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GATE WALLAH
ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS
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SHORT NOTES
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Rahul Sir
I. Leibniz Notation
This column is devoted to examples which are placed
1. Derivatives
opposite the piece of text they illustrate.
If x is a variable in the domain of a real function f, 1. Derivatives
then
dy
means f(x), where y = f(x).
df ( x) d dx
or f ( x)
dx dx
d ( x2 )
means f (x), where f: x → x2;
means f (x), the derivative of the function f at x. dx
If we want to give the variable x a particular
i.e.,
d x2( ) = 2 x.
numerical value, say 13, then for f (13), we write dx
 df ( x) 
 dx 

 NOT
df (13) 
d13 
.  ( ) 
 d x2
=  2 x  x =3 = 6 .
x =13 
 dx 
  x =3
2. Definite Integrals
b 2. Definite Integrals
a f ( x)dx
b 2 b
a x a x ⎯⎯→ x
2
Means dx means ;
b
a f. i.e.,
b 2
a x
1 1
dx = b3 − a3
3 3
3. Indefinite Integrals
If x is a variable in the domain of an integrable real 3. Indefinite Integrals
function f, whose domain is an interval A, then 1 3
x
2
dx means x + c for all x  R, where c is a
 f ( x)dx 3
real number.
Means F(x) where F is a primitive function of f, i.e.
b
a f ( x)dx = F (b) − F (a)
For all a, b in A.
4. Further Notation 4. Further Notation
13
[ F ( x)]ba 1 3  1 3 1
 3 x  = 3 (13) − 3 (10 )
3

10
Means F(b) – F(a). Also, we are not restricted to the
b 2 b
use of x as a label for a variable; thus
a x dx =  u 2 du
a
b b
a f ( x)dx = a f (u)du.
II. Rules of Integration
In the following rules, f and g are continuous functions, both In the examples for Section II all the functions have
having codomain R, and their domains, A and B respectively, domain R.
are intervals of R.

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 1
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 1. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
1. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
1 3 d 1 3
 x dx = 3 x ,since dx  3 x  = x
2 2

 f ( x)dx = some function, F, with domain A whose

derivative at x is f(x).
We call the expression f(x) the integrand and the
function F a primitive of f.
2. The Addition Rule
2. The Addition Rule
 ( cos x + x ) dx =  cos xdx +  x2dx
2

 ( f ( x) + g ( x))dx =  f ( x)dx +  g ( x)dx (x  A B)

3. The Scalar Multiplication Rule
3. The Scalar Multiplication Rule
If  is any real number, then
 3x dx = 3 x dx
2 2

 f ( x)dx =  f ( x)dx ( x  A)
4. Integration by Parts
In this rule, the derived functions of f and g must also 4. Integration by Parts
be continuous. The rule is

 f ( x) g '( x)dx = f ( x) g ( x) −  g ( x) f '( x)dx

( x  A  B)

5. Integration by Substitution
5. Integration by Substitution
(i) Forwards Method
(i) Forwards Method Find
With an integral of the form

 f ( g ( x) ) g '( x)dx
Substitute u for x2
du Then
We substitute u for g(x), then g '( x) = and we
dx
du
 cos ( x ) 2xdx =  cos u du
2
write du for dx.
dx
= sin u

( )
= sin x 2
du
So  f ( g ( x) ) g '( x)dx =  f ( u ( x) ) dx dx =  f (u )du
(u  A  g (B))
This rule is particularly useful when

f : x ⎯⎯
→
1
x
(
x  R+ ; ) @getstudyfeverbot
For then we have

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 2
 g '( x) du An important example of this rule of integration is
 g ( x) dx =  u t 1 2t 1
( )
 t 2 + c dt = 2  t 2 + c dt = 2 ln t + c .
2

= ln u
= ln (g(x)).
(ii) Backwards Method (ii) Backwards Method

 f ( x)dx =  f (h(u))h '(u)du ( x  A, u  C )

dx
We substitute h(u) for x and h(u) du for dx (i.e., du for
du and since 1 + tan2 u = sec2 u
dx), where h is a one-one function with domain C and image 1
set A. The reason for h being one-one is that for the  1 + x2 dx =  du
substitution to be unambiguous h must be a function rather
than a mapping. Eventually we will want to express the =u
result of the integration in terms of the original variable = arc tan x.
which means that the inverse of h must also be a function.   
In this case h:u → tan u, u   − ,  and arc tan is the
Hence h must be a one-one function  2 2
inverse of h, i.e. arctan x is the radian measure of the angle
  
in the interval  − ,  whose tangent is x.
 2 2

Figure-1
Figure 2.

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ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 3
III. Types of Integral

1. Polynomial Functions 1. Polynomial Functions

To integrate a polynomial function, apply the t5 t4
addition rule and the scalar multiplication rule for ( )
3t 4 + 5t 3 − 7 dt = 3
5
+5 − 7 t
4
integrals, to obtain
 ( an x )
+ an−1 x n−1 + ..... + a1 x + a0 dx
n

x n +1 xn x2
= an + an −1 + ..... + a1 + a0 x
n +1 n 2
2. Rational Functions
A rational function has the form 2. Rotational Functions
f ( x) x3 − 3 x + 5
x ⎯⎯ → ( x  R and g ( x)  0 ) x ⎯⎯→ ( x  R , x  −6 )
g ( x) x+6
where f and g are polynomial functions. We first give
the integrals of some simple rational function.

2.1
dx

ln( x − a) if domain  {x : x  a}
 x − a = ln(a − x)if domain  {x : x  a}
2.1 
dx
x
= ln x ( x  R+ )
−1 dx −1
It is common practice to write the above formula as −2 = ln ( − x ) 
x −2
dx
 x − a = ln | x − a | = ln x 
−1
−2
But remember that this only makes sense if the = – ln 2
domain includes numbers on one side of a only Whereas
(since the integrand is not defined for x = a). 1 dx 1
−1 x does not equal ln x  −1
In fact, this integral is not defined at all.
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2.2 2.2
dx −1
 ( x − a )s = ( s − 1)( x − a )s−1 if s  1
 2
 x  − 3 
 
with the same restrictions on the domains as above. 4dx 4 dx 4 1 
This is perhaps more recognizable as  ( 3x + 2 )2 = 9   2 2 = − 9 2  or
( x − a )t +1 x + 
x+  3  x  − 2 
 ( x − a) dx =
t
where t = – s  3 
t +1  3
2.3 For an integral of the form 2.3 To evaluate
px + q x +1
 x2 + bx + c dx,  x2 + x + 1 dx,
where b2 < 4c (i.e. the denominator cannot be First complete the square in the denominator
factorized), we first rewrite the denominator as the x =1 x +1
sum of two squares (known as “completing the 2
= 2
x + x +1  1 3
square”). So x2 + bx + c becomes  x +  =
2  2 4
 1  1 2
 x + b  + c − b . We then use the substitution Then use the substitution t = x + .
1
 2  4
2
1
t = x + b. dx
2 Also, = 1 so for dx we substitute dt.
dt

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 4
 this removes the linear term from the denominator, 1
t+
i.e. it reduces the integral to the form x +1 2 dt
So  2 dx = 
lt + m x + x +1 4
 t 2 + n dt. with n > 0.
2
t +
3
Now use the two standard integrals tdt 1 dt
= + 
t dt
(
1
)
 t 2 + c = 2 ln t + c
2
t2 +
3
4
2 t2 + 3
4
(See Section II.5(i) above.) 1  3
= ln  t 2 + 
dt 1  t  2  4
 t 2 + c = c arc tan  c   4
1 4
(See Section II.5(ii) above). + arc tan  t 
2 3  3
2 x 2 + 4 f ( x)
2.4 We now give a general method for integrating 2.4 Suppose = .
2 x − 3 g ( x)
rational functions. The division goes as follows:
f ( x) k ( x) 3
(i) Express in the form h( x) = x+ = h( x )
g ( x) g ( x) 2
g ( x) = 2 x − 3 2 x 2 + 0 x + 4 = f ( x)
where h(x) and k(x) are polynomials and k(x) has
degree (strictly) less than the degree of g(x). 2 x 2 − 3x = xg ( x)
3x + 4
(See method opposite and Units M201 9 and 29.) 9
3x − 3
(ii) Factorize g(x) into real factors which are either 2 = g ( x)
2
linear or quadratic (and irreducible). 17
= k ( x)
2
k ( x)
(iii) Express as a sum of partial fractions. 2 x2 + 4 3 17
g ( x) Thus = x+ +
2x − 3 2 2(2 x − 3)
(iv) Apply the addition rule for integrals and integrate 1 1
=
each fraction according to the methods outlined
above.
(
x − 1 ( x − 1) x 2 + x + 1
3
)
A Bx + C
= + 2
x −1 x + x +1
To determine he constants A, B and C, we reverse
the process as follows
Ax 2 + Ax + A + Bx 2 − Bx + Cx − C
=
@getstudyfeverbot (
( x − 1) x 2 + x + 1 )
=
( A + B ) x2 + ( A − B + C ) x + A − C
x3 − 1
Since x2, x and 1 are linearly independent
polynomials,
A+B =0
A–B+C =0
A –C =1
i.e.
Thus
1 1 x+2
= −
(
x − 1 3 ( x − 1) 3 x + x + 1
3 2
)
ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 5
 1 1
 a2 − x2 dx =  ( a + x )( a − x )dx
Step (ii)
1  1 1 
=  +  dx
2a  ( a + x) ( a − x ) 
Step (iii)
1
= ln(a + a) − ln(a − x)
2a
Step (iv)
1 a+x
= ln   ( −a  x  a )
2a  a − x 

3. Algebraic Function
3. Algebraic Function
Integrals of the form
f ( x) + h( x) ax 2 + bx + c
 dx
g ( x) + k ( x) ax 2 + bx + c
Where f(x), g(x), h(x) and k(x) are polynomials,
occur quite frequently. They can be converted into
integrals of rational functions using integration by
substitution. We shall consider these substitutions in
this section and for the sake of clarity we shall let
the polynomials f(x), g(x), h(x) and k(x) take very
simple forms.
dx
3.1 If a = 0, the substitution
3.1 Find  1+ x
.

u = bx + c The substitution is u = x , i.e. x = u 2 , giving

Transforms the integrand to a rational function, to 1 1
which the method of Section III.2. applies.  1 + x dx =  1 + u 2 2u du
2u du
=
1+ u
= 2u − 2ln (1 + u )
= 2 x − 2ln 1 + x ( )
dx
3.2 If a  0, the substitution 3.2 Simplify  1 + 4 x + 5x2
.
b
u= x+
2a 2 2
The substitution is u = x + , i.e. x = u − , and so
Removes the “b” term inside the square root, giving 5 5
an integral of the form dx du
 1 + 4 x + 5x2 =  2 1
f1 (u ) + h1 (u ) ( au 2 + c1 ) du 5u +
 5
g1 (u ) + k1 (u ) ( au 2 + c1 )
The next step depends on the signs of a and c1.
dx
(i) If a > 0 and c1 > 0, the substitution Find 1 + x2
.

The substitution is

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 6
 1 c1  1  1 1
u= v −  ( v  0) x = v − 
2 v
2 a  v
Transforms the integrand into a rational function. With inverse v = x + 1 + x 2 (sin v > 0) and
1 1
1 + x 2 =  v +  . The rule of integration by
2 v
substitution thus gives
1 1 1 1 
 1 + x2 dx =  1  1  2 1 + v2  dv
v + 
2 v
dv
=
v
= ln v

(
= ln x + 1 + x 2 )
dx
(ii) If a > 0 and c1 < 0 Find  ( x  1) .
The substitution x2 − 1
1 c1  1  1 1
u= v +  Here the substitution is x =  v +  , giving
2 a v 2 v
(where the sign is chosen to make sure that u is in 1 1 1 1 
the stated domain) transforms the integrand into a  x2 − 1dx =  1  1  2 1 − v2  dv ( v  1)
rational function. v − 
2 v
dv
=
v
= ln v

(
= ln x + x 2 − 1 ) ( x  1)
dx
(iii) If a < 0 then we must have c1 > 0. Find  1 − x2
.
The most useful substitution is
   
c    The substitution x = sin v, v   − ,  gives
u = 1 sin v  v  − ,    2 2
−a   2 2
1 1
Which gives  1 − x 2 dx =  cos v cos v dv
au 2 + c1 = c1 cos v
And converts the integrand to a rational function in =  dv
sin v and cos v. The integration of such functions is =v
considered in the next section. = arc sin x

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ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 7
4. Rational Fractions in sin x and cos x 4. Rational Fractions in sin x and cos x
These are fraction in which both the numerator and cos x (sin 3 x + sin x)cos 2 x
For example,
the denominator are polynomials in cos x, whose sin x
coefficients are all polynomials in sin x.

4.1. We give first a general method for such integrals, but 4.1 Find  cosec x dx (0  x  2 )
you are advised to use it with caution; for it can lead
to heavy manipulations. The method given in
Section III. 4.2 are often quicker. If the domain is a 1 1 + t2 2
subset of [–, ], the general method is to substitute  sin x
dx =  2t 1 + t 2
dt

dt
x = 2 arc tan t (t ∈ R) = t
So that, = ln t
2t = ln (tan 12 x) + c (since 0  t )
sin x = 2
1+ t Find
 sec x dx (0  x  2 )
1 − t2 1 1 + t2 2
cos x =
1+ t 2  cos x
dx =  1 − t 2 1 + t 2 dt
2
=  1 − t 2 dt
1 1
=  1 − t dt +  1 + t dt
dx = – ln (1 − t ) + ln (1 + t )
is found by considering which expression, when
dt 1+ t 
= ln   (See section III.2.4.)
integrated, will give 2 arc tan t. 1− t 
dx 2 There are two ways of simplifying this expression:
i.e. = (See section II.5(ii))
dt (1 + t 2 )
1+ t  (1 + t )2 
= ln 
 1 − t 2 
The inverse substitution is (i) ln
1− t  
t = tan ½x (x Î [– , ])
1 + t2 2t 
If the domain is not a subset of [–, ], it can be = ln  +
 1 − t 2 1 − t 2 
= ln (sec x + tan x)
split into segments of the form [2n – , 2n + ]  
with n an integer, and each segment treated (ii) Using the formula
separately by the substitution,
tan A + tan B
x = 2n + 2 arc tan t. tan ( A + B ) =
1 − tan A tan B
It may happen that you obtain a zero denominator in
which case another method will have to be used. the equivalent result

1+ t     x 
ln   = ln  tan  +  
1− t    4 2 

can be found.

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ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 8
  sin
4.2. Integrals of the form 4.2. 2
x cos3 x dx

 sin
m
a cosn a d  ( R)
 y (1 − y ) dy
2 2
=
Can be reduced, by the substitution x = a, to the
1 3 1 5
form = y − y
3 5

a−1 sin m x cosn x dx ( x  R) .
=
1 3 1
sin x − sin 5 x
3 5

 sin x cos−2 x dx
2
(i) If n is an odd integer (not necessarily positive), the
substitution. y = sin x,
y21 + y 2 dy
gives 2
cos x = 1 – y 2 =  1 + y2 1 1 + y2
and cos x dx = dy
y2
thus converting the integrand to a rational function
of y.
=  1 + y 2 dy
(ii) If m is an odd integer, the substitution  1 
y = cos x
=  1 − 1 + y2  dy
gives sin2 x = 1 – y2 = y – arc tan y
and sin x dx = – dy = tan x – x
thus converting the integrand to a rational function Unfortunately, as the powers of sin and cos
of y. increase, the work involved also increases
(iii) If m and n are both even integers, the substitution y sowewhat disproportionately.
= tan x
1
gives 2
= cos2 x ,
1+ y

y2
2
= sin 2 x
1+ y

dy
and = dx
1 + y2

thus converting the integrand to a rational function

of y.
4.3. Alternative Methods 4.3. Alternative Methods

One of the arts of integration is the ability to spot a sec x tan x + sec2 x
quick method of producing the result.  sec x dx =  sec x + tan x
dx

= log (sec x + tan x)

 tan  (sec
2 2
x dx = x − 1) dx

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 9
 = tan x – x

 tan  (sec
5 2
x = x − 1)2 tan x dx

 sin x 
  sec
4
= x tan x − 2 sec 2 x tan x + dx
cos x 

1
= sec4 x − tan 2 x − ln cos x
4

5. Integrals Involving Trigonometric and 5. Integrals Involving Trigonometric and

Exponential Functions Exponential Functions

5.1. Integrals involving products of the form

(sin ax or cos ax) × (sin bx or cos bx)
can be simplified using the formulas
1 1
sin ax sin bx = cos ( a − b ) x − cos (a + b) x
2 2
1 1
cos ax cos bx = cos ( a − b ) x + cos (a + b) x
2 2
1 1
sin ax cos bx = sin ( a − b ) x + sin (a + b) x
2 2

5.2. If n is a positive integer and a, b are real , we have 1 a ax

e 
ax
5.2. cos bx dx = eax sin bx − e sin bx dx
b b
eax (a cos bx + b sin bx)
e
ax
(i) cos bx dx = ( x  R)
a 2 + b2 On integrating by parts
1 a
eax (a sin bx – b cos bx) = eax sin bx + 2 eax cos bx
e
ax b
(ii) sin bx dx = ( x  R) b
a 2 + b2
a2
e
ax
− 2
cos bx dx
x n
n! x n−r b
 eax x n dx = 
 a
−  + (−1)r
(n − r )! a r +1 On integrating by parts again.
(iii)
n!  Re-arranging the above expression gives
+  + (−1)n n+1  eax ( x  R)
a 

(a2 + b2 ) eax cos bx dx
(iv)
 xn cos ax dx
= aeax cos bx + beax sin bx
 x n n(n − 1) n−2 
= − x +  sin ax eax (a cos bx + b sin bx)
 a a 3
 So,  eax cos bx dx =
a 2 + b2

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 10
  nx n−1 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3  This is a technique which can very often be used
+ 2 − 4
x + cos ax on expression involving a single cos or sin
 a a 
 x e dx one uses the rule
3 x
function. To integrate
x
n
(v) sin ax dx
given which can be verified as follows:

 x n n(n − 1) n−2 
 x e dx 
3 x
= x3e x − 3x2e xdx ,
= − − 3
x +  cos ax
 a a 
On integrating by parts,
 nx n−1 
n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3
+ 2 −
 a a 4
x + sin ax

= x3e x − 3x2e x + 6 xe x dx
(vi) 
x
a dx =
ax
(see opposite)
= x3e x − 3x2e x + 6 xe x − 6 e x dx

ln a
= ( x3 − 3x2 + 6 x − 6)e x

 a dx  (e
x ln a x
= ) dx

e
(ln a ) x
= dx

1 (ln a ) x
= e
ln a

ax
=
ln a

 ln x dx  ln (e )e du
5.3. Integrals involving logarithms and inverse 5.3. = u u
trigonometric functions can often be simplified by
substituting By the substitution u = ln x
u = (the logarithm or inverse trigonometric image).
 ue du = ue −  e du
u u u
=

On integrating by parts
= (u – 1)eu
= (ln x – 1)x
The above example shows that one can get
involved in heavy working if one only follows the
book of rules.

For
 ln x dx =
 ln x 1 dx
telegram- Hmara college 1
= x ln x − x dx
x 
On integrating by parts
= x ln x – x

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 11
 2 2 1 t
5.4. Integrals involving expressions of the form e − ax
often arise in statistics and physics. The substitution
5.4.  e− x x3dx =
2 
e t dt

t = –ax2 1 t 1 2
= e (t − 1) = e− x (− x 2 − 1)
2 2
sometimes reduces these to type 5.2(iii). If the
− x2 2 1 t
integral is of the form
2
e x dx = 
2 
e t dt

e
− ax
x n dx
Which cannot be expressed in terms of elementary
functions such as exp, in arc tan, etc.
Then if n is odd, it can be reduced by the above
substitution to type 5.2(iii), but if n is even this is not
possible.

5.5 If the integral involves the function tan, cot, sec, or (cosec2 x + sec2 x) sin 5 x
cosec, reduce to one of the types considered 5.5 Simplify
cot 3 x
previously by using
cos3 x
sin x cos x As sec2 x = cosec2 x tan 2 x and cot 3 x = ,
tan x = , cot x = , sin 3 x
cos x sin x
(cosec 2 x + sec 2 x) sin 5 x
1 1 cot 3 x
sec x = , c osec x =
cos x sin x
sin8 x
= cosec2 x (1 + tan 2 x)
(x ∈ R, denominator ≠ 0) cos3 x

= cosec2x sec2 x sin8 x cos–3x

(since 1 + tan2x = sec2x)
= sin6x cos–5x
The integral of this can now be found by the
methods of III.4.1



ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 12