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 1 An Introduction to Machining 20 Precision Grinding ....................359
Technology ......................................1 21 Band Machining.........................387
2 Careers in Machining 22 Introduction to CNC
Technology ....................................13 Machining .................................. 403
3 Shop Safety .................................. 25 23 CNC Programming Basics ........417
4 Understanding Drawings .......... 33 24 CNC Milling ...............................431
5 Measurement ................................57 25 CNC Turning ............................. 445
6 I.,ayout ~orl<. ..................................85 26 Automated Manufacturing ..... 455
7 Hand Tools ....................................95 27 Quality Control ..........................467
8 Fasteners ......................................131 28 Metal Characteristics.................481
9 Jigs and Fixtures ......................... 147 29 Heat Treatment of Metals .........497
10 Cutting Fluids .............................153 30 Metal Finishing ..........................517
11 Sawing and Cutoff Machines ...159 31 Electromachining Processes.....531
12 Drills and Drilling Machines ...169 32 Nontraditional Machining
13 Offhand Grinding .................... 203 Techniques ..................................539
14 The I.,athe .....................................211 33 Other Processes ..........................551
15 Other I.,athe Operations ............251 Reference Section .................................570
16 Cutting Tapers and Screw Glossary of Technical Terms ............. 604
Threads on the I.,athe .................269
Acl<.nowledgments ...............................625
17 Broaching Operations ...............291 Index .......................................................626
18 The Milling Machine ................297
19 Milling Machine Operations ...327

••
VII

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 CHAPTER 1 4. 3 Prints ............................................................. 40
An Introduction to Machining 4.4 Types of Drawings Used in the Shop ....... 41
Technology ................................................ 1 4. 5 Parts List ....................................................... 44
4.6 Drawing Sizes .............................................. 44
1.1 The Evolution of Machine Tools.................. 2
4.7 Geometric Dimensioning and
1.2 Basic Machine Tool Operation .................... 5 Tolerancing................................................... 45
1.3 Nontraditional Machining Processes ......... 8
1.4 Automating the Machining Process ........... 9 CHAPTER 5
1.5 The Evolving Role of the Machinist ......... 10 Measurement .......................................... 57
1.6 Acquiring Machining Skills and
Knowledge ................................................... 11 5.1 The Rule ....................................................... 58
5.2 The Micrometer Caliper ............................. 60
CHAPTER2 5.3 Vernier Measuring Tools ............................ 65
Careers in Machining Technology ...... 13 5.4 Gages ............................................................. '.i'O
5.5 Dial Indicators ............................................. '.i'2
2.1 Machining Job Categories .......................... 14
5.6 Other Gaging Tools ...................................... '.i'4
2.2 Preparing to Find a Job in Machining
5.7 Helper Measuring Tools ............................. '.i'8
Technology ................................................... 20
2.3 How to Get a Job ......................................... 21
2.4 Keeping Your Skills Current ..................... 23
CHAPTER6
Layout Work ............................................ 85
CHAPTER3 6.1 Making Lines on Metal .............................. 86
Shop Safety .............................................25 6. 2 Squares ......................................................... 90
6.3 Measuring Angles ....................................... 91
3.1 Safety in the Shop ....................................... 26
6.4 Simple Layout Steps .................................... 92
3.2 General Machine Safety ............................. 29
3.3 General Tool Safety ..................................... 30
3.4 Fire Safety .................................................... 30
CHAPTER7
Hand Tools ............................................... 95
CHAPTER4 7.1 Clamping Devices ....................................... 96
Understanding Drawings .....................33 7.2 Pliers ............................................................. 9'.i'
7.3 Wrenches ...................................................... 99
4.1 Dimensions .................................................. 36
7.4 Screwdrivers .............................................. 104
4.2 Information Included on Drawings ......... 3'.i'
7.5 Striking Tools ............................................. 105
•• •
VIII

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 •
Machining Fundamentals IX

7.6 Chisels ........................................................ 106 12.3 Drills ........................................................... 173

7.7 Hacksaw ..................................................... 109 12.4 Drill-Holding Devices .............................. 178
7.8 Files ..............................................................113 12.5 Work-Holding Devices ............................. 180
7.9 Reamers ....................................................... 117 12.6 Cutting Speeds and Feeds ....................... 183
7.10 Hand Threading ......................................... 119 12.7 Cutting Fluids ............................................ 186
7.11 Hand Polishing.......................................... 127 12.8 Sharpening Drills ...................................... 187
12.9 Drilling ....................................................... 190
CHAPTERS 12.10 Countersinking ......................................... 194
Fasteners ................................................131 12.11 Counterboring ........................................... 195
8.1 Threaded Fasteners ................................... 132
12.12 Spotfacing................................................... 196
8.2 Nonthreaded Fastening Devices ............. 140
12.13 Tapping ....................................................... 197
8.3 Adhesives ................................................... 142
12.14 Reaming ..................................................... 198
8.4 Using Adhesives ........................................ 144
12.15 Microdrilling ............................................. 199

CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 13
.gs
JI and Fi·xtures •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
147 Offhand Grinding ................................203
9.1 Jigs ............................................................... 148
13.1 Abrasive Belt Grinders ............................. 204
9.2 Fixtures ....................................................... 150
13.2 Bench and Pedestal Grinders .................. 205
9.3 Jig and Fixture Construction ................... 150
13.3 Grinding Wheels ....................................... 206
13.4 Abrasive Belt and Wheel Grinder
Safety .......................................................... 207
CHAPTER 10 13.5 Using a Dry-Type Grinder ....................... 208
Cutting Fluids .......................................153 13.6 Using a Wet-Type Grinder ....................... 208
10.1 Types of Cutting Fluids ............................ 154 13.7 Portable Hand Grinders ........................... 209
10.2 Application of Cutting Fluids .................. 156
10.3 Evaluation of Cutting Fluids ................... 157 CHAPTER 14
~he I.,athe ............................................... 211
CHAPTER 11 14.1 Lathe Size ................................................... 212
Sawing and Cutoff Machines ............159 14.2 Major Parts of a Lathe ............................... 212
11.1 Metal-Cutting Power Saws ...................... 160 14.3 Work-Holding Attachments .....................217
11.2 Power Hacksaw .......................................... 161 14.4 Work-Holding between Centers ...............217
11.3 Power Band Saw ........................................ 163 14.5 Using Lathe Chucks .................................. 223
11.4 Using Power Hacksaws and Band 14.6 Cutting Tools and Tool Holders .............. 227
Sc1..ws ............................................................ 1.6~ 14.7 Cutting Speeds and Feeds ....................... 234
11.5 Metal-Cutting Circular Saws ................... 166 14.8 Preparing Lathe for Operation ................ 237
11.6 Power Saw Safety ....................................... 167 14.9 Cleaning the Lathe .................................... 238
14.10 Lathe Safety ............................................... 238
CHAPTER 12 14.11 Facing Operations ..................................... 239
Drills and Drilling Machines ............169 14.12 Turning Operations .................................. 240
12.1 Drilling Machines ..................................... 170 14.13 Parting and Grooving Operations .......... 245
12.2 Drill Press Safety ....................................... 173

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 x Machining Fundamentals

CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 19
Other Lathe Operations ......................251 Milling Machine Operations .............327
15.1 Boring on a Lathe ...................................... 252 19.1 Vertical Milling Machine ......................... 328
15.2 Drilling on a Lathe .................................... 253 19.2 Vertical Milling Machine Operations .... 328
15.3 Reaming on a Lathe .................................. 254 19.3 Milling Machine Care .............................. 337
15.4 Knurling on a Lathe .................................. 255 19.4 Horizontal Milling Machine Operations337
15.5 Filing and Polishing on a Lathe .............. 257 19.5 Cutting a Spur Gear .................................. 347
15.6 Steady and Follower Rests ....................... 258 19.6 Cutting a Bevel Gear................................. 351
15.7 Mandrels .................................................... 260 19.7 Thread Milling .......................................... 354
15.8 Grinding on the Lathe ............................... 261 19.8 Milling Machine Safety............................ 355
15.9 Milling on a Lathe ..................................... 264 19.9 Industrial Applications ............................ 356
15.10 Special Lathe Attachments ...................... 264 19.10 High-Velocity Machining ......................... 356
15.11 Industrial Applications of the Lathe ...... 264
CHAPTER20
CHAPTER 16 Precision Grinding ...............................359
Cutting Tapers and Screw Threads on 20.1 Types of Surface Grinders ........................ 360
the Lathe.................................................269 20.2 Work-Holding Devices ............................. 363
16.1 Taper Turning ............................................ 270 20.3 Grinding Wheels ....................................... 363
16.2 Measuring Tapers ......................................276 20.4 Cutting Fluids ............................................ 368
16.3 Cutting Screw Threads on the Lathe ...... 278 20.5 Grinding Applications.............................. 369
20.6 Grinding Problems ................................... 371
CHAPTER 17 20.7 Grinding Safety ......................................... 372
Broaching Operations .........................291 20.8 Universal Tool and Cutter Grinder ......... 372
20.9 Sharpening Cutters .................................... 374
17.1 Broaches and Broaching Machines......... 292
20.10 Cylindrical Grinding ................................ 377
17.2 Advantages of Broaching ......................... 294
20.11 Internal Grinding ...................................... 380
17.3 Keyway Broaching .................................... 294
20.12 Centerless Grinding .................................. 380
CHAPTER 18 20.13 Form Grinding .......................................... 382
20.14 Other Grinding Techniques..................... 382
The Milling Machine ..........................297
18.1 Types of Milling Machines ...................... 298 CHAPTER21
18.2 Milling Operations ................................... 303 Band Machining ...................................387
18.3 Milling Cutter Basics ................................ 304
21.1 Band Machining Advantages .................. 388
18.4 Types and Uses of Milling Cutters ......... 306
21.2 Band Blade Selection ................................ 389
18.5 Holding and Driving Cutters ...................313
21.3 Welding Blades .......................................... 391
18.6 Milling Cutting Speeds and Feeds .......... 316
21.4 Band Machine Preparation ...................... 393
18.7 Cutting Fluids .............................................319
21.5 Band Machining Operations ................... 395
18.8 Milling Work-Holding Attachments .......319
21.6 Band Machine Power Feed ...................... 396
18.9 Milling Safety Practices ........................... 323
21.7 Other Band Machining Applications ..... 398

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 Machining Fundamentals xi

21.8 Troubleshooting Band Machines ............ 400 CHAPTER26

21.9 Band Machining Safety ............................ 400 Automated Manufacturing.................455
26.1 Flexible Manufacturing Systems ............ 456
CHAPTER22
26.2 Robotics ...................................................... 458
Introduction to CNC Machining .......403
26.3 Safety in Automated Manufacturing ..... 461
22.1 History of CNC ......................................... 404 26.4 Rapid Prototyping Techniques ............... 461
22.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using 26.5 The Future of Automated
CNC ............................................................ 404 Manufacturing .......................................... 464
22.3 CNC Milling Machines ............................ 405
22.4 CNC Turning Machines ........................... 407 CHAPTER 27
22.5 CNC Safety .................................................410 Quality Control.....................................467
22.6 CNC Coordinate Systems .........................411
27.1 The History of Quality Control ............... 468
22.7 CNC Movement Systems ......................... 413
27.2 Types of Quality Control ......................... 469
CHAPTER23 27.3 Nondestructive Testing Techniques ....... 470
27.4 Other Quality Control Techniques ......... 479
CNC Programming Basics ..................417
23.1 Developing CNC Programs ......................418 CHAPTER28
23.2 Programming Methods .............................419 Metal Characteristics ...........................481
23.3 CAD and CAM Software ......................... 421
28.1 Classifying Metals .................................... 482
23.4 CNC Programming Codes ...................... 424
28.2 Ferrous Metals ........................................... 482
23.5 CNC Modal Commands .......................... 425
28.3 Nonferrous Metals .................................... 489
28.4 High-Temperature Metals ........................ 493
CHAPTER24
28.5 Rare Metals ................................................ 493
CN C Milling .........................................431
28.6 Other Materials ......................................... 493
24.1 Miscellaneous Function Codes ............... 432
24.2 Work-Holding Devices ............................. 434 CHAPTER 29
24.3 Planning the Program······························ 435 Heat T,reatment
.lJ of Metals •••••••••••••••••••497
24.4 Initial Programming and Preparing the
Machine ...................................................... 436 29.1 Heat-Treatable Metals ............................... 498
24.5 Programming the Machining 29.2 Types of Heat Treatment .......................... 498
Operations .................................................. 438 29.3 Heat Treatment of Other Metals ............. 501
29.4 Equipment for Heat-Treatment................ 502
CHAPTER25 29.5 Hardening Carbon Steel .......................... 505
CN C Turning .........................................445 29.6 Tempering Carbon Steel ........................... 506
29.7 Case Hardening Low-Carbon Steel ........ 506
25.1 Work-Holding Devices for CNC Turning
Centers ........................................................ 446 29.8 Hardness Testing ...................................... 507
25.2 Planning for a CNC Turning Program .. 447 29.9 Heat Treatment Safety .............................. 513
25.3 Initial Programming ................................. 449
25.4 Programming the Machine Operations. 450

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 xii Machining Fundamentals

CHAPTER 30 CHAPTER 33
Metal Finishing .................................... 517 Other Processes ..................................... 551
30.1 Quality of Machined Surfaces .................. 518 33.1 Machining Plastics .................................... 552
30.2 Other Metal Finishing Techniques ......... 522 33.2 Chipless Machining .................................. 557
33.3 Powder Metallurgy ................................... 560
CHAPTER31 33.4 High-Energy-Rate Forming (HERF) ....... 562
Electromachining Processes ............... 531 33.5 Cryogenic Applications ............................ 566
31.1 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) .... 532
31.2 Electrochemical Machining (ECM) ........ 536
Reference Section ................................. 570

Glossary of Technical Terms .............. 604

CHAPTER32
Nontraditional Machining Acknowledgments ............................... 625
Techniques ............................................. 539
32.1 Chemical Machining ................................ 540
Index .......................................................626
32.2 Hydrodynamic Machining (HDM) ........ 542
32.3 Ultrasonic Machining ............................... 543
32.4 Electron Beam Machining (EBM) ........... 546
32.5 Laser Beam Machining ............................ 547

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 CHAPTER

• •
1 1

Learning Objectives Technical Terms

After studying this chapter, you will be able to: broaching machine machinist
• Discuss h ow m odern machine technology computer numerical control milling machine
affects the workforce. (CNC) numerical control (NC)
drill press sawing machine
• Give a brief explanation of the evolution of
grinding machine skill standards
m achine tools.
lathe turning
• Provide an overview of machining processes. machine tools
• Explain how CNC machining equipment
operates.
• Describe the role of the machinist.

1
Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox
 2 Machining Fundamentals

A study of technology will show that industry And no industry or country can hope to take
has progressed from the time when everything was advantage of the most advanced machine tools with-
made by hand to the present fully automated manu- out the aid of a machinist a person highly skilled
facturing of products. Machine tools have played an in the use of machine tools and capable of creating
essential role in all technological advances. the complex machine setups required of modem
Without machine tools, Figure 1-1, there manufacturing.
would be no airplanes, automobiles, television These high-paying skilled jobs in manufac-
sets, or computers. Many of the other industrial, turing, such as tool and die making and precision
medical, recreational, and domestic products we machining, require aptitudes comparable to those of
take for granted would not have been developed. college graduates. Jobs that require few or no skills
For example, if machine tools were not available have almost disappeared.
to manufacture tractors and farming implements,
farmers might still be plowing with oxen and hand-
forged plowshares. 1.1 The Evolution of Machine Tools
It is difficult to name a product that does not Machine tools are the class of machines which,
require, either directly or indirectly, the use of a taken as a group, can reproduce themselves (manu-
machine tool somewhere in its manufacture. Today, facture other machine tools). There are many varia-
no country can hope to compete successfully in a tions of each type of machine tool, and they are
global economy without making use of the most available in many sizes. Tools range from those small
advanced machine tools available. enough to fit on a bench top to machines weighing
several hundred tons.
The evolution of machine tools is somewhat akin
to the old question, ''Which came first, the chicken
or the egg?'' You could also ask, ''How could there
be machine tools when there were no machine tools
to make them?''

1.1.1 Early Machine Tools

The first machine tools, the bow lathe and bow
drill, were handmade and human-powered. They
have been dated back to about 1200 BC. Until the
end of the seventeenth century, the lathe could only
be used to tum softer materials, such as wood, ivory,
or at most, soft metals like lead or copper. Eventu-
ally, the bow lathe with its reciprocating (back-and-
forth) motion gave way to treadle power, which
made possible work rotation that was continuous in
one direction. Later, machines were powered by a
''great wheel'' turned by flowing water or by a per-
son or animal walking on a treadmill. Power was
transmitted from the wheel to one or more machines
by a belt and pulley system.
When inventor James Watt first experimented
with his steam engine, the need for perfectly bored
cylinders soon became apparent. This brought about
the development of the first true machine tool. It was
a form of the lathe and was called a ''boring mill,"
CNC Software, Inc. ©Copyright 1983-2013. Al/ rights reserved.
Figure 1-2. The water-powered tool was developed
Figure 1-1. Machine tools have made it possible to manufacture in 1774 by Englishman John Wilkinson.
parts with the precision and speed necessary for low-cost mass This machine was capable of turning a cylinder
production. Without machine tools, most products on the market
36'' in diameter to an accuracy of a ''thin-worn shilling''
today would not be available or affordable.

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Machining Technology 3

Waterwheel

Casting being
machined

Boring bar

DoALL Co.

Figure 1-2. The first true machine tool is thought to be the boring mill invented by John Wilkinson in 1774. It enabled James
Watt to complete the first successful steam engine. The boring bar was rigidly supported at both ends, and was rotated by
waterpower. It could bore a 36'' diameter cylinder to an accuracy of less than 1/16''.

(an English coin about the size of a modem US quar-

ter). However, operation of the boring mill, like all
metal cutting lathes at the time, was hampered by
the lack of tool control. The ''mechanic'' (the first
machinist) had to unbolt and reposition the cutting
tool after each cut.
About 1800, the first lathe capable of cutting
accurate screw threads was designed and con-
structed by Henry Maudslay, an English master
mechanic and machine toolmaker. As shown in
Figure 1-3, a handmade screw thread was geared
to the spindle and moved a cutting tool along the
work. Maudslay also devised a slide rest and fitted
it to his lathe. It allowed the cutting tool to be accu-
rately repositioned after each cut. Maudslay's lathe
is considered the ''granddaddy'' of all modem chip-
making machine tools.
In retrospect, the Industrial Revolution could DoALL Co.

not have taken place if there had not been a cheap, Figure 1-3. Henry Maudslay's screw-cutting lathe. This
convenient source of power: the steam engine. machine tool, constructed on a heavy frame, combined a
Until the advent of the steam engine, industry had master lead screw and a movable slide rest. The lead screw
had to be changed when a different thread pitch was required.
to locate near sources of water power. This was
often some distance from raw materials and work-
ers. With cheap power, industry could locate where
workers were plentiful and where the products they Until the boring mill and lathe were developed to
produced were needed. The steam engine, in tum, the point where metal could be machined with some
would not have been possible without machine tools. degree of accuracy, there could be no steam engine.

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 4 Machining Fundamentals

The milling machine was the next important

development in machine tools. It also evolved from
the lathe. In 1820, Eli Whitney, an American inven-
tor and manufacturer, devised a system to mass-
produce muskets (guns). Whitney began using a
milling machine, Figure 1-4, to make interchange-
able musket parts. Until then, muskets were made
individually by hand, so parts from one musket
would not fit in another. Whitney's milling machine
even had power feed, but it had one defect. There
was no provision to raise the worktable. The part
had to be raised by shimming after each cut. Since
each machine was used to produce the same part
again and again, this shortcoming was not a great
problem. This problem was quickly corrected.
Whitney had another problem, however. His
ideas were used in several armories producing gun
parts. There was no standard of measurement at that
DoALL Co.
time, so parts made in one armory were not inter-
changeable with parts made in another armory. It Figure 1-4. One of the first practical milling machines
was not until the mid-1860s that the United States manufactured in America. Eli Whitney used it and similar
machines to mass-produce musket parts that were
adopted a standard measuring system. interchangeable.
By 1875, basic machine tools such as the lathe,
the milling machine, and the drill press, Figure 1-5,
were capable of attaining accuracies of one one-thou- Factories were rapidly turned over from producing
sandth of an inch. America was well on its way to consumer goods to military hardware. Of special
becoming the greatest industrial nation in the world. importance to the war effort was the opening up
This proficiency in machining and manufactur- of heavy industry professions to women. This sup-
ing would help America greatly during World War II. plied the labor needed to produce the large quanti-
A large part of the United States' success in WWII ties of guns, ammunition, tanks, planes, and ships
was due to its distinct manufacturing advantage. necessary to win the war, Figure 1-6.

13 IN CH W £1CHTl:0 L ATH,11 . lllo. :, UPRICHJ1' li) R I\. L. , ll o. I 'M:ILI.INO MAOIOl'fli .

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

Figure 1-5. Illustrations of Pratt & Whitney machine tools from an 1876 advertisement. Built from heavy iron castings, the
machines were driven by overhead pulleys and belting. A central steam engine or large electric motor powered the overhead
pulleys in factories until the 1920s.

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Machining Technology 5

• Foot power. A treadle or a treadmill made

possible continuous rotation of the work in
one direction.
• Animal power. Treadmills were used to
power early devices for boring cannon bar-
rels. Human foot power was not sufficiently
strong for this work.
• Water power. Not always dependable as a
power source, because of lack of water dur-
ing dry seasons.
• Steam power. The first real source of depend-
able power. A centrally located steam engine
turned shafts and overhead pulleys that were
belted to the individual machines.
Library of Congress, Prints & Photograph Division, FSA-OW/ Collection, LC-DIG-fsac-1 a34951 • Central electrical power. Large electric
Figure 1-6. Lathe operator machining parts for transport motors simply replaced the steam engines.
planes at the Consolidated Aircraft Corporation plant, Power transmission to the machines did not
Fort Worth, Texas.
change.
• Individual electrical power. Motors were
1.1.2 Power Sources built into the individual machine tools. Over-
head belting was eliminated.
As machine tools were improved, so was the way
they were powered. At first, the changes were very
slow, taking hundreds of years. The greatest changes
have come only in the last 150 years or so. The follow-
1.2 Basic Machine Tool Operation
ing are the various power sources used by machine Almost all machine tools have evolved from the
tools throughout history in the order they evolved: lathe, Figure 1-7. This machine tool performs one of
• Hand power. The bow lathe and bow drill are the most important machining operations, turning. It
examples. The direction of rotation changed operates on the principle of work being rotated against
at each stroke of the bow. the edge of a cutting tool, as shown in Figure 1-8.

'
_,_ -

Photo courtesy of Grizzly Industrial, Inc. www.grizzly.com

Figure 1-7. A modern lathe featuring chuck safety guard, foot brake, coolant system, inch/metric dials, and a universal gearbox
capable of cutting inch, metric, and diametral threads. Except those tools that perform nontraditional machining operations, all
machine tools have evolved from the lathe.

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 6 Machining Fundamentals

• Band machining. A vertical band saw uses a

Work
rotation continuous saw blade. Chip removal is rapid
and accuracy can be held to close tolerances,
eliminating or minimizing many secondary
machining operations.

Cutter 1.2.2 Drill Press

bit~
A drill press, Figure 1-10, rotates a cutting tool
(drill) against the material with sufficient pressure
to cause the tool to penetrate the material. It is pri-
Tool marily used for cutting round holes. See Figure 1-11.
travel Drill presses are available in many versions. Some
are designed to machine holes as small as 0.0016''
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
(0.04 mm) in diameter.
Figure 1-8. The lathe operates on the principle of the work
being rotated against the edge of a cutting tool.

Many other operations---drilling, boring, threadcut-

ting, milling, and grinding can also be performed on
a lathe. The most advanced version of the lathe is the
CNC turning center.

1.2.1 Sawing Machines

A sawing machine, Figure 1-9, or saw, makes . . --
...
~--
,. •
~

use of a multitoothed saw blade to cut away material. ......

..
Sawing machines come in a variety of forms. All saw-
ing machines perform one of two basic operations:
• Cutoff sawing. Sawing and cutoff machines
cut stock material into more manageable
lengths in preparation for other machining
operations .

•
•
.
-- ' .
•
•

..

•••
•

Photo courtesy of Grizzly Industrial, Inc. www.grizzly.com Willis Machinery and Tools Corp.

Figure 1-9. Sawing machines, like this horizontal band Figure 1-10. A typical 20'' variable-speed gear head drill
saw, make use of a continuous saw blade, with each tooth press with power feed. It can drill holes up to 1Y2'' in diameter
functioning as a precision cutting tool. in cast iron.

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Machining Technology 7

1.2.4 Milling Machine

A milling machine rotates a multitoothed cutter
into the work, Figure 1-13. A wide variety of cutting
operations can be performed on milling machines,
including machining flat, or contoured surfaces,
slots, grooves, recesses, threads, gears, and spirals.
Milling machines are available in more variations
than any other family of machine tools, Figure 1-14,
and are well suited to computer-controlled opera-
tion. The most advanced version of a milling
machine is the CNC milling center.

Cutter
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher rotation
Figure 1-11. A drill press operates by rotating a cutting tool
(drill) against the material with sufficient pressure to cause
the tool to penetrate the material.
Arbor

1.2.3 Grinding Machines

A grinding machine, Figure 1-12, or grinder,
removes metal by rotating a grinding wheel or abra-
sive belt against the work. The process falls into two
basic categories:
• Offhand grinding. Work that does not require
great accuracy is handheld and manipulated A Work travel
until ground to the desired shape.
• Precision grinding. Only a small amount of
material is removed with each pass of the
grinding wheel, so that a smooth, accurate
surface is generated. Precision grinding is a
finishing operation.

End mill
rotation

.-. . .
..
.. •
•

.
.• . .. • .. . .
• •
. . . ... .
, ,. 'II .. •
--~· . . . . .. .. ..· . .
. ........ . .....".• ..., . "'. .. .... .
•
..,
•

• •
•
•
••
...
•

B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

Figure 1-12. Grinding is a cutting operation, like turning, Figure 1-13. Milling removes material by rotating a multitoothed
drilling, milling, or sawing. However, instead of the one, two, or cutter into the work. A With peripheral milling, the surface
multiple-edge cutting tools used in other applications, grinding being machined is parallel to periphery of the cutter. B End
uses an abrasive tool composed of thousands of cutting edges. mills have cutting edges on the circumference and the end.

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 8 Machining Fundamentals

Tool travel

Work is stationary
during cutting operation

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

Figure 1-15. A broach is a multitoothed cutting tool that

moves against the work. Each tooth removes only a small
portion of the material being machined. The cutting operation
may be on a vertical or horizontal plane.

• Electrochemical machining (ECM). A

method of material removal that shapes a
Photo courtesy of Grizzly Industrial, Inc. www.grizzly.com workpiece by removing electrons from its
Figure 1-14. A modern milling machine featuring power feed,
surface atoms. In effect, ECM is exactly the
variable speed controls, an automatic stop function, coordinate opposite of electroplating.
display, and selectable resolution up to one micrometer. • Chemical milling. A process in which chemi-
cals are used to etch away selected portions
of metal.
1.2.5 Broaching Machines • Chemical blanking. A material removal
A broaching machine is designed to push or pull method in which chemicals are used to pro-
a multitoothed cutter across the work, Figure 1-15. duce small, intricate, ultrathin parts by etch-
Each tooth of the broach (cutting tool) removes only ing away unwanted material.
a small amount of the material being machined. • Hydrodynamic machining (HOM). A computer-
controlled technique that uses a 55,000 psi
water jet to cut complex shapes with minimum
1.3 Nontraditional Machining waste. The work can be accomplished with or
Processes without abrasives added to the jet.
There are a number of machining operations • Ultrasonic machining. A method that uses
that have not evolved from the lathe. They are clas- ultrasonic sound waves and an abrasive
sified as nontraditional machining processes. These slurry to remove metal.
processes include the following: • Electron beam machining (EBM). A ther-
• Electrical discharge machining (EDM). An moelectric process that focuses a high-speed
advanced machining process that uses a beam of electrons on the workpiece. The heat
fine, accurately controlled electrical spark to that is generated vaporizes the metal.
erode metal.

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Machining Technology 9

• Laser machining. The laser produces an 1.4.2 Computer Numerical Control

intense beam of light that can be focused onto
In the mid-1970s, with the introduction of the
an area only a few microns in diameter. It is
microchip, the use of onboard computers on indi-
useful for cutting and drilling.
vidual machine tools became possible. This led to
the introduction of computer numerical control
(CNC), Figure 1-16.
1.4 Automating the Machining CNC machine tools are much easier to use than
Process manually controlled machines. They have menu-
selectable displays, advanced graphics (the multi-
In the late 1940s, the United States Air Force
function screen displays the full operational data as
was searching for ways to increase production on
a part is being machined), and a word address for-
complex parts for the new jet aircraft and missiles
mat for programming. The program is made up of
then going into production. The Parsons Corpora-
sentence-like commands. Programs can be entered
tion, a manufacturer of aircraft parts, had developed
at the machine or downloaded from an external
a two-axis technique for generating data to check
computer. Programs on punched tapes are no longer
helicopter blade airfoil patterns. This system used
used. A modem CNC machining center is shown in
punched-card tabulating equipment. To determine
Figure 1-17.
the accuracy of the data, a pattern was mounted on
A CNC machine tool offers several benefits,
a Bridgeport milling machine. With a dial indica-
including:
tor in place, the X and Y points were called out to
• Accuracy. It is capable of producing consis-
a machinist operating the machine's X-axis hand-
tent and accurate workpieces.
wheel and another machinist who controlled the
Y-axis handwheel. With enough reference points • Repeatability. It is able to produce any num-
established, the generated data proved accurate to ber of identical workpieces once a program is
±0.0015'' (0.038 mm). verified.
• Flexibility. Changeover to running another
1.4.1 The Development of Numerical type of part requires only a short period of
Control nonproductive machine downtime.
Parsons realized that the technique might also
be developed into a two-axis, or even three-axis,
machining system. With an Air Force contract to
manufacture a contoured integrally stiffened air-
craft wing section, the Parsons Corporation subcon-
tracted with the Servomechanism Laboratory at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology to design a
three-axis machining system. MIT eventually took c:....._
--
over the entire development project. I

-- ..·-·-.......
.,., .. --
........ ~

...·-
.......
I

By 1952, MIT had designed a control system and • r. .M,

... ....
...

mounted it on a vertical spindle machine tool. The -·...- - ...... . .

system operated on instructions coded in the binary ... ~ ....
...
number system on punched (perforated) tape. Pro- , p ...

gramming required the use of an early computer on

which MIT was also experimenting.
Later in that year, MIT demonstrated the first
machine tool capable of executing simultaneous
cutting tool movement on three axes. Since math- AMT- The Association for Manufacturing Technology

ematical information was the basis of the concept, Figure 1-16. CNC machine tools are equipped with
MIT coined the term numerical control (NC) . The onboard computers that permit computer-aided or manual
first NC machines became available to industry programming. All controls needed for complete machine
in 1955. operation are in one location.

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 10 Machining Fundamentals

• Handling heavy materials.

• Positioning parts with great repetitive precision.
The automotive industry makes extensive use
of robots in the manufacture and assembly of motor
vehicles, Figure 1-19.

1.5 The Evolving Role of the

Machinist
In recent years, the number of highly skilled
machinists has been in decline. CNC machine tools
have compensated for this trend to some degree.
Since these machines operate under programmed
control, the men and women who use them do not
Mack Molding Co., Arlington, Vermont require the same level of skill or training as a skilled
Figure 1-17. A modern CNC turning and machining center
machinist.
with multiaxis capabilities. Its advanced multitasking However, because of these same CNC machine
technology allows turning and milling operations to be tools, the demand for machinists has not diminished.
performed with a single setup. Machinists understand machining technology and
what machine tools are capable of accomplishing.
For these reasons, they make the best programmers
The use of robotic systems for loading and and setup personnel.
unloading permits some machine tools to oper- There is still another reason for the high
ate unattended during the entire machining cycle. demand for machinists: although CNC equipment
Robots, Figure 1-18, also have many abilities useful is found in almost all machine shops, surveys con-
in industrial applications: sistently show that there is still considerable work
• Operating in hazardous and harsh environments. being produced on conventional manually oper-
• Performing operations that would be tedious ated machine tools.
for a human operator. Whether planning a CNC program or prepar-
ing to produce work on a conventional machine
tool, a machinist must make many decisions on how
to manufacture a part in the most economical way.
A machinist must be able to perform the following
activities:
• Make a thorough study of the print.
• Determine the machining that must be done.
• Ascertain tolerance requirements.
• Plan the machining sequence.
• Determine how the setup will be made.
• Select the machine tool, cutter(s), and other
tools and equipment that will be needed.
• Calculate cutting speeds and feeds.
• Select a proper cutting fluid for the material
being machined.
Fanuc Robotics
All of this is possible because of the skill,
Figure 1-18. A robot is a programmable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move material, tools, or specialized knowledge, and experience of the machinist. Essen-
devices through programmed motions for the performance tially, a machinist is able to visualize the machining
of a variety of tasks. This robot is deburring a complex part program.
following machining operations.

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Machining Technology 11

Rainer Plendl/Shutterstock. com

Fig~re 1-19. The automotive industry makes extensive use of robots for positioning parts, welding, painting, and performing
quality control tasks. Many production operations include computer-controlled robotic assembly lines like this one.

1.6 Acquiring Machining Skills The National Institute for Metalworking Skills
(NIMS), with the aid of the metalworking industry,
and Knowledge developed a set of skills standards, industry require-
The skills and knowledge needed by the ments for skilled workers. NIMS uses these stan-
machinist are not acquired in a short time. It nor- dards to certify individuals through performance
mally requires taking part in a multiyear salaried testing and accredited training programs that meet
apprentice program. In addition to machine tool their standards. The standards provide skilled work-
training under an experienced machinist, the pro- ers with certification that will afford them industry
gram also involves related subjects such as English, recognition.
algebra, geometry, trigonometry, print reading,
safety, production techniques, and CNC principles
and programming.

Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

 •
1e

Suininary 3. The Industrial Revolution could not have taken

place without the cheap, convenient power of
• Machine tools and machinists are vital to our the .
modern industrialized world. 4. Eli Whitney's mass-production system for
• Modern machine technologies require highly muskets had a major problem because _ _.
educated machinists. A. there were no skilled workers
• Machine tools are the foundation of industry and B. there was no good source of power
precision metalworking.
C. there was no standard of measurement
• Evolving power sources have changed the way
D. All of the above.
machine tools operate and what materials they
can machine. E. None of the above.
• Basic machine tool processes include turning, 5. What occurred in the mid-1860s that was very
sawing, drilling, grinding, milling, and broaching. important to the development of machining
technology in the United States?
• There are a growing number of nontraditional
machining processes. 6. List seven power sources in the order they
have evolved.
• Automation and computers have dramatically
affected machine tool operations. 7. Almost all machine tools have evolved from
the .
• Through skill, knowledge, and experience, a
machinist determines the best possible way to 8. List three types of basic machine tools and
manufacture a part, whether using manual or briefly describe their operation.
CNC machining techniques. 9. List four types of nontraditional machining
processes and briefly describe their operation.
Review Questions 10. The introduction of the microchip in the mid-
1970s led to the introduction of machine
Answer the following questions using the information tools.
provided in this chapter. 11. CNC machine tools operate according to a(n)
1. Jobs such as tool and die making and precision _ _ made up of sentence-like commands.
machining require aptitudes comparable to 12. List four industrial applications of robots.
those of . 13. When planning the manufacture of a part, a
A. high school graduates machinist must .
B. college graduates A. ascertain tolerance requirements
C. high school equivalency graduates B. select the machine tool, cutter(s), and other
D. All of the above. tools and equipment that will be needed
E. None of the above. C. select a proper cutting fluid for the
material being machined
2. One of the first machine tools, the bow lathe _ _.
D. All of the above.
A. could only turn softer materials
E. None of the above.
B. has been dated back to about 1200 BC
C. eventually gave way to treadle power
D. All of the above.
E. None of the above.

12 Machining Fundamentals
Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 “But is it possible?”
“Certainly it is. Do you think I would lead you into certain death?
But see, I will ride across and return, that you may see how easy it
is, to a brave heart and a cool hand.”
And, confident in the strength of his horse and in his own
splendid horsemanship, he plunged in dauntlessly, and keeping up
stream near to the foot of the upper rapids, struggled through it,
and returned to her without much difficulty, though the water rose
above the belly of his horse.
He heard, however, that a fresh storm was rattling and roaring,
even now, among the hills above, and he knew by that sign that a
fresh torrent was even now speeding its way down the chasm.
There was no time to be lost—it was now or never. He cast an
eager glance around—a glance that read and marked every thing—
as he came to land; save only Theresa, there was not a human
being within sight.
“You see,” he said, with a smile, “there is no danger.”
“I see,” she answered, merrily. “Forgive me for being such a little
coward. But you will lead Rosabella, wont you, Jasper?”
“Surely,” he answered. “Come.”
And catching the curb-rein of the pony with his left hand, and
guiding his own horse with his right, holding his heavy loaded
hunting-whip between his teeth, he led her down into the foaming
waters, so that her palfrey was between himself and the cataract.
It was hard work, and a fearful struggle for that slender, light-
limbed palfrey to stem that swollen river; and the long skirt of
Theresa’s dress, holding the water, dragged the struggling animal
down toward the waterfall. Still, despite every disadvantage, it would
have battled to the other side, had fair play been given it.
But when they reached the very deepest and most turbulent part
of the pool, under pretence of aiding it, Jasper lifted the jennet’s
fore-legs, by dint of the strong, sharp curb, clear off the bottom. The
swollen stream came down with a heavier swirl, its hind legs were
swept from under it, in an instant, and with a piercing scream of
agony and terror, the palfrey was whirled over the brink of the fall.
 But, as it fell, unsuspicious of her husband’s horrible intent, the
wretched girl freed her foot from the stirrup, and throwing herself
over to the right hand, with a wild cry, “Save me! save me, my God!
save me, Jasper!” caught hold of his velvet doublet with both hands,
and clung to him with the tenacious grasp of the death-struggle.
Even then—even then, had he relented, one touch of the spur
would have carried his noble horse clear through the peril.
But no! the instant her horse fell, he shifted his reins to the left
hand, and grasped his whip firmly in the right; and now, with a face
of more than fiendish horror, pale, comprest, ghastly, yet grim and
resolute as death, he reared his hand on high, and poised the deadly
weapon.
Then, even then, her soft blue eyes met his, full, in that moment
of unutterable terror, of hope and love, even then overpowering
agony. She met his eyes, glaring with wolfish fury; she saw his lifted
hand, and even then would have saved his soul that guilt.
“Oh no!” she cried, “oh no! I will let go—I will drown, if you wish
it; I will—I will, indeed! Oh God! do not you—do not you—kill me,
Jasper.”
And even as she spoke, she relaxed her hold, and suffered
herself to glide down into the torrent; but it was all too late—the
furious blow was dealt—with that appalling sound, that soft, dead,
crushing plash, it smote her full between those lovely eyes.
“Oh God!—my God!—forgive—Jasper! Jasper!”—and she plunged
deep into the pool; but as the waters swept her over the cataract’s
verge, they raised her corpse erect; and its dead face met his, with
the eyes glaring on his own yet wide open, and the dread, gory spot
between them, as he had seen it in his vision years before.
He stood, motionless, reigning his charger in the middle of the
raging current, unmindful of his peril, gazing, horror-stricken, on the
spot where he had seen her last—his brain reeled, he was sick at
heart.
A wild, piercing shout, almost too shrill to be human, aroused
him from his trance of terror. He looked upward almost
unconsciously, and it seemed to him that the mist had been drawn
up like a curtain, and that a man in dark garb stood gazing on him
from the summit of the rocks.
If it were so, it was but for a second’s space. The fog closed in
thicker again than before, the torrent came roaring down in fiercer,
madder flood, and wheeling his horse round, and spurring him
furiously, it was all that Jasper St. Aubyn could do, by dint of hand
and foot, and as iron a heart as ever man possessed, to avoid
following his victim to her watery grave.
Once safe, he cast one last glance to the rocks, to the river, but
he saw, heard nothing. He whirled the bloody whip over the falls,
plunged his spurs, rowel-deep, into the horse’s sides, and with hell
in his heart, he galloped, like one pursued by the furies of the slain,
back, alone, to Widecomb.

——
 CHAPTER IV.
The Vengeance.

A change came o’er the spirit of my dream,

The wanderer was returned.
Byron.

It was not yet high noon, when, wet from spur to shoulder with
mud and spray, bloody with spurring, spotted from head to heel with
gory foam-flakes from his jaded horse’s wide-distended jaws, and
quivering nostrils, bareheaded, pale as death, and hoarse with
shouting, Jasper St. Aubyn galloped frantically up to the terrace-
steps of Widecomb House; and springing to the ground, reeled, and
would have fallen headlong had he not been caught in the arms of
one of the serving men, who came running down the stone stairs to
assist him.
As soon as he could collect breath to speak, “Call all!” he cried,
“call all! Ring the great bell, call all—get ladders, ropes—run—ride—
she is gone—she is lost—swept over the black falls at Hawkshurt! Oh
God! oh God!” and he fell, as it seemed, senseless to the earth.
Acting—sheer acting, all!
They raised him and carried him up stairs, and laid him on the
bed—on her bed—the bed whereon he had kissed her lips last night,
and clasped her lovely form which was now haply entwined in the
loathsome coils of the slimy mud-eels.
He shuddered. He could not endure it. He opened his eyes again,
and feigning to recover his senses, chid the men from his presence,
and again commanded, so peremptorily, that none dare disobey him,
that every servant—man, woman, maid or boy—should begone to
the place he had named, nor return till they brought back his lost
angel’s body.
They believed that he was mad; but mad or sane, his anger was
so terrible at all times, and now so fierce, so frantic and appalling,
that none dared to gainsay him.
 Within half an hour after his return, save himself, there was not a
human being left within the walls of Widecomb Manor.
Then he arose and descended slowly, but with a firm foot and
unchanged brow, into the great library of the Hall. It was a vast,
gloomy, oblong chamber, nearly a hundred feet in length, wainscoted
and shelved with old black-oak, and dimly lighted by a range of
narrow windows, with dark-stained glass and heavily wrought stone
mullions.
There was a dull wood-fire smouldering under the yawning arch
of the chimney-piece, and in front of the fire stood an old oaken
table, and a huge leathern arm-chair.
Into this Jasper cast himself, with his back to the door, which he
had left open, in the absence of his mind. For nearly an hour he sat
there without moving hand or foot, gazing gloomily at the fire. But,
at the end of that time, he started, and seemed to recollect himself,
opened the drawer of the writing-table, and took out of it the record
of his wretched victim’s marriage.
He read it carefully, over and over again, and then crushed it in
his hand, saying, “Well, all is safe now, THANK GOD!” Yes, he thanked
God for the success of the murder he had done! “But here goes to
make assurance doubly sure.”
And with the word he was about to cast the paper which he held
into the ashes, when the hand of a man, who had entered the room
and walked up to him with no very silent or stealthy step, while he
was engrossed too deeply by his own guilty thoughts to mark very
certainly any thing that might occur without, was laid with a grip like
that of an iron vice upon his shoulder.
He started and turned round; but as he did so, the other hand of
the stranger seized his right hand which held the marriage record,
grasping it right across the knuckles, and crushed it together by an
action so powerful and irresistible, that the fingers involuntarily
opened, and the fatal document fell to the ground.
Instantly the man cast Jasper off with a violent jerk which sent
him to a distance of three or four yards, stooped, gathered up the
paper, thrust it into his bosom, and then folding his arms across his
stalwort breast, stood quietly confronting the murderer, but with the
quietude of the expectant gladiator.
Jasper stared at the swarthy, sun-burned face, the coal-black hair
clipped short upon the brow, the flashing eyes, that pierced him like
a sword. He knew the face—he almost shuddered at the knowledge
—yet, for his life, he could not call to mind where or when he met
him.
But he stared only for an instant; insulted—outraged—he, in his
own house! His ready sword was in his hand forthwith—the stranger
was armed likewise with a long broadsword and a two-edged
dagger, and heavy pistols at his girdle; yet he moved not, nor made
the slightest movement to put himself on the defensive.
“Draw, dog!” cried Jasper, furiously. “Draw and defend yourself,
or I will slay you where you stand.”
“Hold!” replied the other steadily. “There is time enough—I will
not baulk you. Look at me!—do you not know me?”
“Know you?—not I; by heaven! some rascal smuggler, I trow—
come to rob while the house is in confusion! but you have reckoned
without your host this time. You leave not this room alive.”
“That as it may be,” said the other, coolly. “I have looked death in
the face too often to dread much the meeting; but ere I die, I have
some work to do. So you do not know me?”
“Not a whit I, I tell you.”
“Then is the luck mine, for I know you right well, young sir!”
“And for whom do you know me?”
“For a d—d villain always!” the man answered, “two hours since,
for Theresa Allan’s murderer! and now, thanks to this paper, which,
please God, I shall keep, for Theresa Allan’s—husband!”
He spoke the last words in a voice of thunder, and at the same
time drew and cocked, at a single motion, a pistol with each hand.
“You know too much—you know too much!” cried Jasper, furious
but undaunted. “One of us two must die, ere either leaves this
room.”
“It was for that end I came hither! Look at me now, and know
Durzil Bras-de-fer—Theresa Allan’s cousin! your wife’s rejected lover
once, and now—your wife’s avenger!”
 “Away! I will not fight you!”
“Then, coward, with my own hands will I hang you on the oak
tree before your own door; and on your breast I will pin this paper,
and under it will write, ‘Her Murderer, taken in the fact, tried,
condemned, executed by me,
“ ‘Durzil Bras-de-fer.’ ”
“Never!”
“Take up your pistols, then—they lie there on the table. We will
turn, back to back, and walk each to his own end of the room, then
turn and fire—if that do not the work, let the sword finish it.”
“Amen!” said St. Aubyn, “and the Lord have mercy on your soul,
for I will send it to your cousin in five minutes.”
“And may the Fiend of Hell have yours—as he will, if there be
either Fiend or God. Are you ready?”
“Ay.”
“Then off with you, and when you reach the wall, turn and fire.”
And as he spoke, he turned away, and walked slowly and
deliberately with measured strides toward the door by which he had
entered.
Before he had taken six steps, however, a bullet whistled past his
ear, cutting a lock off his hair in its passage, and rebounded from the
wall, flattened at his feet. Jasper had turned at once, and fired at
him with deliberate aim.
“Ha! double murderer! die in your treason!” and the sailor leveled
his pistol in turn, and pulled the trigger; had it gone off, Jasper St.
Aubyn’s days were ended then and there; but no flash followed the
sparks from the flint—and he cast the useless weapon from him.
At once they both raised their second pistol, and again Jasper’s
was discharged with a quick, sharp report; and almost
simultaneously with the crack, a dull sound, as of a blow, followed it;
and he knew that his ball had taken effect on his enemy.
Again Durzil’s pistol failed him; and then, for the first time, Jasper
observed that the seaman’s clothes were soaked with water. He had
swam that rapid stream, and followed his beloved Theresa’s
murderer, almost with the speed of the stout horse that bore him
home.
Not a muscle of Durzil’s face moved, not a sinew of his frame
quivered, yet he was shot through the body, mortally—and he knew
it.
“Swords!” he cried, “swords!”
And bounding forward, he met the youth midway, and at the first
collision, sparks flew from the well-tempered blades.
It was no even conflict, no trial of skill—three deadly passes of
the sailor, as straight and almost as swift as lightning, with a blade
so strong, and a wrist so adamantine, that no slight of Jasper’s could
divert them, were sent home in tierce—one in his throat, “That for
your lie!” shouted Durzil; a second in the sword arm, “That for your
coward blow!” a third, which clove the very cavity of his heart
asunder, “That for your life!”
Ten seconds did not pass, from the first crossing of their blades
until Jasper lay dead upon the floor, flooding his own hearth-stone
with his life-blood.
Durzil leaned on his avenging blade, and looked down upon the
dead.
“It is done! it is done just in time! But just! for I am sped
likewise. May the Great God have mercy on me, and pardon me my
sins, as I did this thing not in hatred, but in justice and in honor! Ah
—I am sick—sick!”
And he dropped down into the arm-chair in which Jasper was
sitting as he entered; and though he could hardly hold his head up
for the deadly faintness, and the reeling of his eyes and brain, by a
great effort he drew out the marriage record from his breast—
Jasper’s ball had pierced it, and it was dappled with his own life-
blood—and smoothed it out fairly, and spread it on the board before
him.
Then he fell back, and closed his eyes, and lay for a long time
motionless; but the slow, sick throbbing of his heart showed that he
was yet alive, though passing rapidly away.
Once he raised his dim eyes, and murmured, “They tarry—they
tarry very long. I fear me, they will come too late.”
 But within ten minutes after he had spoken, the sound of a
multitude might be heard approaching, and a quick, strong, decided
step of one man coming on before all the rest.
Within the last few minutes, Durzil had seemed to lose all
consciousness and power. He was, indeed, all but dead.
But at these sounds he roused like a dying war-horse to the
trumpet; and as the quick step crossed the threshold, he staggered
to his feet, drew his hand across his eyes, and cried, with his old
sonorous voice,—it was his last effort—
“Is that you, lieutenant?”
“Ay, ay, captain.”
“Have you found her?”
“She is here,” said the young seaman, pointing with his hand to
the corpse, which they were just bearing into the room.
“And he—ha! ha! ha! ha!—he is—there!” and he pointed, with a
triumphant wafture of his gory sword, toward Jasper’s carcass, and
then, with the blood spouting from his mouth and nostrils, fell
headlong.
His officer raised him instantly, and as the flow of blood ceased,
he recovered his speech for a moment. He pointed to the gaping
crowd,
“Have—have you—told them—lieu—lieutenant?”
“No, sir.”
“Tell—tell them—l-let me hear you.”
“You see that wound in her forehead—you saw it all, from the
first,” he said, to the crowd, who were gazing in mute horror at the
scene. “I told you, when I took you to the body, that I saw her die,
and would tell you how she died, when the time should come. The
time has come. He—that man, whose body lies there bleeding, and
whose soul is now burning in Tophet, murdered her in cold blood—
beat her brains out with his loaded hunting-whip. I—I, Hubert
Manvers, saw him do it.”
There was a low, dull murmur in the crowd, not of dissent or
disbelief, but of doubt.
“And who slew master?” exclaimed black Jem Alderly, coming
doggedly forward; “this has got to be answered for.”
 “It is answered for, Alderly,” said Durzil, in a faint but audible
voice. “I did it—I slew him, as he has slain me. I am Durzil Olifaunt,
whom men call Bras-de-fer. Do any of you chance to know me?”
“Ay, ay, all on us! all on us!” shouted half the room; for the frank,
gallant, bold young seaman had ever been a general favorite.
“Huzza! for Master Durzil!”
And in spite of the horrors of the scene, in spite of the presence
of the dead, a loud cheer followed.
“Hush!” he cried, “hush! this is no time for that, and no place. I
am a dying man. There is not five minutes’ life in me. Listen to me.
Did any of you ever hear me tell a lie?”
“Never! never!”
“I should scarce, therefore, begin to do so now, with heaven and
hell close before my eyes. Hubert Manvers spoke truly. I also saw
him murder her—murder his own wife—for such she was; therefore I
killed him!” He gasped for a moment, gathered his breath again, and
pointing to the table, “that paper, Hubert—quick—that paper—read it
—I—am going—quick!”
The young man understood his superior’s meaning in an instant,
caught the paper from the table, beckoned two or three of the older
men about him, among others, Geoffrey, the old steward, and read
aloud the record of the unhappy girl’s marriage.
At this moment the young vicar of Widecomb entered the room,
and his eyes falling on the paper, “That is my father’s hand-writing,”
he cried; “this is the missing leaf of my church register!”
“Was she not—was she not—his—wife?” cried Bras-de-fer, raising
himself feebly on his elbow, and gazing with his whole soul in his
dying eyes at the youthful vicar, and at the horror-stricken circle.
“She was—she was assuredly, his lawful wife, and such I will
uphold her,” said the young man, solemnly. “Her fame shall suffer no
wrong any longer—her soul, I trust, is with her God already—for she
was innocent, and good, and humble, as she was lovely and loving.
Peace be with her.”
“Poor, poor lady!” cried several of the girls who were present,
heart-stricken, at the thought of their own past conduct, and of her
unvarying sweetness. “Poor, poor lady!”
 “Hubert—Hubert—I—I have cleared her—char—her character, I
have avenged her death; lay me beside her. In ten—ten minutes I
shall be—God—bless—bless you, Hubert—with Theresa! A—amen!”
He was dead. He had died in his duty—which was justice—truth
—vengeance!
 SUMMER’S NIGHT.
———
BY SAM. C. REID, JR. AUTHOR OF “SCOUTING EXPEDITIONS OF THE
TEXAS RANGERS,” ETC.
———

The busy hum of day has passed,

And countless millions with the sun
Have set, for wo or weal the cast⁠—
What’s said is said—what’s done is done.

And with the purple and the gold

There sinks many a soul to rest;
Hopes are wrecked—all fates are told⁠—
The rich made poor, the poor made blessed.

Twilight’s beauteous mantle now

The earth enwraps, near and afar⁠—
Casts her influence o’er each brow,
While peeps from heaven a single star!

That star to some is life and hope,

To others though, despair and gloom⁠—
Each twinkle reads the horoscope
Of life, from cradle to the tomb!

Night now takes Twilight by the hand

And leads her to her own blue sphere,
Then calls forth her sentinel band⁠—
At once ten thousand stars appear!
Hail, Queen Goddess! then shout the band
As, rising in her silvery car,
The Moon, with sceptre in her hand,
Bids Night her veil aside to draw!

Now blessed are they who can enjoy

An hour of such a summer’s night⁠—
Speak, ye dungeons, life’s alloy,
Ye sick, diseased, ye barred of sight!

Oh! for a crevice in the wall,

To let one ray of moonlight in,
’Twould ease their hearts, and hope recall,
While they repented of their sin.

And restless, turning on his bed

The wasted form cries out with pain,
As raising up his fevered head,
Oh, God! that I were well again.

And oh, the blind! none feel for ye,

Shut out from scenes so lovely bright,
Most painful thought—they cannot see⁠—
Their night is day—their day is night!

The streets are crowded with the gay,

The voice and laugh of girls are heard,
Mellowed by the silver ray
Of happy thought or witty word.

Speak! ye millions, who joy and gaze

Upon the silvery charms of night,
Can ye a tear of sorrow raise
For those deprived of scenes so bright?
But why ask ye? no themes like these
Your thoughts make sad—of other things
Ye think, while onward wafts the breeze
And the night bird sweetly sings.

And yet, there is many a heart

To whom the moonbeams give no light,
Those strings with wo do almost part,
Swept rudely by the cold world’s blight.

No soothing ray melts o’er their souls,

No breeze lulls sweetly o’er those chords,
That beat and sigh, like sea o’er shoals,
For sympathy’s kind, loving words.

A blue spot in a stormy sky,

From which a star gleams purely bright,
Is like the smile or tearful eye
To those whose hearts are dark with night.

Then feel for th’ pris’ner, sick and blind⁠—

E’en the forest-rose, the desert-tree,
The sprig of grass, kissed by the wind,
Receive its kindest sympathy.

Oh, Summer’s night—man’s Eden hours!

All Nature thrills with thy delight,
Th’ greenwood, rocky streams and flowers,
Th’ murm’ring sea, th’ beach, the mountain height.

Then give thy soul’s gratitude to Him

Who made the orb “to rule the night,”
And with the prayer of Cherubim
Pour forth thy heart’s inmost delight.
And learn to feel for another’s wo,
While to Heaven thou breath’st thy prayer⁠—
Foul prejudice from thy breast forego,
And let sympathy reign ever there.
 THE DEATH OF THE YEAR.
Engraved expressly for Graham’s Magazine by W. E. Tucker
 THE DEATH OF THE YEAR.
———
BY HENRY B. HIRST.
———

[SEE ENGRAVING.]

It was a dreary night

In the latter years of time,
When a man, with shrunken limbs
And a forehead white with rime—
With the rime of weary hours
Whose paths were not of flowers—
And a beard of snowy white,
Walked slowly through the night.

Pale Hecate, overhead,

Shone coldly on his brow;
His eye was sunken and dim,
His cheek had lost its glow,
But his step, so full of pride,—
The manhood of his stride,
Gave this antiquated thing
The appearance of a king.
The moon went sadly down
To a level with his way,
And the heavens became opprest
With vapors dark and gray
As Saturn, with his beard,
And glass, and scythe, appeared:
The old man journeyed on,
Growing weaker and more wan.

Like a shadow, on his path

With a silence, such as dwells
In the desolate dell of death
Where we hear not even our knells,
Did Saturn slowly pass
With his fatal scythe and glass:
The traveler looked not back,
But kept steadily on his track.

From the earth which lay below,

Until then so black and dumb,
Came the roar of many a gun,
With the roll of many a drum,
And the mingling strains of lute,
Clarion, cymbal, fife and flute;
And among them, like a knell,
Rose the clamor of a bell!

The wanderer heard the sound,

And with patient, suffering eyes
Gazed reproachfully on high,
Through the dark, unpitying skies;
But Saturn raised his steel
And the old man ceased to feel;
And they laid along his bier
The cadaverous Old Year.
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