The Science and Practice of Middle and Long Distance

Running 1st Edition

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THE SCIENCE AND
PRACTICE OF MIDDLE
AND LONG DISTANCE
RUNNING

Edited by Richard C. Blagrove and

Philip R. Hayes
First published 2021
by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 Taylor & Francis
The right of Richard C. Blagrove and Philip R. Hayes to be identified as the authors
of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978-0-367-54358-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-42318-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-08891-2 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
CONTENTS

List of figures viii

List of tables xi
About the contributors xiii
Preface xxii

PART I
The Scientific Bases of Training and Performance 1

1 Physiological Determinants of Middle- and Long-Distance

Running 3
Philip R. Hayes and Daniel A. Gordon

2 The Biomechanics of Distance Running 17

Brian Hanley

3 Common Overuse Injuries in Runners and Injury Risk

Factors 28
Christopher A. Bramah

4 Nutritional Requirements for Distance Runners 47

Matthew Cole, Richard C. Blagrove, Meghan A. Brown, Jennie Carter
and Justin D. Roberts

5 Psychology of Distance Running 66

Stacy Winter and Carla Meijen
vi Contents

PART II
Training and Event Considerations 77

6 Physiological Assessment of Middle- and Long-Distance

Runners 79
Andy Galbraith

7 Movement Screening and Physical Capacity Assessments 97

Louis P. Howe and Paul J. Read

8 Training Volume and Intensity Distribution Among Elite

Middle- and Long-Distance Runners 118
Arturo Casado and Leif Inge Tjelta

9 Tapering and Peaking for an Event or Major Competition 132

Kate L. Spilsbury

10 Running Coaching Case Study and Lessons Learned 145

Steve Macklin

11 Short-Term Nutrition Strategies to Maximise Event-Day

Performance 163
Justin D. Roberts and Matthew Cole

12 Strategic and Tactical Decision-Making in Middle- and

Long-Distance Running Races 176
Andy Renfree and Brian Hanley

13 Gait Retraining for Performance and Injury Risk 185

Izzy S. Moore, Tom Goom and Kelly J. Ashford

14 Strength Training for Enhancing Performance and Reducing

Injury Risk 207
Richard C. Blagrove and David R. Hooper

15 Specific Conditioning to Reduce Injury Risk 223

Stuart Butler

PART III
Specific Issues and Populations 247

16 Training Monitoring 249

Mark R. Homer and Charles R. Pedlar
 Contents vii

17 Recovery Strategies 266

Glyn Howatson and Tom Clifford

18 Low Energy Availability: Identification, Management and

Treatment 281
Jessica Piasecki

19 Nurturing Young Distance Runners 291

Richard C. Blagrove, Philip E. Kearney and Karla L. Drew

20 Considerations for the Female Runner 306

Georgie Bruinvels, Esther Goldsmith and Nicola Brown

21 Performance Decline in Master Endurance Runners 328

Ceri E. Diss and Arran Parmar

References 342
Index 417
FIGURES

1.1a Men’s and women’s world record running speeds 4

1.1b Comparison of running speeds of a middle-distance (MD) and long-
distance (LD) runner 5
1.2 Deterministic model of middle- and long-distance running performance 7
3.1 Incidence and prevalence of common running injuries amongst distance
running populations 29
3.2 Pictorial representation of the interaction between load capacity,
load application, recovery and injury development 34
3.3 Cycle of injury/re-injury 41
6.1 Example blood lactate and heart rate data from the sub-maximal
treadmill test 87
6.2 The linear distance-time model for CS and D’, based on data from three
fixed-distance performance trials 91
7.1 A four-stage model to systematically investigate movement faults 107
9.1 A schematic representation of different tapering patterns: linear taper,
exponential taper with slow or fast time constants of decay of the
training, and step taper 136
9.2 A schematic representation of linear and two-phase tapering patterns 137
10.1 Training macrocycle for the 2017–18 season for Darragh 149
10.2 Heart rate (top lines) and blood lactate (bottom lines) responses during two
sub-maximal incremental treadmill running tests during the
2017–18 season 150
10.3 Long-term changes in running volume taken from a sample week during
cross-country or track preparatory periods characterized by high relative
volumes of running 151
10.4 Training intensity distribution for sample training weeks during cross-
country or track preparatory periods 153
11.1 A summary of methods to ‘train the gut’, physiological adaptations that
may occur and the affect upon performance 168
 Figures ix

11.2 Pre-event (top schematic) and in-event (bottom schematic) nutritional

strategies for a male 75 kg marathon runner 174
11.3 Pre-event nutritional ergogenic aids that could be used by a middle-
distance track runner 174
13.1 Relationship between the deviations from self-selected running gait
characteristics (%) and from the metabolic cost during self-selected gait (%) 189
14.1 The training activity specificity pyramid 214
14.2 A generalised annual plan for a runner targeted a competitive track season
in the Northern Hemisphere 216
14.3a An example of a mini (home-based) strength and conditioning training
routine that could be performed on most days of the week around
running training 219
14.3b An example of a basic resistance training session for a runner 220
15.1 Main technical points for coaching the A-skip drill 228
15.2 Straight leg calf raises 232
15.3 Bent knee calf raises 233
15.4 Weighted calf and Achilles tendon loading 235
15.5 Plantar fascia calf raise with the big toe extended 236
15.6 Exercises for conditioning the anterior shin (a), medial shin (b) and
lateral shin muscles (c) 237
15.7 Reverse Nordic exercise 240
15.8 Long lever side plank with dynamic knee flexion (left) and short lever
side plank (from knees) with upper body stimulus (right) 241
15.9 Start position of the hip thrust exercise (left) and top position of the
glute bridge with resistance band (right) 242
15.10 Nordic hamstring exercise (band-assisted version) 244
16.1 The acute and chronic hormetic response to exercise training 251
16.2 Borg’s 6–20 Rating of Perceived Exertion scale 256
16.3 Distribution of monitoring tools 263
17.1 Conceptual timeline of the recovery process 268
17.2 Theoretical hormesis curve 279
18.1 The Female Athlete Triad showing the spectrums of energy availability,
menstrual function and bone mineral density (BMD) 284
18.2 The left image denotes the health consequences of relative energy
deficiency in sport (RED-S), and the right image shows the
performance consequences of RED-S 285
19.1 Individual and external factors perceived to impact the junior-to-senior
transition in British track-and-field athletes 299
19.2 Suggested performance pyramid and model for long-term development
of a youth performer who displays talent and/or motivation to succeed
as a distance runner 303
20.1 The hormonal fluctuations that occur throughout the menstrual cycle 309
20.2 Non-reproductive physiological systems/processes in which ovarian
hormones, oestrogen and progesterone, are involved 310
21.1 Middle-distance men’s and women’s master records by age group
presented as pace 329
x Figures

21.2 Long-distance men’s and women’s master records by age group presented
as pace 329
21.3 The mean vertical and horizontal ground reaction forces during the stance
phase for all groups 337
21.4 The total sagittal plane support moment and the contribution of each lower
body joint at amortisation for each group 339
TABLES

1.1 Relative energy system contribution by time and race distance 6

4.1 Carbohydrate intake guidelines for distance runners during different
training and event scenarios 51
4.2 Main vitamins and minerals, their physiological functions, recommended
intake, and food sources 57
4.3 Common acute strategies associated with manipulation of carbohydrate
availability to maximise training/event performance and augment
training adaptation 64
5.1 The six principles of effective goal setting for distance runners 73
6.1 Normative data for V̇ O2max (mL.kg−1.min−1) for male and female
distance runners 83
7.1 Single-leg heel raise scores (number of repetitions performed) for 11
athletes from two separate testing days and the between-session
absolute difference 99
7.2 Guidelines for each example screen, including the performance criteria 101
7.3 Isolated assessments for mobility testing relevant to the squat screen 109
7.4 Guidelines for example strength diagnostic and tissue capacity assessments 112
7.5 Normative data for strength diagnostic and tissue capacity assessment 116
8.1 Training week in period October–end of January 1996 for Vebjørn Rodal 125
8.2 Arturo Casado’s training week of 105–110 km conducted during the
competitive period in July 2010, three weeks prior to becoming 1500 m
European champion 127
8.3 A 155–165 km training week conducted by Stewart McSweyn during
February 2020 two months after setting an Australian record in the
10,000 m (27:23.80) 128
8.4 A 210–220 km training week conducted by Sinead Diver during
February 2020, six weeks prior to a supposed London Marathon
which finally was not held due to coronavirus spread 131
9.1 Physiological and psychological changes during tapering 134
xii Tables

10.1 Summary of rate of perceived exertion and running economy data for
two sub-maximal incremental treadmill running tests during the
2017–18 season 150
10.2 Examples of cross-country preparatory training from same time
(November) across three successive training years 152
10.3 Volumes of training at various intensities across a training macrocycle
(2017–18) 153
10.4 Progression of personal best performances for track seasons 2014–19 159
13.1 Modifiable intrinsic and extrinsic running biomechanics and their effect
on running economy (RE) 187
13.2 Example cadence manipulation equations 192
13.3 Gait retraining methods for targeted biomechanical variables 193
14.1 Example of a training week for a non-elite distance runner and organisation
of strength training using a ‘micro-dosing’ approach, which includes two
short resistance training sessions 218
15.1 Summary of the primary function of specific biological tissues and the
focus of exercise activities to achieve adaptation 225
15.2 Muscle contraction types, their common use in injury risk reduction and
exercise prescription 227
15.3 Stages of bony injury and common symptoms associated with each stage 229
15.4 Areas considered high and low risk for bone stress injuries in long-distance
runners 230
16.1 Principles of monitoring 253
18.1 Female Athlete Triad cumulative risk assessment 287
18.2 Risk assessment model for RED-S 289
19.1 The extent to which athletes ranked in the top 20 at an age grade (a)
remain participating in athletics and (b) retain their top 20 ranking
across age grades 296
21.1 The mean ± standard deviation of running speed, step length, step
frequency, and the athletes’ current 10 km time for each group 336
21.2 The mean ± standard deviation of the sagittal plane lower body joint angles
for each age group to the nearest degree 338
21.3 The mean ± standard deviation for the sagittal plane lower joint moments
at amortisation and the total support moment for each age group 339
CONTRIBUTORS

Kelly J. Ashford, PhD, SFHEA, is currently Research Associate and Project Manager at the
University of British Columbia–Okanagan. She has previously held lectureship roles at Car-
diff Metropolitan University and Brunel University London, as well as undertaking a series
of senior leadership roles (e.g., Programme Director, Deputy Head of School – Learning and
Teaching) at the latter. Kelly attained her PhD from Brunel University London, where she
investigated the attentional processes underlying skill disruption in situations of heightened
stress. Her current research examines the critical role of attention in skilled individuals across
a variety of settings (e.g. sport and education) with the intention of developing and refining
novel interventions to enhance performance.

Christopher A. Bramah, PhD, MCSP, is a physiotherapist and researcher at both the Man-
chester Institute of Health & Performance and the University of Salford. As a Physiotherapist,
Chris has worked for British Athletics and Team GB, supporting their endurance athletes
throughout numerous championships, including the 2016 Rio Olympic Games, the 2017
London World Championships, IAAF Diamond League events and several international high-
altitude training camps. Alongside his work in athletics, Chris operates a private physiotherapy
clinic, Extra Mile Health, where he provides physiotherapy support to athletes across mul-
tiple different sports. Chris’s current research investigates the biomechanical characteristics
of high-performance endurance running, with his PhD focusing on the biomechanics of
running-related injuries and gait retraining. He has published multiple peer-reviewed articles
in academic journals and presented his work at both national and international conferences.
Chris also provides consultancy biomechanical assessments across a range of sports, including
professional football clubs, British Triathlon and British Athletics.

Meghan A. Brown, PhD, FHEA, SENr, is a lecturer in sport and exercise nutrition at Bir-
mingham City University and contributes to undergraduate and postgraduate courses across
the Department of Sport and Exercise as well as research activity in the Centre for Life and
Sport Sciences. Meghan has provided nutrition support to a variety of athletes across differ-
ent levels as a registered sport and exercise nutritionist. She has many research interests, but
xiv Contributors

predominantly in nutrition and exercise metabolism; specifically, nutritional interventions

to promote sport and exercise recovery which was the focus of her PhD at Northumbria
University. Meghan has worked closely with dancers and has a special interest in energy avail-
ability and the specific requirements of female athletes.

Nicola Brown, PhD, is an associate professor in female health at St Mary’s University, Twick-
enham. She is also a member of the Research Group in Breast Health at the University of
Portsmouth which is well known within the commercial sector, with research projects funded
by many of the major lingerie, sports bra, and sporting apparel manufacturers around the
world. Recent projects Nicola has been involved in include investigation of sports bra use,
sports bra preferences, breast pain and bra fit issues in exercising females, breast education of
adolescent schoolgirls, and the relationship between breast size and body composition. These
projects aim to increase scientific knowledge of breast health issues and to inform effective
strategies for optimising health and performance of female athletes and exercisers.

Georgie Bruinvels, PhD, is a research scientist at Orreco and a visiting research associate
at St Mary’s University, Twickenham. Georgie co-created the FitrWoman Female Athlete
Programme at Orreco and has worked extensively with elite athletes in both Olympic and
professional sports. Georgie’s real passion is to break down barriers for women in sport by
increasing education and driving research. Her primary aim is to empower women with the
tools to know how to support their health and performance. Georgie obtained her PhD
from University College London. Specific areas of current research include understanding the
physiological impacts of different hormonal profiles in female athletes, including the aetiol-
ogy of menstrual symptoms and how hormonal contraception and menstrual dysfunction may
impact readiness and health.

Stuart Butler, MSc, MCSP, BSc (Hons), is a chartered physiotherapist and the medical lead
at England Athletics. He has over 15 years’ experience working with track and field athletes
of all abilities from local club runners to internationals. He has a MSc from the University
of Southampton and undertook his BSc at Middlesex University in sports rehabilitation. He
led the athletics medical teams at the Glasgow and Gold Coast Commonwealth Games and
has travelled extensively with GB Athletics teams of all ages. He presently works in private
practice in Surrey and continues to facilitate the England Athletics Coach and Athlete Devel-
opment program. He has a keen interest in biomechanics and running efficiency, as well as
hamstring muscle injuries and, more specifically, proximal hamstring tendinopathies. He has
written blogs for the British Journal of Sports Medicine and is active in health promotion (both
physical and mental) of running.

Jennie Carter, BSc (Hons), IOC PGDip, SENr, is a lecturer in sport and exercise nutrition at
Birmingham City University and a registered Sport and Exercise Nutritionist (SENr). She has
10 years’ experience of working in the applied field of sports nutrition with athletes, including
a variety of football and cricket clubs. She is currently studying a PhD researching nutrition
within professional academy football players at Birmingham City University.

Arturo Casado, PhD, MSc, OLY, RFEAC (Spain Athletics accredited level 3 coach), is a
Spanish former professional middle-distance runner specialised at 800 m and 1500 m and
 Contributors xv

(accredited) coach of international-level runners. His PhD study focused on high perfor-
mance in long-distance runners (deliberate practice and training intensity distribution of the
best Kenyan and Spanish long-distance runners). As an athlete, he was European outdoor
1500 m champion in Barcelona 2010 and competed three times at the World Championships
(Helsinki 2005, Osaka 2007, Berlin 2009), twice making the final (2005, 2007). He is currently
working as a lecturer at International University, Isabel I de Castilla, in the area of training
development, and teaches on the MSc High Performance in Sports for the Spanish Olympic
Committee. He has published several scientific articles on pacing and training intensity dis-
tribution in middle- and long-distance running events, has been invited to deliver numerous
presentations on training for distance-runners, and currently leads an international research
project funded by World Antidoping Agency.

Tom Clifford, PhD, FHEA, SENR, is a lecturer in physiology and nutrition at Loughborough
University. He previously worked at Newcastle University as a teaching fellow and lecturer
in sports and exercise nutrition and metabolism. Tom is an accredited sport scientist with the
British Association of Sports and Exercise Sciences and a registered sports nutritionist. He has
provided nutrition consultancy to a range of sports, including Rugby Union, Triathlon, and
Paralympic Swimming. He gained a PhD in health and exercise nutrition from Northumbria
University, investigating the role of beetroot in health and exercise. His current research is
investigating the health and well-being of professional football players and nutritional inter-
ventions to accelerate recovery.

Matthew Cole, PhD, SFHEA, SENr, is Associate Professor in Sport and Exercise Nutrition
at Birmingham City University and Course Leader for the BSc (Hons) Sport and Exercise
Nutrition degree programme. His main research interests lie in endurance sport, having ini-
tially studied his MSc in sport and exercise nutrition at Loughborough University before
subsequently completing his PhD at the University of Kent, investigating the influence of dif-
ferent nutrition interventions on cycling efficiency. Matt has provided nutrition support to a
variety of elite athletes and teams, as well as being part of the anti-doping team at the London
2012 Olympic Games.

Ceri E. Diss, PhD, FHEA, CSci, is a reader in biomechanics and Programme Convenor of the
MSc in Sport and Exercise Sciences: Biomechanics at the University of Roehampton, UK.
She was also an elite long-distance runner and has represented Wales and Great Britain in
many road races, one of which was the 1991 World 15 km Road Championships. She gained
her PhD from Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK, investigating the age-based biomechanics
of male running gait. She has analysed the biomechanics that underpins the gait of over one
hundred athletes ranging from recreational to elite-level runners with the aim of reducing
the incidence of injury. From 2005 to 2018 she worked for the running footwear company
Sweatshop in training their staff in gait analysis. Her recent research has focused on joint coor-
dination changes in running gait with age and gait retraining to reduce knee pain.

Karla L. Drew, PhD, MBPsS, is Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Psychology at Staffordshire
University. She gained a PhD from Liverpool John Moores University exploring the junior-
to-senior transition in sport, particularly looking at interventions to support athletes through
the transitional process. Karla is also a trainee sport psychologist, undertaking a Qualification