ARTIFICIAL INETELLIGENCE

Unit 1
Introduction
1.1 What is Artificial Intelligence?

It is a branch of Computer Science that pursues creating the computers or machines as

intelligent as human beings.

It is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent

computer programs.

It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand human intelligence, but AI
does not have to confine itself to methods that are biologically observable

Definition: Artificial Intelligence is the study of how to make computers do things, which, at
the moment, people do better.

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The science and
engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs”.
Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or a
software think intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think.

AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks and how humans learn, decide, and
work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of this study as a basis of
developing intelligent software and systems.

It has gained prominence recently due, in part, to big data, or the increase in speed, size and
variety of data businesses are now collecting. AI can perform tasks such as identifying patterns
in the data more efficiently than humans, enabling businesses to gain more insight out of their
data.

From a business perspective AI is a set of very powerful tools, and methodologies for using
those tools to solve business problems.

From a programming perspective, AI includes the study of symbolic programming, problem

solving, and search.

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1.2 Introduction:

 Artificial Intelligence is concerned with the design of intelligence in an artificial device.

The term was coined by John McCarthy in 1956.

 Intelligence is the ability to acquire, understand and apply the knowledge to achieve
goalsin the world.

 AI is the study of the mental faculties through the use of computational models

 AI is the study of intellectual/mental processes as computational processes.

 AI program will demonstrate a high level of intelligence to a degree that equals

orexceeds the intelligence required of a human in performing some task.

 AI is unique, sharing borders with Mathematics, Computer Science, Philosophy,

Psychology, Biology, Cognitive Science and many others.

 Although there is no clear definition of AI or even Intelligence, it can be described as

an attempt to build machines that like humans can think and act, able to learn and use
knowledge to solve problems on their own.

1.3 History of AI:

Importantresearch that laid the groundwork for AI:
 In 1931, Goedel layed the foundation of Theoretical Computer Science1920-30s: He
published the first universal formal language and showed that math itself is either
flawed or allowsforunprovable buttrue statements.
 In 1936, Turing reformulatedGoedel’sresult and church’s extension thereof
 In 1956, John McCarthy coined the term "Artificial Intelligence" as the topic of the
Dartmouth Conference, the first conference devoted to the subject.
 In 1957, The General Problem Solver (GPS) demonstrated by Newell, Shaw & Simon
 In 1958, John McCarthy (MIT) invented the Lisp language.
 In 1959, Arthur Samuel (IBM) wrote the first game-playing program, for checkers, to
achieve sufficient skill to challenge a world champion.
 In 1963, Ivan Sutherland's MIT dissertation on Sketchpad introduced the idea of
interactive graphics into computing.

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 In 1966, Ross Quillian (PhD dissertation, Carnegie Inst. of Technology; now CMU)
demonstrated semantic nets
 In 1967, Dendral program (Edward Feigenbaum, Joshua Lederberg, Bruce Buchanan,
Georgia Sutherland at Stanford) demonstrated to interpret mass spectra on organic
chemical compounds. First successful knowledge-based program for scientific
reasoning.
 In 1967, Doug Engelbart invented the mouse at SRI
 In 1968, Marvin Minsky & Seymour Papert publish Perceptrons, demonstrating limits
of simple neural nets.
 In 1972, Prolog developed by Alain Colmerauer.
 In Mid 80’s, Neural Networks become widely used with the Backpropagation algorithm
(first described by Werbos in 1974).
 1990, Major advances in all areas of AI, with significant demonstrations in machine
learning, intelligent tutoring, case-based reasoning, multi-agent planning, scheduling,
uncertain reasoning, data mining, natural language understanding and translation,
vision, virtual reality, games, and other topics.
 In 1997, Deep Blue beats the World Chess Champion Kasparov
 In 2002,iRobot, founded by researchers at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab,
introduced Roomba, a vacuum cleaning robot. By 2006, two million had been sold.

1.4 Foundations of Artificial Intelligence:

 Philosophy e.g.,
foundational issues(can a machine think?), issues of knowledge and believe,mutual
knowledge

 Psychology and Cognitive Science e.g., problem solving skills

 Neuro-Science e.g., brain architecture

 Computer Science AndEngineering e.g., complexity theory, algorithms, logic and

inference, programming languages, and system building.

 Mathematics and Physics e.g.,statistical modeling, continuousmathematics,

 Statistical Physics, and Complex Systems.

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1.5 AI Past, Present and Future:

AI Past,
 AI research is ongoing and expanding in today’s world. AI research has grown at a pace
of 12.9 percent annually over the last five years, as per Alice Bonasio, a technology
journalist. China is expected to overtake the United States as the world’s leading source
of AI technology in the next 4 years, having overtaken the United States’ second
position in 2004 and is rapidly closing in on Europe’s top rank. In the area of artificial
intelligence development, Europe is the largest and most diverse continent, with
significant levels of international collaboration. India is the 3rd largest country in AI
research output, behind China and the USA.
AI in The Present
 Artificial intelligence is being utilized for so many things and has so much promise that
it’s difficult to imagine our future without it, related to business. Artificial intelligence
technologies are boosting productivity like never seen before, from workflow
management solutions to trend forecasts and even the way companies buy
advertisements. Artificial Intelligence can gather and organize vast volumes of data in
order to draw inferences and estimates that are outside of the human ability to
comprehend manually. It also improves organizational efficiency while lowering the
risk of a mistake, and it identifies unusual patterns, such as spam and frauds,
instantaneously to alert organizations about suspicious behaviour, among other things.
AI has grown in importance and sophistication to the point that a Japanese investment
firm became the first to propose an AI Board Member for its ability to forecast market
trends faster than humans. Artificial intelligence will indeed be and is already being
used in many aspects of life, such as self-driving cars in the coming years, more precise
weather forecasting, and earlier health diagnoses, to mention a few.
AI in The Future
 It has been suggested that we are on the verge of the 4th Industrial Revolution, which
will be unlike any of the previous three. From steam and water power through electricity
and manufacturing process, computerization, and now, the question of what it is to be
human is being challenged. Smarter technology in our factories and workplaces, as well
as linked equipment that will communicate, view the entire production process, and
make autonomous choices, are just a few of the methods the Industrial Revolution will
lead to business improvements. One of the most significant benefits of the 4th Industrial

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Revolution is the ability to improve the world’s populace’s quality of life and increase
income levels. As robots, humans, and smart devices work on improving supply chains
and warehousing, our businesses and organizations are becoming “smarter” and more
productive.

1.6 What are Agent and Environment?

An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and acts upon that
environment through effectors.

 A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin parallel
to the sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for effectors.
 A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors, and
various motors and actuators for effectors.
 A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions.

Agent Terminology
 Performance Measure of Agent − It is the criteria, which determines how successful
an agent is.
 Behavior of Agent − It is the action that agent performs after any given sequence of
percepts.
 Percept − It is agent’s perceptual inputs at a given instance.
 Percept Sequence − It is the history of all that an agent has perceived till date.
 Agent Function − It is a map from the precept sequence to an action.

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1.7 Specifying the task environment in artificial intelligence

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1.8 properties of task environment in artificial intelligence

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 ARTIFICIAL INETELLIGENCE

1.9 Agent based Programs

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2.0 Structure of Agent

Structure of an AI Agent
To understand the structure of Intelligent Agents, we should be familiar
with Architecture and Agent programs. Architecture is the machinery that the agent
executes on. It is a device with sensors and actuators, for example, a robotic car, a camera,
and a PC. An agent program is an implementation of an agent function. An agent
function is a map from the percept sequence (history of all that an agent has perceived to
date) to an action.

Agent = Architecture + Agent Program

There are many examples of agents in artificial intelligence. Here are a few:

 Intelligent personal assistants: These are agents that are designed to help users with
various tasks, such as scheduling appointments, sending messages, and setting reminders.
Examples of intelligent personal assistants include Siri, Alexa, and Google Assistant.

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 Autonomous robots: These are agents that are designed to operate autonomously in the
physical world. They can perform tasks such as cleaning, sorting, and delivering goods.
Examples of autonomous robots include the Roomba vacuum cleaner and the Amazon
delivery robot.
 Gaming agents: These are agents that are designed to play games, either against human
opponents or other agents. Examples of gaming agents include chess-playing agents and
poker-playing agents.
 Fraud detection agents: These are agents that are designed to detect fraudulent behavior
in financial transactions. They can analyze patterns of behavior to identify suspicious
activity and alert authorities. Examples of fraud detection agents include those used by
banks and credit card companies.
 Traffic management agents: These are agents that are designed to manage traffic flow
in cities. They can monitor traffic patterns, adjust traffic lights, and reroute vehicles to
minimize congestion. Examples of traffic management agents include those used in smart
cities around the world.
 A software agent has Keystrokes, file contents, received network packages that act as
sensors and displays on the screen, files, and sent network packets acting as actuators.
 A Human-agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which act as sensors, and hands, legs,
mouth, and other body parts act as actuators.
 A Robotic agent has Cameras and infrared range finders which act as sensors and various
motors act as actuators.

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2.1 Types of Agents

Types of Agents
Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence and
capability :

 Simple Reflex Agents

 Model-Based Reflex Agents
 Goal-Based Agents
 Utility-Based Agents
 Learning Agent
 Multi-agent systems
 Hierarchical agents

Simple Reflex Agents

Simple reflex agents ignore the rest of the percept history and act only on the basis of
the current percept. Percept history is the history of all that an agent has perceived to date.
The agent function is based on the condition-action rule. A condition-action rule is a rule
that maps a state i.e., a condition to an action. If the condition is true, then the action is taken,
else not. This agent function only succeeds when the environment is fully observable. For

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simple reflex agents operating in partially observable environments, infinite loops are often
unavoidable. It may be possible to escape from infinite loops if the agent can randomize its
actions.
Problems with Simple reflex agents are :

 Very limited intelligence.

 No knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the state.
 Usually too big to generate and store.
 If there occurs any change in the environment, then the collection of rules needs to be
updated.

Simple Reflex Agents

Model-Based Reflex Agents

It works by finding a rule whose condition matches the current situation. A model-based
agent can handle partially observable environments by the use of a model about the world.
The agent has to keep track of the internal state which is adjusted by each percept and that
depends on the percept history. The current state is stored inside the agent which maintains
some kind of structure describing the part of the world which cannot be seen.
Updating the state requires information about:

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 How the world evolves independently from the agent?

 How do the agent’s actions affect the world?

Model-Based Reflex Agents

Goal-Based Agents

These kinds of agents take decisions based on how far they are currently from
their goal(description of desirable situations). Their every action is intended to reduce their
distance from the goal. This allows the agent a way to choose among multiple possibilities,
selecting the one which reaches a goal state. The knowledge that supports its decisions is
represented explicitly and can be modified, which makes these agents more flexible. They
usually require search and planning. The goal-based agent’s behavior can easily be changed.

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Goal-Based Agents

Utility-Based Agents

The agents which are developed having their end uses as building blocks are called utility-
based agents. When there are multiple possible alternatives, then to decide which one is best,
utility-based agents are used. They choose actions based on a preference (utility) for each
state. Sometimes achieving the desired goal is not enough. We may look for a quicker, safer,
cheaper trip to reach a destination. Agent happiness should be taken into consideration.
Utility describes how “happy” the agent is. Because of the uncertainty in the world, a utility
agent chooses the action that maximizes the expected utility. A utility function maps a state
onto a real number which describes the associated degree of happiness.

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Utility-Based Agents

Learning Agent
A learning agent in AI is the type of agent that can learn from its past experiences or it has
learning capabilities. It starts to act with basic knowledge and then is able to act and adapt
automatically through learning. A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components,
which are:

1. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning from the

environment.
2. Critic: The learning element takes feedback from critics which describes how well the
agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
3. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action.
4. Problem Generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions that will
lead to new and informative experiences.

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Learning Agent
Multi-Agent Systems
These agents interact with other agents to achieve a common goal. They may have to
coordinate their actions and communicate with each other to achieve their objective.

A multi-agent system (MAS) is a system composed of multiple interacting agents that are
designed to work together to achieve a common goal. These agents may be autonomous or
semi-autonomous and are capable of perceiving their environment, making decisions, and
taking action to achieve the common objective.

MAS can be used in a variety of applications, including transportation systems, robotics, and
social networks. They can help improve efficiency, reduce costs, and increase flexibility in
complex systems. MAS can be classified into different types based on their characteristics,
such as whether the agents have the same or different goals, whether the agents are
cooperative or competitive, and whether the agents are homogeneous or heterogeneous.

 In a homogeneous MAS, all the agents have the same capabilities, goals, and
behaviors.
 In contrast, in a heterogeneous MAS, the agents have different capabilities, goals, and
behaviors.
This can make coordination more challenging but can also lead to more flexible and robust
systems.

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Cooperative MAS involves agents working together to achieve a common goal, while
competitive MAS involves agents working against each other to achieve their own goals. In
some cases, MAS can also involve both cooperative and competitive behavior, where agents
must balance their own interests with the interests of the group.

MAS can be implemented using different techniques, such as game theory, machine learning,
and agent-based modeling. Game theory is used to analyze strategic interactions between
agents and predict their behavior. Machine learning is used to train agents to improve their
decision-making capabilities over time. Agent-based modeling is used to simulate complex
systems and study the interactions between agents.
Overall, multi-agent systems are a powerful tool in artificial intelligence that can help solve
complex problems and improve efficiency in a variety of applications.

Hierarchical Agents
These agents are organized into a hierarchy, with high-level agents overseeing the behavior
of lower-level agents. The high-level agents provide goals and constraints, while the low-
level agents carry out specific tasks. Hierarchical agents are useful in complex environments
with many tasks and sub-tasks.

 Hierarchical agents are agents that are organized into a hierarchy, with high-level agents
overseeing the behavior of lower-level agents. The high-level agents provide goals and
constraints, while the low-level agents carry out specific tasks. This structure allows for
more efficient and organized decision-making in complex environments.
 Hierarchical agents can be implemented in a variety of applications, including robotics,
manufacturing, and transportation systems. They are particularly useful in environments
where there are many tasks and sub-tasks that need to be coordinated and prioritized.
 In a hierarchical agent system, the high-level agents are responsible for setting goals and
constraints for the lower-level agents. These goals and constraints are typically based on
the overall objective of the system. For example, in a manufacturing system, the high-
level agents might set production targets for the lower-level agents based on customer
demand.
 The low-level agents are responsible for carrying out specific tasks to achieve the goals
set by the high-level agents. These tasks may be relatively simple or more complex,
depending on the specific application. For example, in a transportation system, low-level
agents might be responsible for managing traffic flow at specific intersections.

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 Hierarchical agents can be organized into different levels, depending on the complexity
of the system. In a simple system, there may be only two levels: high-level agents and
low-level agents. In a more complex system, there may be multiple levels, with
intermediate-level agents responsible for coordinating the activities of lower-level agents.
 One advantage of hierarchical agents is that they allow for more efficient use of resources.
By organizing agents into a hierarchy, it is possible to allocate tasks to the agents that are
best suited to carry them out, while avoiding duplication of effort. This can lead to faster,
more efficient decision-making and better overall performance of the system.
2.2 Uses of Agents
Agents are used in a wide range of applications in artificial intelligence, including:

 Robotics: Agents can be used to control robots and automate tasks in manufacturing,
transportation, and other industries.
 Smart homes and buildings: Agents can be used to control heating, lighting, and other
systems in smart homes and buildings, optimizing energy use and improving comfort.
 Transportation systems: Agents can be used to manage traffic flow, optimize routes for
autonomous vehicles, and improve logistics and supply chain management.
 Healthcare: Agents can be used to monitor patients, provide personalized treatment
plans, and optimize healthcare resource allocation.
 Finance: Agents can be used for automated trading, fraud detection, and risk
management in the financial industry.
 Games: Agents can be used to create intelligent opponents in games and simulations,
providing a more challenging and realistic experience for players.
 Natural language processing: Agents can be used for language translation, question
answering, and chatbots that can communicate with users in natural language.
 Cybersecurity: Agents can be used for intrusion detection, malware analysis, and
network security.
 Environmental monitoring: Agents can be used to monitor and manage natural
resources, track climate change, and improve environmental sustainability.
 Social media: Agents can be used to analyze social media data, identify trends and
patterns, and provide personalized recommendations to users.

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