Excepts of MTS 223 Introduction to Meteorology; Lecture note

Meteorology is the scientific study of the weather and more specifically how changes in weather

parameters are forecasted or reported. Metrological activities drives our daily life, we have to

understand that much of the hazards and blessings here on earth are end products of the

processes in the atmosphere. For instance, when a group is complaining about excessive rainfall

resulting to floods and erosion, others are complaining of lack of rainfall.

Meteorologist use input from the atmosphere, such as air pressure and humidity, and apply the

principles of physics and mathematics to make forecasts, this process of forecasting can help to

track weather and make predictions that can help to save lives.

Weather: Weather is the instantaneous state or condition of the atmosphere at a specific time,

more especially as they affect man. Weather elements are measured on hourly basis for twenty-

four (24) hours of the day. The hours of the day are considered in 0100 to 25400 hours or from

0000 hours to 2300 hour. The weather elements includes rainfall, temperature, relative Humidity,

Barometric pressure, wind speed, wing direction, cloud cover and sunshine hours to denote the

state of the sky and occurrence of precipitation or mist or fog.

Climate: Climate is the average weather in a given area over a long period of time. It can also be

referred to as weather data taken over a longer period of time or averaged over a time period.

BRANCHES OF METEOROLOGY

Some branches of meteorology includes;

1. Dynamic meteorology: This deals with the physical laws, which governs the equations of

motion in the atmosphere.

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2. Synoptic meteorology: This concerns the study of weather and its activities.

3. Agro Meteorology: This concerns meteorology and its relationship to agriculture.

AGRO AND SYNOPTIC STATION

1. Agro Station: these are set up by organizations such as churches, schools and some

industries. They are designed or established for private uses, in most cases data taken are

restricted to rainfall only. Data from these stations are most times inconsistent and have a

lot of missing gaps as a result of poor commitment from the observers or the authorities

that established such station.

2. Synoptic Station: Synoptic stations are established and manned by specialist. The data

obtained from these station is more consistent and reliable. Most cases synoptic stations

are maintained by aviation industries.

Weather in its wider, sense is the study pursued in synoptic meteorology while

meteorology considers mostly rainfall amount, duration and intensity.

3. Physical Meteorology: This is concerns with mostly the energy and water balance system

of the earth and atmosphere.

Applications of Meteorology

a. Industries: before the establishment of an industry, there is need to have an idea about

the macro and micro climates of the site. A general characteristics of the climatic

conditions of the area, those conditions includes temperature, rainfall, wind direction and

velocity, relative humidity, solar radiation etc. These help to provide a guide against

extreme climatic events such as wind tornadoes, temperature inversion, thunderstorm etc.

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 It will also help in regulating the environmental impact of industrial affluent discharges.

It will also direct us on a particular areas where projects such as residential quarters and

offices could be sited after the construction of wind roses.

b. Engineer: In design problems, such as dams, reservoir, bridges, needs to be designed

against the likelihood of floods and the probability of failure due to attenuation by some

meteorological parameters. The needs to design against extreme cases, e.g. high rainfall

intensity considering influences the erosive potential of an area. It will result in

considerable loss as surface run off and drainage.

c. Agriculture: Agriculturist would want to know the beginning and end of the rainy

seasons, rainfall amounts, duration, frequencies and intensities so as to plan against

possible stress on the crops due to either excess or deficiencies of precipitation.

d. Economist: Early to bed, early to rise, a good idea of the past is always a better guide for

plans for the future.

e. In the development of weather systems and weather forecasting its principles are applied

in:

i. Climatology, in monitoring of climatic changes

ii. Oceanography; in sea surface temperatures

iii. In agriculture; the effect of weather on crop

iv. In natural hazards, in problems such as flood, erosion, draughts, earth quakes and

volcanoes.

An applicable number of human activities are affected by the weather, in order to minimize the

unfavourable effects of atmospheric phenomena on such activities, man has since early time’s

studied the laws governing the weather.

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Obtaining knowledge about the weather is the core objectives of the branch of science generally

known as meteorology. Meteorological phenomena are studied through observations and

analytical scientific methods.

Meteorological observation is an evaluation or measurement of one or more meteorological

elements. Meteorological observations are either sensory, i.e. taken by a human observer without

the use of measuring instruments, which are generally known as meteorological instruments.

Meteorological observing station: Is a place at which the evaluation of one or more

meteorological elements are carried out.

Meteorological observing stations are established on land or at sea, and ideally are spaced so as

to guarantee adequate meteorological coverage.

THE COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The earth consist of three (3) great realms Lithosphere or the solid Realm, the Hydrosphere or

the water realm which includes liquid or frozen water, the Atmosphere or gaseous realm.

The Earth’s Atmosphere

There is a gaseous envelop that surrounds the solid and liquid surface of the Earth. The science

of Meteorology deals with the physics of the lower (=100km) of the atmosphere, while the

science of Aeronomy deals with the overlaying portion.

The Atmosphere to a heights of about 100km is homogeneous in composition. That is the

chemical composition is highly uniform, it is a mixture of discrete gases, each having its

individual physical properties.

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The percentage composition by volume is approximately

Nitrogen (N2) = 78%

Oxygen (O2) = 21%

Argon (A) = 0.90%

Carbon dioxide (CO2) = 0.03%

Ozone (O3) = 0.0001%

Various other traces which make up the reminder includes Neon (Ne) = 0.002; Helium (He) =

0.0005; Krypton (Kr) = ……; Xenon (Xe) = 0.00009; Hydrogen = 0.00005.

Nitrogen and oxygen are well mixed up to a height of 80km. nitrogen (78%): An inactive gas, it

is vital to plants life.

Oxygen (21.1%) chemically very active, combing readily with rock-forming minerals in rock

decay, with metals in rusting, with fuels in burning, with wood to provide heat and energy for

animals. Nevertheless, the quantity of oxygen in the Air is always constant, reason been that the

amount of oxygen used in balanced back by the amount given to the Atmosphere by plant.

Argon (0.090%) An inert gas that does not combine chemically with other elements of the

Atmosphere; ocean or Earth, it exist as single atoms of an Element. Note that among the gases

present in the Atmosphere the most variable are:

1. CO2 (0.03%) though of very little percentage, it plays a vital role in life; acts as an

absorber of heat and as an insulating blanket; helps to regulate temperatures near the

surface. The concentration of CO 2 is affected by the burning of wood, coal, fossils,

photosynthesis by plants and industrial burning of fuel gases.

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 2. Ozone (O3)

3. Water vapour: Water vapour is always in varying amounts, that is, it varies greatly from

time to time and from place to place. Practically 0% by volume in the extreme polar and

desert region to 4% in the warm and humid tropics.

Importance of the Atmosphere

1. The atmosphere protects the earth from cosmic radiation and meteorites. It shields us

from the daily heavy bodies.

2. Helps the transfer of heat from the equator to the poles-from beer lambert’s law the

intensity of solar radiation is a function of latitude that is the highest amount of solar

radiation is intercepted at the equator and the least at the poles. If this is continuously

allowed then there will be no life at the equator, the surplus is therefore carried to the

pole by the atmosphere.

3. Transfer of water from the ocean to the continents: Areas close to the coast should have

more moisture which is deposited as one moves into the hinterland, but this does not

always holds as a result of topography and Ekman’s effects, e.g. Senegal which is located

at the coast but still have the presence of deserts.

4. The atmosphere provides air for breathing

5. It purifies the air we breath

6. It gaseous content sustains plants and animals life in the biosphere

Structure of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere has no real upper boundary. The basic stratification of the atmosphere include:

Boundary or friction layer; the troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere and Thermosphere.

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 1. The Troposphere: This is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, it starts at the ground and

extends 14 kilometers (9miles) up at the equator. That’s where it’s thickest. It’s thinnest

above the poles, just 8 kilometers (5mile). The troposphere holds nearly all the earth’s

water vapour. It’s where most clouds ride the wind, and where weather occurs. Water

vapour and air constantly circulate in turbulent convention currents. The troposphere also

is by far the densest layer. The further up you go in this layer, the colder it gets. The

boundary between the troposphere and the next layer up is known as the tropopause.

Characteristics of the Troposphere

A. Extends from 0 (zero) to 9 kilometer (9km) or more.

B. It contains all the phenomena recognized as weather

C. Temperature generally decreases with height

D. It has an average lapse rate of 6.5km/ok

E. Increase wind speed with height

F. Appreciable vertical air movement

2. Stratosphere: Extends from Tropopause to about 55km. it is called so because it strongly

tends to remain stratified or layered without upward and downward mixing. Unlike the

troposphere, temperatures in this layer increase with elevation. The stratosphere is very

dry. So clouds rarely form here, it also contain most of the atmosphere’s zone, triplet

molecules made from three oxygen atoms. At this elevation, ozone protects life on Earth

from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. It’s a very stable layer, with little circulation,

for that reason, commercial airlines tends to fly in the lower stratosphere to keep flights

smooth. This lack of vertical movement also explains why “stuff” that might include

aerosol particles shot skyward by volcanic eruptions, and even smoke from wildfires.

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 This layer also have accumulated pollutants, such as chlorofluoro carbons better known

as CFCs, these chemical can destroy the protective ozone layer, thinning it greatly.

Though in the upper stratosphere there is increase in temperature from about 22km to

about 33km, above this, there is rapid rise of temperature to about 48km. hence general

temperature increase with height. This implied negative (-) lapse rate or temperature

inversion. Some the characteristics of stratosphere includes; a stable, dry environment

with little water vapor, a temperature that increases with altitude due to ozone absorption

of UV radiation, and the presence of the ozone layer, which protects Earth from harmful

radiation.

3. Mesosphere: The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Hence the

temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90 oC at the

mesospause. The mesosphere layer protects the planet earth from the celestial rocky

masses that enters the atmospheric envelope of the Earth, where they burn as a result of

their friction with air molecules and forming luminous meteors.

The mesosphere layer, the temperature decreases with increasing height, this is due to

decreasing absorption of solar radiation by the rarefied atmosphere and increasing

cooling of CO2 radiation emission.

4. Thermosphere or Ionosphere: The thermosphere lies above the mesosphere, and is a

region in which temperature again increases with height. This temperature increase is

caused by the absorption of energetic ultraviolet x-Ray radiation from the sun, the region

extends above 80km and it’s also called the ionosphere, since the energetic solar radiation

knocks electrons off molecules and atom, turning them into ions” with a positive charge.

The temperature of the thermosphere varies between night and day and also between

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 seasons, go do the number of ions and electrons present. The ionosphere reflects and

absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive shortwave radio broadcast. Many of our

Earth-orbiting statelites hang out, including the international space station.

Weather from earth, like hurricane or large thunderstorm system, can create pressure

waves that triple up into the ionosphere. This is one of the factors that can cause change

in ionosphere.

5. Exosphere: The region about 500km is called the exosphere. It contains mainly oxygen

and hydrogen atoms, but they are so few of them that they rarely collide due to their

ballistic trajectories under the influence of gravity, and some of them escape right out

into the space.

ELEMENTS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather is nothing more than the different elements that makes up its composition, as well as the

manner in which they interact with each other to generate various atmospheric conditions or

weather events. There are eight primary elements that drive all weather;

1. Temperature

2. Air (atmospheric pressure)

3. Wind (speed and direction)

4. Humidity

5. Precipitation

6. Visibility

7. Clouds (Type & cover)

8. Sunshine Duration

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1. Temperature: When it regards the weather, we understand that temperature is mostly on

a constant discuss, this is because as humans we are so sensitive to temperature and

quickly becomes aware of feeling hot or cold. Temperature is the degree of coldness or

hotness of a place or an object, it is a measurement of the amount of kinetic energy

present in the air, which manifests itself physically through the experience of heat or

cold. The scale used to measure temperature are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and kelvin. The

instrument used to measure temperature is called a thermometer. The second definition

implies that the particles in the air move or vibrate at a certain speed, which creates

kinetic energy. When the particles starts to move or rotate around faster, temperature

increases, when the particles begin to slow down, the temperature also starts to decrease.

The instrument used to measure temperature is called the thermometer which comes in all

shapes and sizes and dates all the way back to 1714, the most commonly used

instruments for measuring ambient temperature are the mercury, bimetal, and digital

thermometer.

2. Air Pressure: Air pressure is an essential element of weather, especially when it comes

to creating or changing atmospheric conditions, it is one of the critical variables used to

make accurate weather forecasts. Air pressure is the result of the pressure created by the

weight of air in the Earth’s atmosphere. It is also used inter-changeably as barometric

pressure, coined from the name of the instrument used to measure air pressure. Although,

the weight of air may not be visible but air has weight since it is not empty. It is filled

with tiny particles of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, and a few other gases as

it’s composition.

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 The weight of the particles in the air creates pressure due to the gravitational force of the

Earth. Since more air is present above the air close to the ground, air pressure is the

highest on the planet’s surface and decreases altitude increases. The instrument used to

measure Air Pressure is called the barometer, it was developed by Evangelista Torricelli

in 1643. The barometer also comes in different forms just like thermometer, e.g. mercury,

water, aneroid, and digital barometer.

3. Wind (Speed and Direction): The majority of major and even extreme weather events

like cold and warm fronts, clouds, thunderstorms, and hurricanes are all driven by wind;

as occasioned by movement of air (wind) as a driving force of weather. Wind is the large-

scale movement of air from an area of high to an area of low pressure in the atmosphere.

The speed and strength of wind are determined by the distance between the low-pressure

and high-pressure areas, as well as the difference in air pressure.

The instrument used in measuring wind speed is the Anemometer and it consist of 3-4

half-cups on arms rotating around a central axis, you can typically find ti on top of a

weather station or at an elevated position. For the measurement of the wind direction, the

wind vane or weather vane is used. It is a flat-shaped object that spins freely on a axis,

very often, in the shape of an arrow or cockerel, you can also find it on the top of a

weather station or highly elevated objects.

4. Humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapour that is present in the atmosphere at

any specific time. Water vapour is water at its gaseous state that is after the liquid has

evaporated, humidity can be felt but it is invisible to the naked eyes. The instrument used

in measuring humidity is the hygrometer. Absolute humidity is the actual amount of

water vapour per unit volume of gas at a given temperature and pressure, and expressed

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 in g/m3. Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour present in the air to

the amount present at a given temperature and it is expressed in percentage (%).

5. Precipitation: It is understandable that water in any form is an absolute necessity for life

on earth to exist; Humans, animals, as well as plants needs water to grow or stay alive, in

this precipitation is the only way to replenish the dams, rivers, reservoirs, and

groundwater on which we rely on. Precipitation is water in it’s different states, which

forms after condensation turned water vapour into liquid or solid form, which falls

afterwards to the ground after it becomes to stay suspended in the atmosphere or air.

Precipitation occurs in various form such as snow, rain, hail. Precipitation occurs

primarily as a result of evaporation and condensation. The instrument for measuring

precipitation is the rain gauge. It is essentially a measured container that captures rain and

measures the amount that falls over a certain period of time.

6. Visibility: The degree through which an object can be observed over a certain distance, is

called visibility. The measurement of visibility becomes important when conditions like

mist, haze, fog, and freezing are present, which can severely impede visibility. The

importance of the ability to measure this element is often underestimated. It is especially

applicable in areas where visibility plays a crucial role, in areas like Airports and

harbours, where it can literally be a matter of life or death. In the past, visibility is

usually by the human eye through empirical observation, but science has made it possible

for visibility to be measured by an instrument called the forward scatter sensor.

7. Clouds: Clouds are water droplets or water in different state such as snow crystals and

ice which is formed after water vapour reached condensation level and could no longer

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 remain in gaseous form; this will influence present and future atmospheric conditions.

The advanced instruments used by meteorologists to study cloud in details are weather

satellites and radars. Satellite and radars images are able to accurately measure cloud

density, the amount of moisture, the temperature, and the movement of the clouds.

8. Sunshine: The amount of sunshine the Earth receives which is a characteristics of solar

radiation greatly influences other elements of water such as ambient temperature,

humidity and air pressure.

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