Comprehensive Mathematics Guide for

Self-Learners
Basic Concepts
●​ Numbers: Mathematics starts with number systems. Natural numbers (1,
2, 3, …) are the counting numbers. Integers extend naturals by including
0 and negatives (…, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, …). Rational numbers are numbers
expressible as a fraction of two integers (like ¾ or –5/2). Real numbers
include all rationals and irrationals (like π or √2); real numbers fill the
number line. Example: 5, –3, 1.25, and √2 are all real numbers (5 is
natural, –3 is integer, 1.25 is rational, √2 is irrational).​

●​ Basic operations: There are four fundamental arithmetic operations:​

○​ Addition (+): Combining quantities. For example, 2 + 3 = 5 (if you

have 2 apples and add 3 more, you get 5 apples).​

○​ Subtraction (–): Removing one quantity from another. For

instance, 5 – 3 = 2 (take 3 apples away from 5 apples, leaving 2).​

○​ Multiplication (×): Repeated addition or scaling. E.g. 2 × 4 = 8,

meaning “2 groups of 4” (same as 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8).​

○​ Division (÷ or /): Splitting into equal parts or finding how many

groups fit. For example, 6 ÷ 3 = 2 (split 6 apples into 3 equal
groups of 2). Division is the inverse of multiplication.​
These operations have properties (e.g. addition and multiplication
are commutative: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2) that help simplify calculations.​

●​ Order of operations (PEMDAS/BODMAS): When an expression has

multiple operations, we follow agreed rules. First do
Parentheses/Brackets, then Exponents, then Multiplication and Division
(left to right), and finally Addition and Subtraction (left to right). For
 example, in 2+3×52 + 3 \times 5, do the multiplication first:
3×5=153\times5=15, then add 2, giving 17. (If you add first you would get
(2+3)×5=25(2+3)\times5=25, which is wrong.) Remember the mnemonic
PEMDAS (or BODMAS in some countries).​

●​ Fractions: A fraction represents a part of a whole. It is written as

$\frac{a}{b}$ where $a$ (the numerator) is how many parts we have, and
$b$ (the denominator) is the total equal parts the whole is divided into.
For example, $\frac{3}{4}$ means “3 out of 4 equal parts” (imagine a
pizza sliced into 4 pieces, eating 3 pieces leaves $\tfrac{3}{4}$ of the
pizza). The fraction bar is like division: $\frac{3}{4} = 3 \div 4 = 0.75$.
Simple operations on fractions (adding, multiplying) can be learned with
common-denominator or cross-multiplying rules.​

●​ Decimals: A decimal is another way to write fractions (especially with

denominator 10, 100, etc.). It uses a decimal point to show values less
than 1. For example, 0.5, 2.75, and 3.141 are decimals. More precisely, a
decimal number (in common usage) is a number with a decimal point,
like 1.23 or 6.5. For instance, 0.75 is the same as 75% of 1 or
$\frac{75}{100}$; it is also $\frac{3}{4}$. Converting between fractions
and decimals is key: e.g. $\frac{1}{2}=0.5$, $\frac{3}{4}=0.75$.​

●​ Percentages: A percent (%) means “per hundred.” For example, 15%

means 15 out of 100, i.e. $\frac{15}{100}=0.15$. In general, to get a
percentage of a number, you divide by 100. So 50% of 40 is
$40\times(50/100)=20$. Percentages are handy for parts of a whole (like
percent grades, discounts). The key idea is “parts per hundred”.​

Intermediate Concepts
●​ Algebra: Algebra introduces variables (letters like x, y) that stand for
numbers. A variable is a symbol representing an unknown or changeable
quantity. An algebraic expression is a combination of numbers, variables
and operations (e.g. $3x^2 + 2x - 5$). An equation sets two expressions
equal (e.g. $3x + 2 = 11$); solving an equation means finding the value(s)
of the variable that make it true. For example, $3x+2=11$ gives $x=3$. An
inequality compares expressions with symbols like $>$ or $<$ (e.g. $x+3
> 5$ means $x>2$). Example: To solve $5x - 10 = 0$, add 10 and divide
 by 5 to get $x=2$.​

●​ Functions: A function is a rule that assigns each input exactly one

output. We often write $f(x)$ to denote a function of $x$. For example,
$f(x)=2x+1$ is a linear function: each input $x$ gives output $2x+1$.
Functions can be linear, quadratic (like $f(x)=x^2$), exponential,
trigonometric, etc. Their graphs show outputs vs inputs. For instance,
$y=x^2$ is a parabola, while $y=mx+b$ is a straight line. A useful check
is the vertical line test: if a vertical line crosses the graph more than
once, it is not a function. Example: The function $f(x)=2x+3$ has graph a
straight line with slope 2, $f(1)=5, f(2)=7$, etc.​

●​ Geometry: We study shapes and their properties. Common 2D shapes

include triangles, squares, rectangles, circles, etc. For example:​

○​ A triangle has 3 sides and 3 angles. All triangles have angle sum
$180^\circ$. In a right triangle, the Pythagorean Theorem holds:
hypotenuse² = side₁² + side₂².​

○​ A square has four equal sides and each angle is $90^\circ$, so

area = side². A rectangle has opposite sides equal, all angles
$90^\circ$, area = length×width. A circle has all points at the
same distance (radius) from the center; area = $\pi r^2$.​

●​ For each shape, there are area and perimeter (or circumference)
formulas. For example, area of a triangle is
$\tfrac12\times\text{base}\times\text{height}$. The perimeter is the sum
of side lengths (e.g. triangle perimeter = $a+b+c$). These formulas allow
computing size. Example: A circle of radius 3 has area $\pi\times3^2
\approx 28.27$.​

●​ Statistics (Data Analysis): Key summary measures include:​

○​ Mean (average): Add all values and divide by count.​

○​ Median: The middle value after sorting (half the data above, half
below).​

○​ Mode: The most frequent value.​

 ○​ Range: Difference between largest and smallest value.​
For example, in the data set [3, 7, 7, 2], the mean is
$(3+7+7+2)/4=4.75$, the median is (after sorting [2,3,7,7]) the
average of 3 and 7, i.e. 5, the mode is 7 (occurs most often), and
the range is $7-2=5$.​

●​ Probability: Probability measures how likely an event is. For equally

likely outcomes,​
Probability=number of favorable outcomestotal number of outcomes.
\text{Probability} = \frac{\text{number of favorable
outcomes}}{\text{total number of outcomes}}.​
This is a number between 0 and 1 (or 0% to 100%). For example, flipping
a fair coin has 2 outcomes (Heads or Tails); the probability of Heads is
$1/2=0.5$ (50%). Rolling a fair six-sided die, the probability of rolling an
even number (2,4,6) is $3/6=0.5$. As probability gets closer to 1, the
event is more likely. Example: Tossing two coins, the chance of getting
one head and one tail is 2 out of 4 possible outcomes (HT or TH), so
probability = 2/4 = 0.5.​

Advanced Concepts
●​ Calculus: Calculus studies change and accumulation.​

○​ Limits: The limit of a function describes its behavior as the input

approaches a point. For example, $\lim_{x\to1}(x^2-1)/(x-1)=2$ (we
find this by algebra or L’Hôpital’s rule).​

○​ Derivatives: The derivative $f'(x)$ measures the instantaneous rate

of change of $f(x)$. Formally,
$f'(x)=\lim_{h\to0}\frac{f(x+h)-f(x)}{h}$. A derivative is the slope of
the tangent line to the graph. Example: If $f(x)=x^2$, then
$f'(x)=2x$ (so at $x=3$, slope = 6). Derivatives model velocity (rate
of change of position), growth rates, etc.​

○​ Integrals: Integration is the reverse process (anti-derivative). The

definite integral $\int_a^b f(x),dx$ gives the area under $f(x)$ from
$a$ to $b$. For example, if $f'(x)=2x$, an antiderivative (integral) is
$F(x)=x^2$. In general, $\int_0^3 2x,dx = [x^2]_0^3 = 9$. Integrals
 can compute areas, volumes, and accumulated change.​

●​ Linear Algebra: This area deals with vectors and matrices.​

○​ A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and

columns. Matrices can represent systems of linear equations or
transformations. A vector is like a column of numbers (or an
arrow) representing a point or direction. For example,
$\begin{pmatrix}2\3\end{pmatrix}$ is a 2-D vector.​

○​ Eigenvalues and eigenvectors: For a square matrix $A$, if there is

a nonzero vector $v$ and scalar $\lambda$ such that $A v =
\lambda v$, then $v$ is an eigenvector and $\lambda$ is its
eigenvalue. Geometrically, $A$ stretches $v$ by factor $\lambda$.
Example: For $A=\begin{pmatrix}2&0\0&3\end{pmatrix}$, the
vector $(1,0)$ is an eigenvector with eigenvalue 2, since
$A(1,0)^\mathsf{T}=(2,0)^\mathsf{T}=2(1,0)^\mathsf{T}$.​

●​ Discrete Mathematics:​

○​ Combinatorics: The mathematics of counting and arranging. It

deals with how many ways to choose or order objects. For
example, the number of ways to choose 2 fruits out of 5 (say,
apple, banana, cherry, date, elderberry) is $\binom{5}{2}=10$.
Broadly, combinatorics studies counting of finite structures.​

○​ Graph Theory: Studies graphs – collections of vertices (points)

connected by edges (lines). A graph $G=(V,E)$ has vertices $V$
and edges $E$ (pairs of vertices). For example, a triangle graph
has $V={A,B,C}$ and $E={{A,B},{B,C},{C,A}}$. Graphs model
networks (social networks, circuits, etc.).​

●​ Differential Equations: These are equations involving derivatives. A

differential equation relates an unknown function to its derivatives. In
applications, the function often represents a quantity (like position,
population) and the equation describes how it changes over time. For
example, the simplest is $dy/dt = ky$, whose solutions are exponentials
$y(t)=Ce^{kt}$. This models population growth or radioactive decay.
Real-world applications include modeling motion ($d^2x/dt^2 = -kx$ for
springs), electrical circuits, epidemiology (spread of disease), and more.
 The “order” of a differential equation is the highest derivative it contains
(first-order has only first derivatives, etc.). Solving differential equations
often requires special techniques or numerical methods.​

Study Tips and Resources

●​ Active practice: Math is learned by doing. Work on many problems of
increasing difficulty. Don’t just read – solve exercises. Use a mix of
examples and challenge problems. When stuck, review definitions and
try to break the problem into smaller steps. Check your work and
understand mistakes. Consistency is key: study a little each day rather
than cramming.​

●​ Conceptual understanding: Aim to understand the “why” behind

formulas. For example, know why the angle-sum in a triangle is 180°, or
why the derivative rules work. Explain concepts in your own words or
teach them to someone else (Feynman technique). Draw pictures for
geometry, graphs for functions, or use physical analogies (e.g. velocity
for derivatives). Use intuitive examples – counting objects for
combinatorics, or coins and dice for probability. This deepens retention.​

●​ Resources by level:​

○​ Basic: Khan Academy offers free lessons on arithmetic, fractions,

decimals, and pre-algebra. Websites like Math is Fun or
Purplemath explain concepts in plain language. For books, look for
elementary math workbooks or “pre-algebra” texts; CK-12 and
OpenStax offer free digital textbooks for arithmetic and
pre-algebra. Apps like Prodigy or SplashLearn add fun practice.​

○​ Intermediate: For algebra, geometry, and basic statistics, Khan

Academy, Paul’s Online Math Notes (Lamar University), and
Purplemath are great. GeoGebra and Desmos are free tools for
geometry and graphing. Introductory textbooks like “Elementary
Algebra” or “Basic Geometry” (many free PDFs exist) are useful.
MIT OpenCourseWare and Coursera have courses on algebra,
geometry, and intro statistics. Problem websites like IXL or
Brilliant offer practice and explanations. For probability and
 statistics, Khan Academy and StatQuest (YouTube) provide clear
introductions.​

○​ Advanced: For calculus and beyond, well-known texts include

Stewart’s “Calculus”, Spivak’s “Calculus”, and “Linear Algebra Done
Right” (Axler) or Gilbert Strang’s “Linear Algebra”. Free resources:
MIT OpenCourseWare (Gilbert Strang’s videos for Linear Algebra;
single-variable and multivariable calculus courses), Paul’s Online
Math Notes for calculus, Khan Academy and 3Blue1Brown
(YouTube) for visuals. For discrete math and differential equations,
consider Rosen’s “Discrete Mathematics” and Zill’s “Differential
Equations”. Many universities also post free lecture notes and
problem sets.​

○​ Online courses: Platforms like Coursera, edX, and Udemy have

math courses from universities (often free to audit). Examples:
“Pre-Calculus”, “Introduction to Linear Algebra”, “Probability and
Statistics”, “Differential Equations for Engineers”.​

○​ Practice problems and communities: Use problem sets from

books or sites like Art of Problem Solving (AoPS) for deeper
challenge (even if geared to competitions, they build skills).
Project Euler offers computational math problems. Participate in
forums (Math StackExchange, Reddit r/learnmath) to ask
questions and see solutions. Form a study group or find a learning
partner if possible.​

●​ Learning strategies: Set clear goals (e.g. “master algebraic equations”);

break topics into smaller subtopics. Use spaced repetition for formulas
and definitions (flashcards can help). Keep a math journal or notes
summarizing key ideas and example problems. When learning a new
topic, first get the intuitive idea, then do simple examples, and gradually
try harder problems. Don’t hesitate to revisit earlier material if needed
(math builds on itself). Use technology: graphing calculators or software
(Desmos, GeoGebra, Python/NumPy) can visualize and check work.
Finally, stay curious and patient. Struggling with a problem is normal –
persist and try different angles.​

●​ Recommended reference list:​

 ○​ Elementary: K. Murison & P. Davidson, “Key To…math” series;
CK-12 (free) for basic math topics.​

○​ Algebra/Geometry: Israel Gelfand’s “Algebra” and “Geometry”

(intuitive approach); AoPS “Introduction to Algebra”; Coxeter’s
“Introduction to Geometry”.​

○​ Calculus/Linear Algebra: Stewart’s “Calculus”; Spivak’s “Calculus”;

Strang’s “Introduction to Linear Algebra”; Axler’s “Linear Algebra
Done Right”.​

○​ Discrete/Stats: Rosen’s “Discrete Mathematics”; Ross’s “A First

Course in Probability”; Freedman’s “Statistics”.​

○​ Online: Paul’s Online Math Notes (tutorials and problems), Khan

Academy, 3Blue1Brown (visual videos), MIT OpenCourseWare,
Brilliant.org for practice, Desmos (graphing tool), Wolfram Alpha
(calculation).​

○​ Communities: Mathematics Stack Exchange, Physics Forums, and

AoPS Community are places to seek help and see a variety of
problems and solutions.​

Here is a structured and easy-to-study table covering core mathematics

concepts from basic to advanced levels:

Level Topic Key Concepts Example / Tip

Basic Number Natural, Integer, Rational, √2 is irrational; –3

Systems Irrational, Real Numbers is integer

Basic Operations Addition, Subtraction, 2 + 3 × 4 = 14

Multiplication, Division;
Properties
Basic Order of PEMDAS/BODMAS, Evaluate Always
Operations expressions correctly multiply/divide
before
add/subtract

Basic Fractions Numerator/Denominator, 3/4 = 0.75 = 75%

Equivalent fractions,
Operations

Basic Decimals Decimal point, Fraction to 0.5 = 1/2; 1.25 = 5/4

Decimal conversion

Basic Percentages Percent = part per hundred, 20% of 50 = 0.2 ×

Convert %, decimals, 50 = 10
fractions

Basic Basic Commutative, Associative, 2×(3+4) = 2×3 +

Properties Distributive laws 2×4

Intermedi Algebra Variables, Expressions, Solve 2x + 1 = 5 → x

ate Equations, Inequalities =2

Intermedi Functions f(x) notation, Input → f(x)=2x+3 → f(1)=5

ate Output, Types: Linear,
Quadratic, etc.

Intermedi Geometry Shapes, Area, Perimeter, Area of triangle =

ate Pythagorean theorem ½ × base × height
Intermedi Statistics Mean, Median, Mode, Range Mean of [2,3,4] = 3
ate

Intermedi Probability Chance = Favorable / Total P(Heads) = 0.5

ate outcomes, Basic events

Intermedi Graphing Graphs of lines, parabolas, y = x² is a parabola

ate domain/range

Advanced Calculus Limits, Derivatives (rate of If f(x) = x² → f'(x) =

change), Integrals (area) 2x

Advanced Linear Matrices, Vectors, A·v = λv →

Algebra Transformations, Eigenvalues eigenvalue problem

Advanced Discrete Counting, Permutations, 5 choose 2 = 10

Math Combinations

Advanced Differential Equations with derivatives, dy/dx = 3x² → y = x³

Equations Modeling change +C

Advanced Combinatoric Choose r from n (nCr), nCr = n!/(r!(n−r)!)

s Arrangements (nPr)

Advanced Graph Theory Vertices, Edges, Paths, Triangle: 3 vertices,

Connectedness 3 edges