficient Transportation System: The services of government Transportation

Corporation should not be limited to urban centres only. The rural dwellers
should also benefit from their services, government can also assist the farmers
to transport their perishable produce such as meat, eggs, vegetables, milk etc
to the markets by providing them with refrigerated vehicles which are too
expensive to be purchased or maintained by individual farmers.

 Provision of Storage Facilities: Government should assist farmers in building

storage houses for their surplus produce. Government can also buy these
surplus produce, store them scientifically and market them during scarcity
seasons. Government can also build cold rooms in the rural areas with generating
set attached to them. This will assist in the storage of fresh and perishable
produce. Government should also establish processing centers in the villages to
take care of agricultural products. Government can buy the raw materials from
the farmers for processing. Alternatively, government can allow the farmers
the use of the machines at a reduce price.

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 Mass Literacy Programmes: In order to minimize the level of illiteracy
among farmers, government should establish adult education centers in the
villages. The centers should be well equipped to encourage farmers to attend. At
the end of the programme certificate should be awarded to those who successfully
completed the course. Such programmes will afford the farmers the
opportunity to go to school without necessarily disrupting their farming
activities. Through the programme farmers will now be able to read and write
on their own. Education has helped to minimize the effect of some of the
custom and the superstitious practices of the local farmers.

 Promotion of Agricultural Education: The teaching of agricultural science in

all primary and post primary schools all over the country must be encouraged
or even enforced. This will create an awareness of the significance of agriculture
in national economy.

 Extension Education: Government should establish a well organized and

functional agricultural extension services to carry the result of agricultural
researches to our farmers. A functional extension services will ensure that
farmers are organized and occasionally films and slides on different aspects of
modernized agriculture are shown to them. Through extension services farmers
are taught to adopt better cultural practices and minimize loss of soil fertility
through erosion and leaching.

 Establishment of More Research Institutes: Government should establish

more research institutes to cater for all aspects of agricultural production. The
existing agricultural research institutes should be expanded so that they can
carry out the necessary researches and develop new varieties of seeds and
breeds or strains of livestock that will yield better results.

 Provision of Subsidies on Farm Inputs : Government should assist in the

production and introduction of improved seeds and more productive, disease
resistant animals for use by farmers. Agricultural subsidies should be given to
the farmers by selling the necessary farm inputs such as fertilizers,
insecticides, fungicides and animal drug to the farmers at heavily subsidized
rates. Subsidies involve selling at much lower rate than the real cost of
purchase or production in order to encourage a large number of the farmers
who are poor to buy and use them. The same thing applies to farm tools.

 Establishment of Tractor Hiring Centers: Government should establish a

tractor hiring centers that will service the needs of farmers, particularly the large-
scale ones. By so doing, farmers can mechanize their farms without buying the

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 tractors and other heavy machineries and equipment. When such tractor-hiring
units are existence, government must ensure that they have in stock a good
consignment of spare parts of various types to keep the machines in operation.

CLIMATIC, EDAPHIC AND SOCIAL FACTORS IN RELATION TO CROP

PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION IN NIGERIA

Climatic factors

Climate, especially rainfall, is one of the three most important aspects of the physical
environment which notably influence Nigerian agriculture. Climatic factors play a significant
role in determining the onset of the cropping season, cropping pattern and systems and the
number of crops cultivatable by farmers in various ecological zones of Nigeria. These
climatic factors include:

Rainfall: is the main source of moisture supply to the soil for the activation of plant growth
and replenishment of water in rivers to allow irrigation operation, Rainfall also helps build-
up of underground water reserves which are later tapped by wells in dry area through seepage
and percolation, and influence on soil/water/plant relationships.

The amount, incidence, variation and reliability of rainfall determine differences in cropping
pattern in various ecological zones in Nigeria. Excessive rainfall (when total rainfall is
greater than 2540 mm per year in the south) adversely affects crop production through high
run-off, soil erosion, leaching, nutrient losses, waterlogging, vigorous vegetative growth or
weed infestation, and general disruption of agricultural activities. While Inadequate rainfall
(when total rainfall is less than 250 mm per year in the north) makes crop growth impossible
for most of the year except, with irrigation.

Temperature: Temperature is one of the major factors limiting the distribution of plants
and animals on a global scale. It is of secondary importance in influencing
evapotranspiration, photosynthesis and soil warming. The effects of temperature on farming
system include
rapid soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition due to high microbial activities and increased
rates of biochemical reactions, high temperatures enhance the incidence of pathogens and
pests, it has effects on plant life processes such as seed germination, pollination, flowering
etc.

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Solar radiation: Solar radiation is essentially important during photosynthesis, which
utilizes visible light to produce dry matter from water and CO2. Solar radiation is very
important in determining the final yield of some crops in areas of adequate water supply.

Relative humidity: It is a measure of the dampness of the atmosphere. High relative

humidity increases disease incidence on cropped farms and reduces the crop’s ability to
intercept solar radiation. Contrarily, low relative humidity leads to high evapotranspiration
and transpiration which eventually cause wilting of crop stands.

Daylength/Photoperiod: This indicates the length or duration of sunlight hours per day.
It is variable due to the apparent movement of the sun either on the northern or the southern
hemisphere. Daylength affects flowering and tuber formation, vegetative development, seed
germination and timing of agricultural operations such as planting, harvesting and type of
crops to plant. On the basis of photoperiod, there are three groups of plants, namely long-day
plants (those that flower under daylength of less than 14 h., e.g. Irish potato); short-day
plants (those that are induced to flower under daylength of less than 10 h., e.g. sweet potato,
maize, soybean); and day-neutral plants (those that are not induced by daylength e.g.
cowpea).

EDAPHIC FACTORS

These are abiotic factors relating to physical and chemical composition of soil of a particular
area. Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth which supports the growth of higher plants,
mainly by providing a medium for plant roots and supplying elements that are essential to the
entire plant. Crop productivity is strongly dependent on physical and chemical conditions of
the soil.

Physical Soil Factors Affecting Crop Production

These include the soil’s texture, structure, porosity and bulk density.

Soil Texture: This is defined as the relative proportions of the sand, silt, clay and
gravel/stone particles (composition) in the soil. The soil texture influences the water-holding
capacity, temperature, drainage and nutrient retention capacity of the soil. Soils are classified
into light (sandy), medium (loamy) or heavy types (clay).

Soil Structure: This is defined as the arrangement of the particles (sand, silt, clay) in the
soil. It influences the soil tilth, root growth and development, gaseous exchange/aeration,
drainage, water infiltration into the soil, and efficiency of water and nutrient uptake by plants
(through capillary conductivity) Soil structure can be improved by addition of decomposable

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OM (e.g. farmyard manure, FYM), crop roots and crop residues. Heavy machinery causes
damage to soil structure in wet soil, especially heavy clay soils.

Soil Porosity: This is defined as the percentage volume filled with air when the soil is
fully drained of saturated water. The pore sizes include micropores (smallest pores
containing only water which rarely dries out and is unavailable for crop uptake); mesopores
(middle-sized pores containing water available to plants and which allow free aeration of the
soil); and macropores (pores greater than 0.1 mm in diameter, can drain easily to allow in air
after full wetting of the soil). Soil porosity influences the infiltration of water into the soil,
water-holding capacity, drainage and aeration of the soil aggregates; these properties have
significant influence on the SOM status.

Soil Bulk Density: This is mass of soil per unit volume of the soil. It is determined by the
volume of pore spaces in the soil; the more the pore spaces, the lower the bulk density, and
vice versa for high bulk density or soil compaction. Soil bulk density affects the workability
of the soil, especially with respect to mechanical cultivation, and especially in dry weather.
No tillage or minimum tillage is also strongly affected by soil compaction.

Soil Water: Water is held in the soil in three forms, namely:

i. Hygroscopic water (water adsorbed from the atmosphere and held very tightly by the
soil particle , so it is unavailable to plants in amount sufficient for them to survive).

ii. Capillary water (this is the water that remains in the soil after gravitational water
drains out, it is held in the meso pores of the soil and held against forces of gravity) it
is the main water that is available to plants as it is trapped in the soil solution right
next to plant roots

iii. Gravitational water (is soil water moving through the soil as influenced by
gravitation.it passes through the macropres and it is not available for plant); and

Soil water is very critical to root for absorption of essential nutrients from the soil, soil
temperature, and microbial soil activities, organic matter decomposition, etc. The farm soil
needs to be at field capacity always to ensure optimal growth and development.

Chemical Factors of Soil Affecting Crop Production

The soil chemical characteristics are of primary importance in crop nutrition. They include

Soil Organic Matter (SOM)

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 Soil organic matter is any material produced originally by living organisms (plant or animal)
that is returned to the soil and goes through the decomposition process. It consists of a range
of materials from the intact original tissues of plants and animals to the substantially
decomposed mixture of materials known as humus. Most soil organic matter originates from
plant tissue. SOM increases soil fertility by providing cation exchange sites and acting as
reserve of plant nutrients, especially nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), along
with micronutrients, which are slowly released upon SOM mineralization.

Soil pH

This indicates the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil. It is significant in determining the
soil chemical reactions. Soil acidity is caused by carbonic acid in rainfall water, organic acids
from microbial breakdown of organic matter (OM), ammonia from nitrification, and loss of
calcium in drainage and crop removal. Liming helps to correct soil acidity; liming materials
include calcium carbonate(CaCO3), CaO, Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) and Magnesian
limestone while sulphur is used to correct alkalinity. It is necessary to analyse the soil pH
regularly to determine the lime requirement

Available plant nutrients

Plant nutrients are of three main forms, namely macro-, meso-and micro-nutrients. The
macro-nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) are primarily important in crop growth,
because they are required in large quantities. The meso-nutrients are calcium, magnesium
and sulphur. The micronutrients are required in minute quantities but are also important for
the normal growth of some crops and certain physiological processes, namely enzyme
systems, protein and carbohydrate metabolism, nitrogen fixation, chlorophyll formation, pod
maturation and production, growth hormones and starch forms. They include copper,
molybdenum, chlorine, boron, manganese, zinc and iron.

Social factors

These are human factors and include labour, capital, technology, land tenancy, mechanization
and equipment, transportation facilities, market (nearness to market centers and crop demand by
buyers) and government (political).

SYSTEM OF CROP FARMING TYPES

Cropping systems originated from the pre-historic era of subsistence agriculture but have
systematically transformed into highly advanced, specialized and diverse systems which

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essentially guarantee soil sustainability for adequate food production, agricultural productivity
and environmental preservation.

Types of Cropping Systems

Nomadic Herding: This system is common in the arid regions where low rainfall prevents the
cultivation of crops on a large scale. Therefore, animal husbandmen herd their livestock from
place to place in search of green pasture (especially grass) and water. This practice is referred to
as “transhumance pastoral nomadism”.

Bush Fallowing: This is a type of subsistence agriculture in which land is cultivated for a period
of time and then left uncultivated for several years so that its fertility will be restored.
Sometimes, the fallow fields were used for pasturage for animals, which had the incidental
benefit of fertilizing the soil.

Reasons for this are lack of a suitable alternative for soil fertility sustenance and crop production
and higher frequency of cultivation.

Shifting Cultivation: In this system, a piece of land is cultivated for a few years and when the
soil is showing exhaustion in form of poor crop yields, the farmer abandons the land and moves
to another, more productive site for cultivation. Unlike bush fallowing, shifting cultivation in
addition to periodic rotation of fields, involves an occasional movement of settlements with
cultivated fields. It is the most common system of subsistence farming, and specifically
incorporates slash-and burn practice (the cutting and burning of forests or woodlands to create
fields for agriculture or pasture for livestock). The advantages include keeping the soil
sufficiently fertile when there is abundant available land for farming and preventing the spread of
insect pests, other pests and plant pathogens.

Mixed/Multiple Cropping System: These involve the simultaneous cultivation of two or more
crops on the same piece of land in atleast a part of the growing season. No organization or
sequence of crop planting is required in this system. Significant advantages include security of
food and income and the maintenance of soil productivity, through prevention of soil erosion and
weed interference and soil nitrogen fixation by legume components.

Continuous Cropping: This is a modern cropping system in which the same piece of land is
cultivated year-in-year-out. The system is a response to frequent human population pressure and
unavailability of arable land. Chemical fertilization and organic manuring are very critical
practices for soil fertility sustenance.

Crop Rotation: This is the practice of growing a well-planned series of dissimilar and specific
types of crops in the same space in sequential seasons to avoid the build-up of pathogens and

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pests that often occur in continuous cropping of a plant species. No two crops subject to similar
diseases follow each other within the disease’s incubation period while the rotation makes it
more difficult for emerging insect pests to find their preferred food, either above or below the
soil. The general purposes of crop rotation are

Improvement or maintenance of soil fertility through the use of green manure in sequence with
cereals and other crops; reduction of soil erosion, reduction of the build-up of pests and
pathogens, thereby reducing reliance on chemical pest and disease control, reduction of the risk
of weather damage, reduction of the reliance on agricultural chemicals. Generally, these combine
to give immediate economic benefit through improved crop yields, while allowing the farmers to
keep their fields under continuous production. This limits the need for bush fallowing as well as
expensive chemical fertilizers.

Monocropping: This is a modern cropping system in which different but specific crops are
grown on the same piece of land in a logical or scientific sequence. The component crops are
selected on the basis of complementary or supplementary relationship; deep soil feeders (e.g.
yams) should follow shallow soil feeders (e.g. maize. The system is chemical intensive, and
problematic because farmers practice a lot of deforestation and shorter fallowing.

Alley Cropping: This involves managing parallel single or multiple rows of perennial woody
plants with annual agronomic and horticultural crops, and forage crops planted in the wide
interspaces (alleys) of the woody species. Advantages of alley cropping are high soil fertility
from both nitrogen fixation trees (NFTs) and green manure from decomposing periodic mulch
prunings, and weed suppression by hedgerow canopy cover and mulch. This also reduces the
demand on chemical fertilizers.

Mixed Farming: This system involves the complementary raising of crops (arable agriculture)
and livestock (pastoral farming). In a typical mixed farm, a farmer may cultivate pasture or
maize to feed some of the animals while the animals provide traction and transportation services
as well as manure. The manure (additional droppings, wastes) facilitates soil improvement which
ultimately improves crop yields.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL FARMING

The ultimate objectives of livestock production are adequate supply of good-quality animal
products and by-products, which not only assures of huge profits on investment but also
sustains livestock production systems. This makes it highly imperative to adopt highly
efficient principles and practice of livestock production, especially in the selection of the
breeder stock. The following are the principles of animal farming;

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1 Selection of Good Animals: The best start for good livestock management lies in the
selection of good animals for the farm. The selection of farm animals depends on a number
of factors, including Heredity- The parents of the farm animals, especially the sire (male),
has to be well known and must be of proven stock with superb economic and performance
record. Health- The animal must be healthy. Age- The younger the animals, the better and
cheaper and the more the opportunity for maximum production. Fertility and fecundity-
Where an animal is to be used for breeding, it is important to select one from a well-known
herd or very fertile and fecund animals. Conformation or body-build- It is advisable to
select an animal on the basis of good conformation by examining the essential parts of the
animal in relation to the purpose of keeping the farm animal such as Dairy production, Meat
production, Egg production etc.

2 Feeding: Different kinds of farm animals have different organs for food digestion, and
these dictate the kind of food they eat. On the basis of the food they eat, farm animals can be
classified as herbivores (feed on plant materials); carnivores (feed on animal flesh); and
omnivores (feed on both plant and animal materials). The quantity and quality of food fed to
animals is very important in animal management. Food should be regular, fed fresh and
contain the relevant nutrients (water, carbohydrate, fats and oil, protein, vitamins, minerals)
for the development of the animal.

3 Housing: Housing of farm animals is a very important aspect of good livestock

management. Farm animals are housed to protect them from wild beasts, theft, strong wind,
rain, intense direct sunshine, pathogens and pests.

4 Disease Control in Farm Animals: Livestock diseases are of paramount importance to

farmers because of their economic effects. Livestock diseases constitute a major factor for
poor animal performance. They cause loss of production through death and frequently, a loss
of body condition. Animals are born free of diseases or parasites but they usually acquire
these maladies through contact with diseased animals, improper sanitation and improper
management, feeding and care. Many diseases are transmissible between classes of animals
and from classes of animals to Man (zoonotic diseases) e.g. Bird flu, rabies, mad cow
disease.

5 Pasture Establishment: Pastures are established in order to provide a favourable

environment for seed germination, seedling emergence and growth of planted vegetative
material in relation to initiation of new roots and shoots; to destroy or control the growth of
unwanted, competitive plants and to remove unproductive plants to facilitate re-seeding of
the pasture species.

6 Pasture Management: The main aims of good pasture management are to obtain
maximum herbage yield with the highest possible nutritive value throughout the year at the

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 lowest possible cost; to keep pasture productive and prevent any overall decline in quality; to
ensure efficient utilization of forages and convert the feed to saleable products such as meat
and milk, and to maintain a good grass-legume balance in the pasture. Pastures are managed
during establishment following planting and after establishment or in established pasture.

7 Grazing Management: This aims at obtaining and maintaining high production of

consistently good-quality forage, maintain a favourable balance between different herbage
species in the pasture, achieve efficient utilization of forage and high animal production. The
choice of grazing systems depends on climate, topography, forage species and intensity of
grazing.

8 Forage Conservation: This is one important way of improving animal performance during
periods of forage scarcity and dry months, whereby excess herbage/fodder and forage crops
such as cereals and legumes are kept for future livestock feeding.

DISTRIBUTION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF FARM ANIMALS

Farm animals vary widely in their spatial distribution across ecozones in Nigeria. The main
livestock types in Nigeria are cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, horses and poultry. There are
two rearing systems of livestock, namely domestic system involving the rearing of animals in
small numbers by thousands of households, and large herds of cattle reared by nomadic and
semi-nomadic peoples.

Types of Livestock

Domestic Livestock Keeping: Domestic livestock is widely distributed among households,

being kept by a large proportion of rural households. Poultry, goats and sheep are the most
widely distributed in that order of households rearing them. Contrarily, the proportion of the
rural households keeping cattle is surprisingly low, this is primarily because cattle are not easy to
handle by small households.

Goat Distribution: Goats are widely distributed in the country. The reasons for this are the
convenience of women and children in caring for them, their ability to survive in nutritional
environments that are incapable of supporting other livestock types, their ability to survive on
supplementary feeds or fodder (collected grain, tree foliage) and the ease of sheltering them in
verandas of houses. However, goats are more preponderant in northern Nigeria especially in
Kano, Katsina, Bornu and Bauchi areas, than in the southern Nigeria.

Sheep Distribution: Most of the sheep are reared in northern Nigeria, with the highest numbers
in Borno, Bauchi, Adamawa, Taraba and Kano States. environmental conditions influence the
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type, size and number of sheep found in different parts of the country. This accounts for the
preponderance (excess) of the dwarf, shortlegged breeds in the south, the medium-sized breed in
the savanna areas, the Fulani herds and rural households.

Other Livestock: The distribution of poultry, donkeys, camels, horses shows regional
variations. Camels are commonest in the tsetsefree areas of the Sudan and Sahelian zones.
Poultry is more widespread in northern Nigeria than in southern Nigeria, where the local breeds
in northern Nigeria are specially adapted to the temperature conditions. The number of swines
(pigs) kept by Nigerian households is relatively small, compared to that of goats and sheep. Their
distribution is also particularly restricted to northern Nigeria, due to the predominantly Muslim
population which abhor the eating of pork for religious reasons. Also, many parts of the Sudan
zone of northern Nigeria are too dry for pigs, which require a humid environment.

Cattle distribution: About 94% of the country’s cattle population is found in northern Nigeria,
with most of the cattle being concentrated in the Sudan and Sahelian ecological zones. The main
cattle-producing areas of Nigeria are found in Sokoto, Katsina, Kano and Bornu Provinces in
northern Nigeria. . The five main concentration areas are the Sokoto-Rima valley, the Kano-
Katsina complex, northern, central and eastern Borno State, the Mambila plateau and the Jos
plateau.

Factors which influence the distribution of cattle are

Incidence of tsetse fly: This accounts for the main distribution of cattle in tsetsefree areas of the
Sudan zone during the wet season.

Availability and adequacy of pastures: The reason for this is that the pastures in the Sudan
zone provide sufficient nutrients for cattle for only 3-5 months of the year, and fall below
maintenance level in the dry season. Cattle are therefore moved generally southwards to the
Guinea savanna areas in search of better grazing and water.

SIGNIFICANCE OF FARM ANIMALS

Farm animals are kept for the purpose of the following;

Meat: Meat presents a source of high quality protein in human diet, which is essential for body
building and repairs.

Milk: It is also a very valuable source of high-quality protein. Food by-products of milk such as
ghee, butter and cheese are highly desired sources of protein in human diets.

Eggs: These are produced by poultry, and they serve as a very good source of protein in man’s
diet.

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Farm Work Farm animals serve as a good source of power, especially in rural communities
where there are no motorable roads. Oxens (cows, bulls, bullocks) can be trained to draw
ploughs, harrows, cultivators and carts.

Transportation: Donkeys, horses, buffalo, bullocks and mules are used to transport farm inputs,
farm workers and loads of farm produce to both farm settlements and markets.

Other significance of farm animals include; provision of skin and hides for industrial
manufacture of leather; ii. extractions from internal organs of farm animals such parts as liver,
pancreas, intestine, gall bladder, etc. used in making drugs in pharmaceutical industries; iii.
provision of animal fats used in making soap, lubricating oil and drugs; iv. provision of hooves
and horns used in industrial production of gelatin, glues, buttons, combs and other kitchen
household equipment; v. provision of manure (e.g. farmyard droppings, excrements) used as
alternative fertilizer materials to inorganic fertilizers in crop farms; and vi. as a source of
household income when livestock and livestock products are sold. In pre-urban areas and rural
settings, livestock farmers keep animals primarily to meet their daily expenditures. Livestock
keeping also offers huge employment opportunities.

PLACES OF FORESTRY, FISH FARMING AND WILDLIFE IN AGRICULTURE

Forestry is the systematic planting and tending of forest trees which will later be
harvested to provide wood for timber and pulp for paper manufacture. Forest reserves should
be established in areas where there has not been great pressure for cultivation, or where
the land is the poor to be suitable for agriculture. Forest reserves have occupied a very
large portion of the land of most countries in tropical Africa and the present expansion of
plantation Agriculture is inevitably tending to reduce these areas. The activities involved in
forestry are tree breeding, reforestation and deforestation

Importance of Forests:

Importance of Forests include: 1) Provision of full-wood for domestic use 2) Provision of

timber for building and furniture construction 3) Provision of raw materials for manufacturing
paper 4) Provision of food, fruit and leaves for human use 5) Provision of herbs for medical
care 6) Checking soil erosion through plant canop y 7) Conservation of soil moisture by
reducing run-off and increasing the rate of water infiltration into the soil. 8) Provision of
pleasant environment for citizens – tourist. 9) Provision of habitat for wild-life and game
reserve. 10) Improvement of micro-climate of the area 11) Provision of wind break etc.

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Wildlife is defined as animals or plants that exist in a wild undomesticated state, while
wildlife management is the science and art of changing the characteristics and
interactions of habitat, wild animal and men in order to achieve specific human goals by
means of the wildlife resources.

Economic Importance of Wildlife.

1. Meat production: Presently wildlife constitutes a major source of animal protein for
people living in the rural areas of Nigeria. In southern states in Nigeria, nearly 20% of all
locally produced animal protein in 1979 came from wildlife. These figures show the
importance of wildlife as a basis of food.

2. Tourism and foreign exchange: Wildlife reserves have proved to be one of the
world’s greatest attractions for tourists. Tourist revenue begins with farms paid for
international and local air transport. This is followed by payment of hotel bills and hiring of
vehicles for making local tours. In addition, tourists pay for such serves as game guides
and interpreter and they purchase locally made goods as souvenirs.

3. Sale of Live animals and wild animal products: In Nigeria the exportation of wild animals
amount to N2, million in the 1960s and for use in laboratories. Also wild animal products
include the skins of retiles such as snakes and lizards, mammals including leopards and
antelopes.

4. Scientific Values: Apart from other consideration, the scientific value of wildlife
justifies its place in the world of major significance. In this respect is the ecological
value of wild animals i.e. Has it relates to the natural environment.

Problems of Wildlife Management in Nigeria

1. Unregulated hunting and trapping of wild animals 2. Illegal grazing by Fulani herdsmen 3.
Lack of skilled manpower i.e. Lack of trained personnel to man wildlife conservation 4.
Inadequate funding of game reserves and wildlife parks. Etc

Factors which Cause Extinction of Wildlife

1. Encroachment on wildlife habitat by settlement 2. Breaking game laws especially by

hunters 3. Chemical pollution especially water habitat 4. Natural disasters like
droughts, floods, fires etc. 5. Over hunting and over trapping of wild animals by hunters
etc

Fish farming can be defined as rearing of fish in more than one culture system.
There are different types of culture systems like ponds, raceways, pens, recirculation

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 systems, tanks and cages. Any one of these culture systems can be used for fish farming,
depending on what is available to the farmer; or sometimes the type of fish he wants
to grow.

Importance of fish to man

 Fish, particularly fin-fish, is regarded as first-class protein (provides 16% of the world
population’s protein), containing abundant calorific value, vitamins, phosphorus and
other essential elements for good growth and maintenance of a healthy body.

 Sea horse, star fish, sea urchin and sea cucumber are used for traditional medicine in
China.

 Fish emulsion is a fertilizer emulsion produced from the fluid remains of fish
processed for fish oil and fish meal industrially.

 Shark skin and ray skin which are covered with tiny teeth (dermal denticles) are used
as sand paper.

 Fish waste product (offal; consists of skins, heads, eviscera/internal organs,

bone/cartilage) is used for organic farming, fish meal production (48-52% protein).

 Provision of income and employment- Fisheries and aquaculture provide full-time,

part-time and occasional primary sector employment. Etc

QUESTION BANK
1. State clearly the factors affecting crop growth
2. States 6 problems for prevailing farming systems in Tropical Agriculture in Nigeria
3. Enumerate five ways through which agriculture causes environmental degradation.
4. Distinguish between the following (i) Nomadic herding and mixed farming ii) Bush fallowing
and shifting cultivation.
5. The ultimate objectives of livestock production are adequate supply of good-quality animal
products and by-products. Explain how these objectives can be achieved.
6. Mention 7 importance/services of forest
7. In Nigeria, livestock has influenced our economy to a great instance. Discuss giving relevant
examples.
8. Tropical crop production is characterized by a range of climatic factors. List and explain such
factors

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9. Outline 5 ways in which rainfall affects agricultural crop production.
10. Explain fully the categories of land tenure.
11. Edaphic factors are the abiotic factors relating to physical and chemical composition of soil
of a particular area, explain any five of such factors
12. Mention at least five factors which causes extinction of wild life
13.List out any five importance of Agriculture to man
14 Land tenure is defined as the holding of land or the right to hold a land and is adivided
into five classes, highlight the classes.
15. Explain any five notable climatic factors that have influence on Nigerian Agriculture
16. State any five ways in which Nigerian Agriculture can be improved
17. There are several types of cropping systems practiced in Nigeria, explain any five among
them.
18. State 5 prevailing problems of farming systems in the Tropics
19. Briefly explain the Basic principles of Animal farming
Distinguish between shifting cultivation and bush fallowing
20. Give at least five importance of each of the following
a. Forestry
b. Fish farming
c. Wild life

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