‭Thermal Protection Systems for Atmospheric Re-entry‬

‭1. Abstract‬

‭ he safe return of spacecraft through Earth's atmosphere, or the atmosphere of other‬

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‭celestial bodies, necessitates robust Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) to shield the‬
‭vehicle from extreme aerodynamic heating. This report provides a comprehensive‬
‭overview of TPS, beginning with the fundamental physics of atmospheric re-entry and‬
‭the critical need for thermal protection. Various types of TPS, including ablative,‬
‭reusable, passive, and active systems, are examined, along with the diverse materials‬
‭employed in their construction. Key design and engineering considerations are‬
‭discussed, followed by an exploration of TPS applications in prominent modern‬
‭spacecraft and missions, such as Apollo, Space Shuttle, Orion, SpaceX Dragon, and‬
‭ISRO’s RLV-TD and CARE capsule. A dedicated literature survey critically analyzes‬
‭recent peer-reviewed research, highlighting advancements and trends in the field.‬
‭The report concludes by outlining future innovations and the challenges that remain in‬
‭the development of next-generation thermal protection systems.‬

‭2. Introduction‬

‭ tmospheric re-entry is a critical phase for any spacecraft returning from orbit or‬
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‭interplanetary missions. During this phase, the spacecraft encounters significant‬
‭resistance as it plunges into the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds. This interaction‬
‭results in a dramatic increase in temperature on the spacecraft's exterior due to the‬
‭conversion of its substantial kinetic energy into heat.‬‭1‬ ‭Without an effective means of‬
‭mitigating this intense heating, the structural integrity of the spacecraft, its valuable‬
‭payload, and, in the case of crewed missions, the lives of the astronauts would be‬
‭severely jeopardized.‬‭3‬ ‭Thermal Protection Systems‬‭(TPS) serve as the indispensable‬
‭barrier that enables spacecraft to survive these extreme conditions and return safely.‬

‭ he development of TPS has been an evolutionary journey, marked by significant‬

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‭milestones and driven by the increasing demands of space exploration. Early‬
‭spacecraft faced the daunting challenge of withstanding re-entry heating with limited‬
‭material science and engineering knowledge. The initial approaches were‬
‭rudimentary, but they laid the groundwork for the sophisticated systems in use today.‬
‭From the early space capsules to the reusable Space Shuttle and the advanced‬
‭vehicles of the present era, TPS technology has continually adapted to meet the‬
‭challenges posed by diverse mission profiles and increasingly ambitious goals. This‬
‭report aims to provide a detailed examination of the current state of TPS technology,‬
‭drawing upon established principles and recent research to present a comprehensive‬
‭understanding of this vital aspect of aerospace engineering.‬

‭3. Atmospheric Re-entry Physics‬

‭ he extreme heating experienced during atmospheric re-entry is a direct‬

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‭consequence of the fundamental laws of physics governing motion and energy‬
‭conversion. As a spacecraft enters the atmosphere at velocities reaching several‬
‭kilometers per second, it collides with air molecules. This interaction leads to a rapid‬
‭deceleration of the spacecraft, and in accordance with the principle of conservation‬
‭of energy, the spacecraft's substantial kinetic energy is transformed primarily into‬
‭thermal energy within the atmosphere and on the surface of the vehicle.‬‭1‬

‭ common initial understanding might attribute this heating solely to friction between‬
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‭the spacecraft and the air. However, the dominant mechanism at hypersonic speeds is‬
‭the adiabatic compression of the air in front of the spacecraft.‬‭2‬ ‭As the spacecraft‬
‭travels faster than the speed at which disturbances can propagate through the air, the‬
‭air molecules in its path are compressed rapidly and violently. This compression‬
‭causes a near-instantaneous increase in the temperature of the air in the immediate‬
‭vicinity of the spacecraft, forming a high-temperature shock layer.‬‭6‬ ‭While friction does‬
‭play a role within the boundary layer, the layer of air directly in contact with the‬
‭spacecraft's surface, the primary source of the intense heat is this compression.‬‭4‬

‭ he thermal loads experienced by a re-entering spacecraft are primarily categorized‬

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‭as convective heating and radiative heating.‬‭2‬ ‭Convective‬‭heating occurs through the‬
‭direct transfer of heat from the hot, high-velocity gases in the shock layer to the‬
‭spacecraft's surface. This transfer is influenced by factors such as the temperature‬
‭and density of the gas, as well as the flow conditions within the boundary layer.‬
‭Radiative heating, on the other hand, involves the transfer of heat through‬
‭electromagnetic waves emitted by the extremely hot gases in the shock layer. Snippet‬
‭2‬
‭reveals a critical aspect of these heating modes:‬‭their dependence on the‬
‭spacecraft's velocity. At very high velocities, such as those encountered during initial‬
‭atmospheric entry, radiative heating, which scales with the eighth power of velocity,‬
‭becomes the dominant contributor to the overall heat load. As the spacecraft‬
‭decelerates, convective heating, proportional to the third power of velocity, becomes‬
‭increasingly significant. Therefore, the design of the TPS must account for this‬
‭transition in the dominant mode of heat transfer throughout the re-entry trajectory.‬‭2‬

‭ everal factors influence the intensity of aerodynamic heating experienced by a‬

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‭spacecraft. The re-entry speed is a primary determinant, with higher speeds leading‬
‭to significantly greater heating.‬‭2‬ ‭The angle of attack,‬‭the angle between the‬
s‭ pacecraft's longitudinal axis and the direction of the oncoming airflow, also plays a‬
‭crucial role in determining the distribution and magnitude of heating. Altitude and‬
‭atmospheric density are directly related; at lower altitudes, the atmosphere is denser,‬
‭resulting in more frequent collisions between air molecules and the spacecraft, thus‬
‭increasing heating.‬‭5‬ ‭Finally, the spacecraft's shape‬‭is a critical design parameter for‬
‭managing thermal loads. Snippet‬‭5‬ ‭highlights the effectiveness‬‭of the blunt body‬
‭concept, which increases the drag coefficient. This increased drag forces the shock‬
‭wave and the intensely heated shock layer further away from the spacecraft's surface,‬
‭reducing the amount of heat transferred to the vehicle.‬‭2‬

‭ t the extreme temperatures generated during high-speed re-entry, the air molecules‬
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‭in the shock layer can become ionized and dissociated, forming a plasma.‬‭2‬ ‭This‬
‭plasma can significantly affect heat transfer to the spacecraft and can also lead to a‬
‭phenomenon known as communication blackout, where the ionized air interferes with‬
‭radio signals between the spacecraft and ground control.‬‭2‬ ‭Understanding the physics‬
‭of this plasma formation and its interaction with the spacecraft's TPS is crucial for‬
‭ensuring both the survival of the vehicle and the maintenance of essential‬
‭communication links.‬

‭4. Need for Thermal Protection Systems‬

‭ he conditions encountered during atmospheric re-entry are so extreme that without‬

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‭a dedicated Thermal Protection System, spacecraft would not be able to survive the‬
‭immense heat generated.‬‭3‬ ‭Temperatures can reach thousands‬‭of degrees Celsius, far‬
‭exceeding the melting points of most common spacecraft construction materials like‬
‭aluminum, which melts around 660°C.‬‭3‬ ‭These temperatures‬‭would lead to‬
‭catastrophic structural failure, causing the spacecraft to disintegrate under the‬
‭combined effects of thermal stress and aerodynamic forces.‬

‭ eyond the structural integrity, the sensitive payload carried by spacecraft, including‬
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‭scientific instruments, communication equipment, and cargo, is also highly‬
‭susceptible to damage from extreme heat.‬‭3‬ ‭Maintaining‬‭these systems within their‬
‭operational temperature limits is crucial for the success of the mission. Furthermore,‬
‭in the case of crewed missions, the safety of the astronauts is paramount. The interior‬
‭of the spacecraft must be kept at a habitable temperature to ensure the survival and‬
‭well-being of the crew during the re-entry process.‬

‭ hermal Protection Systems act as a vital shield, effectively managing the heat‬
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‭generated during re-entry. They are designed to either absorb and dissipate the heat,‬
‭reflect it away from the spacecraft, or sacrifice themselves in a controlled manner to‬
‭ arry the heat away.‬‭3‬ ‭By implementing these strategies, TPS ensures that the‬
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‭temperature of the spacecraft's internal structure and payload remains within‬
‭acceptable limits, allowing for a safe and successful return from space. The‬
‭development and application of effective TPS are therefore fundamental to enabling‬
‭human and robotic space exploration and utilization.‬

‭5. Types of Thermal Protection Systems‬

‭ o counter the extreme heat of atmospheric re-entry, a variety of Thermal Protection‬

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‭Systems (TPS) have been developed, each employing different principles and‬
‭materials to safeguard the spacecraft.‬‭2‬ ‭These systems‬‭can be broadly categorized‬
‭into ablative, reusable, passive, active, and emerging technologies.‬

‭ blative TPS:‬‭Ablative TPS functions by dissipating‬‭heat through the controlled‬

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‭consumption of the material itself.‬‭2‬ ‭As the spacecraft‬‭re-enters the atmosphere, the‬
‭intense heat causes the outer layers of the ablative material to undergo phase‬
‭changes such as vaporization, melting, or sublimation. This process absorbs a‬
‭significant amount of thermal energy, which is then carried away as the material is‬
‭removed from the spacecraft's surface. Additionally, many ablative materials undergo‬
‭pyrolysis, a process of thermal decomposition that produces gases. These pyrolysis‬
‭gases are expelled outwards, forming a cooler boundary layer between the hot shock‬
‭layer and the spacecraft surface, further reducing the heat transfer.‬‭13‬ ‭Snippet‬‭15‬
‭highlights the complex chemical reactions that occur at the surface of an ablative TPS‬
‭interacting with hypersonic atmospheric flow. Transpiration cooling, discussed in‬
‭snippet‬‭14‬‭, where mass and energy are injected into‬‭the boundary layer, is another‬
‭mechanism associated with ablative systems. Ablative TPS are generally considered‬
‭single-use systems because the material is consumed during re-entry. They are‬
‭particularly well-suited for missions that experience very high heat fluxes and total‬
‭heat loads, such as re-entry from lunar or interplanetary trajectories.‬‭9‬

‭ eusable TPS:‬‭Reusable TPS are designed to withstand‬‭the extreme heating of‬

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‭atmospheric re-entry multiple times without significant degradation.‬‭2‬ ‭These systems‬
‭typically rely on a combination of high-temperature materials, insulation, and coatings‬
‭to manage the heat. They dissipate heat primarily through re-radiation from the‬
‭surface, where a significant portion of the absorbed heat is emitted back into the‬
‭atmosphere or space. The remaining heat is either absorbed by the material's thermal‬
‭mass or conducted through the insulation to the spacecraft's structure, where it is‬
‭managed by internal thermal control systems. The Space Shuttle's TPS is a prime‬
‭example of a reusable system, utilizing various types of tiles and blankets made from‬
‭materials like silica and reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC).‬‭3‬ ‭These systems are generally‬
‭ mployed for missions with milder entry environments, such as returns from Low Earth‬
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‭Orbit (LEO), where the overall heat flux is lower, making reusability a viable and‬
‭desirable option for reducing mission costs.‬‭3‬

‭ assive TPS:‬‭Passive TPS relies on the inherent thermal‬‭properties of the materials‬

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‭used to protect the spacecraft.‬‭11‬ ‭These systems typically‬‭utilize materials with high‬
‭heat capacity to absorb large amounts of heat with minimal temperature increase,‬
‭and low thermal conductivity to impede the transfer of heat to the spacecraft's‬
‭interior. Heat sinks, often made of metals with high thermal mass, are an example of‬
‭passive TPS used for short-duration heat pulses. Insulation layers made from ceramic‬
‭or composite materials also fall under this category, effectively reducing heat‬
‭conduction.‬

‭ ctive TPS:‬‭Active TPS involves the use of active‬‭cooling mechanisms to remove heat‬
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‭from the spacecraft's surface.‬‭11‬ ‭One common method‬‭is fluid cooling, where a coolant‬
‭fluid is circulated through channels embedded within the TPS, absorbing heat and‬
‭then being routed to a radiator to dissipate it into space. Transpiration cooling, as‬
‭discussed in snippets‬‭14‬ ‭and‬‭16‬‭, is another active‬‭technique where a coolant (either a‬
‭gas or a liquid) is injected through a porous surface into the boundary layer, creating a‬
‭cooling film that reduces the heat transfer to the spacecraft. While active TPS can be‬
‭very effective, they often add complexity and weight to the spacecraft due to the‬
‭need for pumps, fluid storage, and distribution systems.‬‭12‬

‭ merging TPS Technologies:‬‭Several innovative TPS‬‭technologies are currently‬

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‭under development. Inflatable or deployable TPS represent a promising area, offering‬
‭the potential for larger heat shield diameters than can be accommodated within a‬
‭rocket fairing. These systems can be stowed in a compact configuration during launch‬
‭and then deployed to a larger size before re-entry, increasing drag and distributing‬
‭the heat load over a greater area.‬‭3‬ ‭This is particularly‬‭advantageous for returning large‬
‭payloads or for planetary entry missions.‬

‭6. Thermal Protection Materials‬

‭ he effectiveness of a Thermal Protection System is heavily dependent on the‬

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‭properties of the materials used in its construction. A wide range of materials have‬
‭been developed and employed, each with specific characteristics that make them‬
‭suitable for different types of TPS and mission requirements.‬

‭ blative Materials:‬‭Several materials are commonly‬‭used in ablative TPS due to their‬

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‭ability to effectively dissipate heat through material consumption. Phenolic‬
I‭mpregnated Carbon Ablator (PICA) is a lightweight material consisting of a carbon‬
‭fiber preform impregnated with a phenolic resin.‬‭35‬ ‭It offers excellent performance at‬
‭high heat fluxes and has been used on missions like Stardust, Mars Science‬
‭Laboratory, and SpaceX Dragon.‬‭9‬ ‭Variants like PICA-X,‬‭C-PICA, and Soft-PICA have‬
‭also been developed.‬‭37‬ ‭Silicone Impregnated Reusable‬‭Ceramic Ablator (SIRCA) is‬
‭another ablative material.‬‭16‬ ‭AVCOAT, used extensively‬‭on the Apollo Command Module‬
‭and currently on the Orion spacecraft, is an epoxy-novolac material with quartz fibers‬
‭and phenolic microballoons in a fiberglass honeycomb matrix.‬‭16‬ ‭SLA-561V is another‬
‭ablative material used in various missions.‬‭16‬ ‭Carbon‬‭Phenolic, an early and effective‬
‭ablative material, has been used for high-speed entries, including the Galileo probe‬
‭and the nose cap of ISRO's SRE-1 capsule.‬‭2‬

‭ eusable Materials:‬‭Reusable TPS relies on materials‬‭that can withstand high‬

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‭temperatures and repeated thermal cycles. The Space Shuttle utilized a variety of‬
‭silica-based tiles, including High-Temperature Reusable Surface Insulation (HRSI) tiles‬
‭for temperatures up to 1260°C, Low-Temperature Reusable Surface Insulation (LRSI)‬
‭tiles for lower temperature areas, Fibrous Refractory Composite Insulation (FRCI) tiles‬
‭offering improved durability, and Toughened Unipiece Fibrous Insulation (TUFI) tiles‬
‭for increased strength.‬‭3‬ ‭Flexible insulation blankets‬‭like Felt Reusable Surface‬
‭Insulation (FRSI) and Advanced Flexible Reusable Surface Insulation (AFRSI) were‬
‭used on upper surfaces.‬‭9‬ ‭Reinforced Carbon-Carbon‬‭(RCC), a strong all-carbon‬
‭composite, was used for the hottest areas like the wing leading edges and nose cap,‬
‭withstanding temperatures up to 1510°C.‬‭3‬

‭ merging Materials:‬‭Ongoing research is focused on‬‭developing advanced materials‬

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‭for future TPS. Three-dimensional woven composites, such as NASA's HEEET and‬
‭3D-MAT, offer improved strength and tailored thermal properties.‬‭37‬ ‭Ultra-High‬
‭Temperature Ceramics (UHTCs) are being explored for their exceptional heat‬
‭resistance.‬‭17‬ ‭Aerogels, with their extremely low density‬‭and high thermal resistance,‬
‭are promising for insulation, particularly in inflatable TPS.‬‭3‬ ‭Metallic TPS, such as‬
‭panels made of stainless steel, are also under development for potential advantages‬
‭in durability and structural integration.‬‭18‬ ‭Conformal‬‭Ablative Thermal Protection‬
‭Systems (CA-TPS) aim to improve integration with the aeroshell structure.‬‭37‬
‭Additionally, new polymer systems like Phthalonitrile Impregnated Carbon Ablator‬
‭(PHICA) and Cyanate Ester Impregnated Carbon Ablator (CEICA) are being‬
‭investigated.‬‭38‬

‭7. Design and Engineering Considerations‬

‭The design and engineering of Thermal Protection Systems for spacecraft re-entry‬
i‭nvolve a complex interplay of various factors to ensure effective heat management‬
‭and spacecraft survival.‬‭3‬

‭ aterial Selection‬‭is a critical first step, requiring‬‭engineers to carefully match the‬

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‭thermal and mechanical properties of potential materials to the specific demands of‬
‭the mission and the expected aerothermal loads at different locations on the‬
‭spacecraft.‬‭3‬ ‭Properties such as thermal conductivity,‬‭heat capacity, ablation rate (for‬
‭ablative materials), emissivity (for reusable materials), density (for weight‬
‭considerations), and mechanical strength must be considered in relation to the‬
‭predicted heat flux, stagnation pressure, and overall thermal environment.‬

‭ hermal Analysis‬‭plays a vital role in the design‬‭process. Sophisticated‬

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‭computational tools, such as FIAT and CHAR, along with experimental methods like‬
‭arc jet testing, are employed to accurately predict the temperature profiles within the‬
‭TPS and the spacecraft structure during re-entry.‬‭11‬ ‭As highlighted in snippets‬‭35‬ ‭and‬‭35‬‭,‬
‭the development of the Mars 2020 TPS involved detailed thermal analysis using‬
‭aerothermal prediction tools and flight data comparison for model validation. These‬
‭analyses help engineers to determine the required thickness of the TPS material and‬
‭to ensure that the underlying spacecraft structure remains within acceptable‬
‭temperature limits.‬

‭ tructural Integration‬‭is another crucial consideration.‬‭The TPS must be able to‬

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‭withstand not only the extreme thermal loads but also the significant aerodynamic‬
‭forces, launch loads, and thermal stresses encountered during all phases of flight.‬‭35‬ ‭It‬
‭must be seamlessly integrated with the spacecraft's primary structure without‬
‭causing detrimental interactions due to differences in thermal expansion or‬
‭mechanical properties.‬

‭ he‬‭Aerodynamic Shape‬‭of the re-entry vehicle is intentionally‬‭designed to minimize‬

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‭the peak heating rates experienced and to distribute the total thermal load across a‬
‭larger surface area.‬‭2‬ ‭Blunt body shapes, for example,‬‭are commonly used to create a‬
‭detached shock wave, which helps to dissipate heat away from the spacecraft.‬

‭ eight Optimization‬‭is always a critical factor in‬‭spacecraft design, and the TPS is‬
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‭no exception.‬‭10‬ ‭Minimizing the mass of the TPS is‬‭essential to maximize the‬
‭spacecraft's payload capacity and overall mission efficiency. This necessitates the‬
‭selection of lightweight yet highly effective materials and the implementation of‬
‭optimized design techniques.‬

‭For spacecraft intended for multiple re-entries,‬‭Reusability‬‭and Maintenance‬‭are‬

k‭ ey design considerations.‬‭3‬ ‭The TPS must be designed to endure the harsh conditions‬
‭of repeated atmospheric entries without significant degradation, and it should require‬
‭minimal inspection and refurbishment between flights to reduce turnaround time and‬
‭costs, especially for reusable launch vehicles.‬

‭ inally,‬‭Gap Fillers and Seals‬‭are important engineering‬‭details, particularly in tiled‬

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‭TPS like that of the Space Shuttle and potentially future large heat shields.‬‭35‬ ‭These‬
‭components are designed to prevent hot, high-velocity gases from penetrating the‬
‭interfaces between individual TPS panels or tiles and reaching the underlying‬
‭spacecraft structure, which could lead to overheating and failure.‬

‭8. TPS in Modern Spacecraft and Missions‬

‭ he principles and materials discussed have been applied to a variety of modern‬

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‭spacecraft and missions, each tailored to the specific challenges of their re-entry‬
‭profiles.‬

‭ he‬‭Apollo‬‭program, which sent humans to the Moon,‬‭utilized a single-use ablative‬

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‭heat shield made of Avcoat to protect the Command Module during the high-velocity‬
‭re-entry into Earth's atmosphere.‬‭3‬ ‭This material effectively‬‭dissipated the immense‬
‭heat generated during lunar return.‬

‭ he‬‭Space Shuttle‬‭represented a significant leap forward‬‭with its reusable TPS.‬‭2‬ ‭It‬

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‭employed a complex system including Reinforced Carbon-Carbon (RCC) for the‬
‭hottest areas like the nose cap and wing leading edges, silica-based tiles (HRSI and‬
‭LRSI) covering most of the orbiter's surface, and flexible insulation blankets (FRSI and‬
‭AFRSI) on the upper fuselage and wings.‬

‭ ASA's‬‭Orion‬‭spacecraft, designed for lunar and deep‬‭space missions, also uses an‬
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‭ablative heat shield made of Avcoat, the same material as Apollo but with an updated‬
‭manufacturing process.‬‭3‬ ‭Additionally, it incorporates‬‭3D-MAT (3-Dimensional‬
‭Multifunctional Ablative Thermal Protection System) for the compression pads‬
‭between the crew and service modules.‬

‭ paceX's‬‭Dragon‬‭capsule, used for cargo and crew transport‬‭to the International‬

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‭Space Station (ISS), utilizes a heat shield made of Phenolic Impregnated Carbon‬
‭Ablator (PICA-X) for its main thermal protection during re-entry from LEO.‬‭3‬ ‭The‬
‭backshell of the Dragon capsule primarily uses SpaceX Proprietary Ablative Material‬
‭(SPAM).‬

‭The Indian Space Research Organisation's (ISRO)‬‭RLV-TD‬‭(Reusable Launch‬

‭ ehicle-Technology Demonstrator) features silica-based thermal protection tiles on‬
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‭its undercarriage to withstand the heat generated during hypersonic flight testing.‬
‭The nose cap of the RLV-TD is constructed from a Carbon-Carbon composite with a‬
‭SiC coating.‬‭3‬

I‭SRO’s‬‭CARE capsule‬‭(Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry‬‭Experiment) employed an‬

‭ablative TPS for its re-entry demonstration. The side panels were covered with‬
‭Medium Density Ablative (MDA) tiles, and the forward heat shield was made of carbon‬
‭phenolic.‬‭3‬

‭ he‬‭Mars 2020‬‭mission, which landed the Perseverance‬‭rover on Mars, utilized a heat‬

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‭shield with tiles made of Phenolic Impregnated Carbon Ablator (PICA) to protect the‬
‭entry vehicle during its high-speed descent through the Martian atmosphere.‬‭35‬ ‭The‬
‭mission also included the MEDLI2 instrumentation suite to collect data on the‬
‭aerothermal environment and TPS performance.‬

‭9. Literature Survey‬

‭ his chapter critically examines recent peer-reviewed research on Thermal Protection‬

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‭Systems for Atmospheric Re-entry, focusing on publications between 2020 and 2025‬
‭from leading aerospace journals and reports.‬

‭ yanna and Najafi (2020) published a comprehensive review in‬‭Acta Astronautica‬

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‭titled "Thermal protection systems for space vehicles: A review on technology‬
‭development, current challenges and future prospects".‬‭92‬ ‭This study surveyed the‬
‭evolution of passive, semi-passive, and active TPS technologies from the mid-20th‬
‭century to the present. The authors reviewed the application of different TPS for‬
‭various Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLVs) and presented the state-of-the-art in the‬
‭field. Identifying mass-efficient TPS materials, advanced modeling and simulation‬
‭tools, and improved sensor systems as key challenges, the paper provided valuable‬
‭insights into the future prospects of different TPS classes, highlighting the ongoing‬
‭quest for effective TPS for RLVs and interplanetary missions.‬

‭ ahzari et al. (2022) detailed the "Development and Sizing of the Mars 2020 Thermal‬
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‭Protection System" in a NASA technical report.‬‭35‬ ‭The‬‭objective of this work was to‬
‭provide an overview of the methodology and assumptions used for the thermal sizing‬
‭and design of the Mars 2020 aeroshell TPS. The study demonstrated that the as-built‬
‭thicknesses of the PICA, SLA-561V, and Acusil-II TPS materials were sufficient for the‬
‭predicted aerothermal environments. Ground testing in NASA arc jet facilities verified‬
‭the performance of the flight lot materials, and comparisons with flight temperature‬
‭ ata from the MEDLI2 suite showed that the thermal response models provided‬
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‭conservative thickness estimates. This research underscores the continued reliance‬
‭on ablative TPS for planetary entries and the importance of robust sizing‬
‭methodologies incorporating uncertainties.‬

‭ organ et al. (2024) at NASA Ames Research Center investigated the "Thermal‬
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‭Protection System Design of Aerocapture Systems for Uranus Orbiters".‬‭93‬ ‭This paper‬
‭discussed the unique challenges of designing TPS for an aerocapture mission to‬
‭Uranus, which involves a long duration heat pulse with minimal radiative heating. The‬
‭study evaluated several candidate TPS materials, identifying Conformal PICA (CPICA)‬
‭as the most mass-efficient for the forebody. The findings highlighted the need for‬
‭thicker TPS solutions compared to typical EDL missions due to the extreme heat load‬
‭and provided valuable comparative insights with TPS choices for missions to other‬
‭planets.‬

‭ ajamani (2023) published a review paper in the‬‭International‬‭Journal of Engineering‬

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‭Research & Technology‬‭titled "Heat Shields for Re-Entry‬‭Vehicles: A Review".‬‭10‬ ‭This‬
‭paper studied various thermal protection mechanisms and materials used in space‬
‭missions, analyzing advancements required in the field. It detailed the properties of‬
‭ablative and reusable heat shield materials and discussed thermal analysis methods‬
‭and numerical modeling. The review highlighted the continuous need for‬
‭advancements in TPS materials, especially for future interplanetary manned missions‬
‭and reusable launch vehicles, emphasizing enhanced durability and higher‬
‭temperature capabilities.‬

‭ olonkin (2007) proposed "A New Method of Atmospheric Reentry for Space Ships" in‬
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‭a conference paper published on ResearchGate.‬‭94‬ ‭This‬‭study examined the‬
‭atmospheric reentry of the Space Shuttle and suggested the use of a‬
‭high-temperature tolerant parachute made from carbon fiber for atmospheric air‬
‭braking. The key findings indicated that a parachute could significantly decrease the‬
‭Shuttle's speed and heat flow, potentially leading to lighter and cheaper spacecraft.‬
‭This work offers a comparative insight into an alternative braking mechanism for‬
‭reentry, highlighting the advancements in high-temperature materials.‬

‭ hawan et al. (2015) explored "Thermal Protection for a Re-Entry Vehicle Using Heat‬
D
‭Ablation Process" in the‬‭International Journal of‬‭Science and Research‬‭.‬‭16‬ ‭This paper‬
‭studied the heat management problem during re-entry and the effectiveness of heat‬
‭ablation. It identified various ablative materials and explained the mechanism of heat‬
‭shielding through the creation of a cooler boundary layer. The comparative analysis of‬
‭different ablative materials and the discussion of critical parameters for atmospheric‬
‭entry remain relevant to current TPS technologies.‬

‭ lpert et al. (2024) presented a trade study on "Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) for‬
A
‭High Velocity Earth Entry Missions" in a NASA technical report.‬‭39‬ ‭This presentation‬
‭evaluated the feasibility of high-velocity Earth entry missions using currently available‬
‭TPS materials, considering a range of entry conditions and sample return aeroshell‬
‭configurations. While the specific findings on material capabilities were not detailed in‬
‭the snippet, the study's objective to assess existing TPS for future high-velocity‬
‭missions is relevant to current space exploration trends.‬

‭ aryabeigi (2020) presented "Thermal Protection Systems for Aerospace Vehicles‬

D
‭During Atmospheric Entry" in a NASA technical report.‬‭95‬ ‭This presentation discussed‬
‭atmospheric entry, the need for TPS, and described ceramic insulations for passive‬
‭TPS. It also presented a thermal model for heat transfer in ceramic insulation and‬
‭discussed figures of merit for insulation performance. This work provides foundational‬
‭knowledge relevant to the continued use of ceramic insulations in modern TPS.‬

‭10. Future Trends and Innovations‬

‭ he field of Thermal Protection Systems is continuously evolving, driven by the‬

T
‭increasing demands of more ambitious space missions and the growing‬
‭commercialization of space.‬‭3‬ ‭Several key trends and‬‭innovations are shaping the‬
‭future of TPS technology.‬

‭ he development of‬‭reusable TPS‬‭is a major focus,‬‭particularly for commercial space‬

T
‭ventures aiming for frequent and cost-effective access to space.‬‭3‬ ‭This involves‬
‭research into materials that can withstand higher temperatures and more re-entry‬
‭cycles with minimal degradation and maintenance. SpaceX's Starship, with its‬
‭stainless steel structure and reusable tile-based TPS, exemplifies this trend.‬‭3‬

‭ dvanced materials‬‭are constantly being explored to‬‭enhance TPS performance.‬

A
‭This includes the development of novel composites like 3D woven fabrics, which offer‬
‭improved strength and tailored thermal properties.‬‭3‬ ‭Ultra-High Temperature Ceramics‬
‭(UHTCs) are being investigated for their ability to withstand extremely high heat‬
‭loads.‬‭17‬ ‭Aerogels, known for their exceptional insulating‬‭properties, are finding‬
‭applications in lightweight TPS, particularly for inflatable systems.‬‭3‬ ‭Metallic TPS,‬
‭offering potential durability and integration advantages, are also seeing renewed‬
‭interest.‬‭18‬

I‭ nflatable and deployable TPS‬‭represent a significant‬‭innovation, allowing for larger‬

‭heat shield diameters that can be stowed within the constraints of launch vehicles.‬‭3‬
‭ hese technologies are being explored for returning large payloads from orbit,‬
T
‭enabling more efficient planetary entries, and even for booster recovery, potentially‬
‭leading to significant cost reductions. NASA's LOFTID program and the European‬
‭ICARUS project are key examples of this emerging trend.‬‭3‬

‭ he integration of‬‭smart TPS‬‭is another promising‬‭area of development.‬‭48‬ ‭This‬

T
‭involves embedding sensors within the TPS to provide real-time data on its structural‬
‭health and thermal performance during flight. This information could enable adaptive‬
‭thermal control strategies and improve mission safety by detecting and responding to‬
‭potential issues.‬

‭ dditive manufacturing (3D printing)‬‭is also being‬‭explored for the fabrication of‬
A
‭TPS components.‬‭45‬ ‭This technology offers the potential‬‭for creating complex‬
‭geometries, reducing manufacturing costs and lead times, and enabling the‬
‭production of customized TPS solutions for specific mission needs.‬

‭ hile not as mature, research into‬‭self-healing materials‬‭for TPS is also underway.‬

W
‭The ability for a TPS to autonomously repair minor damage incurred during flight‬
‭would significantly enhance its durability and reusability.‬

‭11. Challenges in TPS Development‬

‭ espite significant advancements, the development of effective Thermal Protection‬

D
‭Systems for spacecraft re-entry continues to face several challenges.‬‭11‬

‭ ne persistent challenge is‬‭balancing performance‬‭with weight and cost‬‭.‬‭10‬

O
‭Achieving the required levels of thermal protection often necessitates the use of‬
‭dense materials or complex systems, which can significantly increase the spacecraft's‬
‭overall weight, thereby reducing payload capacity and increasing launch costs.‬
‭Finding lightweight yet highly effective TPS solutions that are also cost-efficient to‬
‭manufacture remains a critical goal.‬

‭ nsuring‬‭durability and reusability‬‭for TPS intended‬‭for multiple re-entries is‬

E
‭another significant hurdle.‬‭3‬ ‭These systems must withstand‬‭extreme temperature‬
‭variations, rapid thermal cycling, and significant aerodynamic stresses without‬
‭substantial degradation. Developing materials and designs that can reliably endure‬
‭these conditions over numerous missions is an ongoing challenge.‬

‭ esigning TPS for‬‭extreme environments‬‭, such as the‬‭very high heat fluxes‬

D
‭encountered during entry into the atmospheres of outer planets or during‬
‭high-velocity Earth re-entries from interplanetary missions, poses significant material‬
s‭ cience and engineering challenges.‬‭18‬ ‭The heat loads and durations in these scenarios‬
‭often exceed the capabilities of existing TPS materials, necessitating the development‬
‭of new, more robust solutions.‬

I‭ ntegration with the spacecraft structure‬‭is also‬‭a complex aspect of TPS‬

‭development.‬‭35‬ ‭Ensuring proper bonding between the‬‭TPS and the underlying‬
‭structure, managing thermal stresses that arise from differences in material‬
‭properties and temperature changes, and maintaining overall structural integrity‬
‭under various flight loads are critical engineering considerations.‬

‭ eliability and safety‬‭are paramount in TPS design,‬‭especially for crewed missions.‬‭10‬

R
‭The TPS must perform consistently and reliably under all expected and even some‬
‭unexpected mission conditions. Rigorous testing, stringent quality control measures,‬
‭and often the incorporation of redundant systems are necessary to ensure the safety‬
‭of the spacecraft and its occupants.‬

‭ esting and validation‬‭of TPS under realistic re-entry‬‭conditions is a major‬

T
‭challenge.‬‭2‬ ‭Ground-based testing facilities, such‬‭as arc jet tunnels, strive to simulate‬
‭the extreme heat and flow conditions of atmospheric entry, but accurately replicating‬
‭all aspects of the flight environment can be difficult. Developing and implementing‬
‭effective testing methodologies to validate the performance of new TPS materials and‬
‭designs remains crucial.‬

‭ inally, spacecraft in orbit are constantly at risk from impacts by‬‭micrometeoroids‬

F
‭and orbital debris (MMOD)‬‭.‬‭9‬ ‭Designing TPS that can‬‭withstand or minimize the‬
‭damage caused by these impacts, particularly for long-duration missions, is an‬
‭ongoing challenge. Even small impacts can potentially compromise the thermal‬
‭protection capabilities of the system.‬

‭12. Conclusion‬

‭ hermal Protection Systems are an indispensable component of spacecraft designed‬

T
‭for atmospheric re-entry, acting as a critical barrier against the extreme heat‬
‭generated during this phase of flight. This report has provided a comprehensive‬
‭overview of the fundamental physics governing re-entry heating, highlighting that‬
‭adiabatic compression, rather than just friction, is the primary cause of the intense‬
‭thermal loads. The necessity of TPS for ensuring the survival of spacecraft, their‬
‭payloads, and crews has been emphasized, underscoring the limitations of‬
‭conventional spacecraft materials to withstand such extreme conditions.‬

‭A diverse range of TPS types, including ablative, reusable, passive, active, and‬
‭ merging technologies like inflatable systems, have been discussed, each with its own‬
e
‭set of principles, advantages, and limitations. The report has also detailed the various‬
‭materials employed in these systems, from legacy ablatives like PICA and Avcoat to‬
‭the advanced reusable tiles of the Space Shuttle and the promising new materials like‬
‭3D woven composites and aerogels. The design and engineering considerations‬
‭crucial for developing effective TPS, including material selection, thermal analysis,‬
‭structural integration, and weight optimization, have been explored. Furthermore, the‬
‭application of these TPS technologies in prominent modern spacecraft and missions,‬
‭such as Apollo, Space Shuttle, Orion, SpaceX Dragon, and ISRO’s re-entry vehicles,‬
‭has been examined, providing real-world context to the discussed concepts.‬

‭ he literature survey presented a critical analysis of recent research, revealing‬

T
‭ongoing efforts to improve the performance and reduce the weight of TPS, develop‬
‭more durable and reusable systems, and explore innovative technologies for future‬
‭space missions. These studies highlight the continuous advancements in the field and‬
‭the increasing reliance on computational modeling and flight data for design and‬
‭validation.‬

‭ ooking ahead, the future of TPS technology is marked by exciting trends and‬
L
‭innovations, including the development of more robust reusable systems, the‬
‭application of advanced materials, the maturation of inflatable and deployable heat‬
‭shields, the integration of smart sensing capabilities, and the potential of additive‬
‭manufacturing. However, significant challenges remain in balancing performance with‬
‭weight and cost, ensuring durability and reliability, and designing for the extreme‬
‭environments of future space exploration.‬

I‭n conclusion, Thermal Protection Systems are a vital enabling technology for‬
‭spaceflight. The advancements made in TPS over the decades have been instrumental‬
‭in facilitating increasingly complex and ambitious space missions. Continued research‬
‭and innovation in this field will be crucial for unlocking the full potential of space‬
‭exploration and commercialization, ensuring the safe and successful return of‬
‭spacecraft from orbit and beyond.‬

‭13. References‬
‭92‬
‭ yanna, O., & Najafi, H. (2020). Thermal protection‬‭systems for space vehicles: A‬
U
‭review on technology development, current challenges and future prospects.‬‭Acta‬
‭Astronautica‬‭,‬‭176‬‭, 341-356.‬
‭35‬
‭Mahzari, M., Beck, R., Hwang, H., Monk, J., Morgan,‬‭J., Williams, J., & Edquist, K.‬
(‭ 2022).‬‭Development and Sizing of the Mars 2020 Thermal Protection System‬‭. NASA‬
‭Ames Research Center.‬
‭93‬
‭ organ, J., Venkatapathy, E., Gasch, M., Williams,‬‭J., Deshmukh, R. G., Shellabarger,‬
M
‭E.,... & Dutta, S. (2024).‬‭Thermal Protection System‬‭Design of Aerocapture Systems for‬
‭Uranus Orbiters‬‭. NASA Ames Research Center.‬
‭10‬
‭ ajamani, A. (2023). Heat Shields for Re-Entry‬‭Vehicles: A Review.‬‭INTERNATIONAL‬
R
‭JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY (IJERT)‬‭,‬‭12‬‭(03), 1-8.‬
‭94‬
‭ olonkin, A. (2007).‬‭A New Method of Atmospheric‬‭Reentry for Space Ships‬‭.‬
B
‭ esearchGate.‬
R
‭16‬
‭ hawan, S., Vishal, M., & Taploo, A. (2015). Thermal‬‭Protection for a Re-Entry Vehicle‬
D
‭Using Heat Ablation Process.‬‭International Journal‬‭of Science and Research (IJSR)‬‭,‬
‭4‬‭(11), 1609-1613.‬
‭39‬
‭ lpert, H. S., Monk, J. D., White, T. R., & Venkatapathy,‬‭E. (2024).‬‭Thermal Protection‬
A
‭Systems (TPS) for High Velocity Earth Entry Missions‬‭.‬‭NASA Ames Research Center.‬
‭95‬
‭ aryabeigi, K. (2020).‬‭Thermal Protection Systems‬‭for Aerospace Vehicles During‬
D
‭Atmospheric Entry‬‭. NASA Langley Research Center.‬

‭14. Appendices‬

‭Table 1: Comparative Properties of Key TPS Materials‬

‭ ate‬
M ‭Type‬ ‭ ypi‬
T ‭ ax‬
M ‭ ens‬
D ‭ ey‬
K ‭ bla‬
A ‭ mis‬
E ‭ her‬
T ‭ eus‬
R ‭ ote‬
N
‭rial‬ ‭cal‬ ‭Serv‬ ‭ity‬ ‭Cons‬ ‭tion‬ ‭sivit‬ ‭mal‬ ‭abilit‬ ‭s‬
‭Nam‬ ‭Appl‬ ‭ice‬ ‭(kg/‬ ‭titue‬ ‭Rate‬ ‭y‬ ‭Con‬ ‭y‬
‭e‬ ‭icati‬ ‭Tem‬ ‭m³)‬ ‭nts‬ ‭(mm‬ ‭duct‬
‭ons‬ ‭p‬ ‭/s)‬ ‭ivity‬
‭(°C)‬ ‭(W/‬
‭mK)‬

‭PICA‬ ‭ blat‬
A ‭ tard‬
S ‭1650‬ ‭270‬ ‭ arb‬
C ‭High‬ ‭High‬ ‭Low‬ ‭ ingl‬
S ‭ ight‬
L
‭ive‬ ‭ust,‬ ‭on‬ ‭e-us‬ ‭weig‬
‭MSL,‬ ‭fiber,‬ ‭e‬ ‭ht,‬
‭Drag‬ ‭phen‬ ‭effici‬
‭on‬ ‭olic‬ ‭ent‬
‭resin‬ ‭at‬
‭high‬
‭heat‬
 ‭flux‬

‭ vco‬
A ‭ blat‬
A ‭ poll‬
A ‭2760‬ ‭560‬ ‭ pox‬
E ‭High‬ ‭High‬ ‭ edi‬
M ‭ ingl‬
S ‭ igh‬
H
‭at‬ ‭ive‬ ‭o‬ ‭y‬ ‭um‬ ‭e-us‬ ‭-tem‬
‭CM,‬ ‭novol‬ ‭e‬ ‭perat‬
‭Orio‬ ‭ac,‬ ‭ure‬
‭n‬ ‭silica‬ ‭capa‬
‭fiber‬ ‭bility‬
‭s‬

‭RCC‬ ‭ eus‬
R ‭ pac‬
S ‭1510‬ ‭1900‬ ‭ arb‬
C ‭ ery‬
V ‭High‬ ‭ edi‬
M ‭ ulti‬
M ‭ tron‬
S
‭able‬ ‭e‬ ‭on‬ ‭Low‬ ‭um‬ ‭ple‬ ‭g,‬
‭Shutt‬ ‭fiber‬ ‭high-‬
‭le‬ ‭s,‬ ‭temp‬
‭leadi‬ ‭carb‬ ‭eratu‬
‭ng‬ ‭on‬ ‭re‬
‭edge‬ ‭matri‬ ‭resist‬
‭s,‬ ‭x,‬ ‭ant‬
‭nose‬ ‭SiC‬
‭coati‬
‭ng‬

‭ RSI‬
H ‭ eus‬
R ‭ pac‬
S ‭1260‬ ‭144‬ ‭ ilica‬
S ‭ ery‬
V ‭High‬ ‭ ery‬
V ‭ ulti‬
M ‭ ight‬
L
‭Tiles‬ ‭able‬ ‭e‬ ‭fiber‬ ‭Low‬ ‭Low‬ ‭ple‬ ‭weig‬
‭Shutt‬ ‭s,‬ ‭ht,‬
‭le‬ ‭RCG‬ ‭good‬
‭lower‬ ‭coati‬ ‭insul‬
‭surfa‬ ‭ng‬ ‭ation‬
‭ce‬

‭ RSI‬
F ‭ eus‬
R ‭ pac‬
S ‭370‬ ‭48‬ ‭ om‬
N ‭ ery‬
V ‭ edi‬
M ‭Low‬ ‭ ulti‬
M ‭ lexi‬
F
‭Blank‬ ‭able‬ ‭e‬ ‭ex‬ ‭Low‬ ‭um‬ ‭ple‬ ‭ble,‬
‭ets‬ ‭Shutt‬ ‭felt,‬ ‭low‬
‭le‬ ‭silico‬ ‭main‬
‭uppe‬ ‭ne‬ ‭tena‬
‭r‬ ‭rubb‬ ‭nce‬
‭surfa‬ ‭er‬
‭ce‬

‭ EEE‬
H ‭ blat‬
A ‭ utur‬
F ‭ 200‬
> ‭ edi‬
M ‭ D‬
3 ‭High‬ ‭High‬ ‭Low‬ ‭ ingl‬
S ‭ ual‬
D
‭T‬ ‭ive‬ ‭e‬ ‭0‬ ‭um‬ ‭wove‬ ‭e-us‬ ‭-laye‬
‭high‬ ‭n‬ ‭e‬ ‭r,‬
‭heat‬ ‭carb‬ ‭high‬
‭flux‬ ‭on/p‬ ‭mass‬
‭missi‬ ‭heno‬ ‭effici‬
 ‭ons‬ ‭lic‬ ‭ency‬

I‭nflat‬ ‭ mer‬
E ‭ arg‬
C ‭ arie‬
V ‭Low‬ ‭ era‬
C ‭ arie‬
V ‭ arie‬
V ‭ ery‬
V ‭ ote‬
P ‭ arg‬
L
‭able‬ ‭ging‬ ‭o‬ ‭s‬ ‭mic‬ ‭s‬ ‭s‬ ‭Low‬ ‭ntiall‬ ‭e‬
‭TPS‬ ‭retur‬ ‭fiber‬ ‭y‬ ‭area,‬
‭(Gen‬ ‭n,‬ ‭com‬ ‭Reus‬ ‭light‬
‭eric)‬ ‭boos‬ ‭posit‬ ‭able‬ ‭weig‬
‭ter‬ ‭es,‬ ‭ht‬
‭reco‬ ‭aero‬
‭very‬ ‭gels‬

‭Table 2: TPS Materials Used in Specific Spacecraft‬

‭Spacecraft/Mission‬ ‭Key TPS Component‬ ‭Materials Used‬ ‭TPS Type‬

‭Apollo‬ ‭Heat Shield‬ ‭ vcoat (Phenolic‬

A ‭Ablative‬
‭Epoxy Novolac)‬

‭Space Shuttle‬ ‭Nose Cap‬ ‭ einforced‬

R ‭Reusable‬
‭Carbon-Carbon‬
‭(RCC)‬

‭Wing Leading Edge‬ ‭ einforced‬

R ‭Reusable‬
‭Carbon-Carbon‬
‭(RCC)‬

‭Lower Surface‬ ‭ igh-Temperature‬

H ‭Reusable‬
‭Reusable Surface‬
‭Insulation (HRSI)‬

‭Upper Surface‬ ‭ ow-Temperature‬

L ‭Reusable‬
‭Reusable Surface‬
‭Insulation (LRSI), Felt‬
‭Reusable Surface‬
‭Insulation (FRSI),‬
‭Advanced Flexible‬
‭Reusable Surface‬
‭Insulation (AFRSI)‬

‭Orion‬ ‭Heat Shield‬ ‭ vcoat (Improved‬

A ‭Ablative‬
‭Manufacturing)‬
 ‭Compression Pads‬ ‭ -Dimensional‬
3 ‭Ablative‬
‭Multifunctional‬
‭Ablative TPS‬
‭(3D-MAT)‬

‭SpaceX Dragon‬ ‭Heat Shield‬ ‭ ICA-X (Phenolic‬

P ‭Ablative‬
‭Impregnated Carbon‬
‭Ablator-X)‬

‭Backshell‬ ‭ PAM (SpaceX‬

S ‭Ablative‬
‭Proprietary Ablative‬
‭Material)‬

‭ISRO’s RLV-TD‬ ‭Undercarriage‬ ‭Silica Tiles‬ ‭Reusable‬

‭Nose Cap‬ ‭ arbon-Carbon‬

C ‭Reusable‬
‭Composite with SiC‬
‭Coating‬

‭ISRO’s CARE‬ ‭Side Panels‬ ‭ edium Density‬

M ‭Ablative‬
‭Ablative (MDA) Tiles‬

‭Forward Heat Shield‬ ‭Carbon Phenolic‬ ‭Ablative‬

‭Mars 2020‬ ‭Aeroshell‬ ‭ ICA (Phenolic‬

P ‭Ablative‬
‭Impregnated Carbon‬
‭Ablator)‬

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