Reaction of metal

Metal Oxides
Metal oxides

• Metals react with oxygen in the air to produce metal oxides

• Oxidation and reduction involve the addition or removal of oxygen from a substance
and are called redox reactions

• Oxidation is a reaction in which:

o Oxygen is added to an element or a compound

• Reduction is a reaction in which:

o Oxygen is removed from an element or a compound

• A common example is the reaction with red-brown copper metal to produce black
copper oxide:

2Cu + O2 ⟶ 2CuO

• In this reaction copper metal has been oxidised since oxygen has been added to it

• Another example is the reaction of zinc oxide with carbon:

ZnO + C ⟶ Zn + CO

• In this reaction the zinc oxide has been reduced since it has lost oxygen. The carbon
atom has been oxidised since it has gained oxygen.

The reactivity series of metals

• Based on how they react with other substances, a reactivity series can be produced
in which the metals are placed in order of their reactivity

• Metal atoms form positive ions by loss of electrons when they react with other
substances

• The tendency of a metal to lose electrons is a measure of how reactive the metal is

• A metal that is high up on the series loses electrons easily and is thus more
reactive than one which is lower down on the series

• Note that although carbon and hydrogen are non-metals, they are included in the
series as they are useful in extracting metals from their oxides by reduction
processes
 Diagram of the reactivity series of metals

• There are several reactivity series mnemonics to help you remember the order of
the metals

• One that we like goes as follows: “Please send lions, cats, monkeys and cute
zebras into hot countries signed Gordon”

Reactivity series mnemonic table

Metal Abbreviation

Most reactive

Potassium P - Please

Sodium S- Send

Lithium L - Lions

Calcium C - Cats

Magnesium M - Monkeys
 Aluminium A - And

Carbon C - Cute

Zinc Z - Zebras

Iron I - Into

Hydrogen H - Hot

Copper C - Countries

Silver S - Signed

Gold G - Gordon

Least reactive

You can learn the reactivity series with the help of a silly phrase

Chemical properties of metals

• The chemistry of metals is studied by analysing their reactions with water and
dilute acid

Metals reacting with water

Metals reacting with water

• Some metals react with water

• Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with water

o For some metals such as iron, the reaction may be very slow

o For other metals such as the alkali metals, the reaction may be quick and
potentially hazardous because of their reactivity

• Metals that react with cold water form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas:

metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen

• For example, calcium:

Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2

calcium + water → calcium hydroxide + hydrogen

• Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water when finely divided

• Magnesium reacts with gaseous water to form a metal oxide and hydrogen gas:

Mg + H2O → MgO + H2

magnesium + water → magnesium oxide + hydrogen

Reactions of metal with cold water summary table

 Metal Reaction with water

Most reactive

Potassium Reacts violently

Sodium Reacts quickly

Lithium Reacts less strongly

Calcium Reacts less strongly

Magnesium

Zinc

Iron Slow rusting

Copper

Least reactive

The Group 1 metals are reactive with water, Group 2 metals are less reactive and
other metals are generally unreactive with water

Metals reacting with acids

Metals reacting with acid

• Most metals react with dilute acids such as HCl

• Only the ones below hydrogen in the reactivity series will not react with acids

• When acids and metals react, the hydrogen atom in the acid is replaced by the
metal atom to produce a salt and hydrogen gas:

metal + acid → metal salt + hydrogen

• For example iron:

Fe + 2HCI → FeCl2 + H2

iron + hydrochloric acid → iron(II)chloride + hydrogen

• In both these types of reactions (water and acids) the metals are becoming positive
ions

• The reactivity of the metals is related to their tendency to become an ion

• The more reactive the metal the more easily it becomes an ion (by losing electrons)

Reactions of metal with dilute acid summary table

 Metal Reaction with dilute acid

Most reactive

Potassium Reacts violently

Sodium Reacts violently

Lithium Reacts vigorously

Calcium Reacts vigorously

Magnesium Reacts vigorously

Zinc Reacts less strongly

Iron Reacts less strongly

Copper

Least reactive

The Group 1 metals are reactive with water, Group 2 metals are less reactive and
other metals are generally unreactive with water

Non-metals in the reactivity series

• Why do non-metals appear in the reactivity series of metals?

• A reactivity series will usually contain the elements carbon and hydrogen

• This is because these elements play different roles in our understanding of the reactions
of metals and our ability to predict how metals can be extracted from their ores

• From the reactions with water and acids we have seen that whether a reaction takes
place depends on the position of the metal in the reactivity series relative to hydrogen

o A reaction takes place if the metal is able to displace hydrogen from water or
acids

• Carbon is a cheap reducing agent which can be used to remove oxygen from metal
oxide ores

o Placing carbon in the reactivity series allows us to see whether a metal oxide can
be reduced or not by carbon

• Metals below carbon can be extracted by heating the oxide with carbon

• Metals higher than carbon have to be extracted by other methods, such as electrolysis
Displacement reactions

• The reactivity of metals decreases going down the reactivity series.

• This means that a more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its
compounds

• Two examples are:

o Reacting a metal with a metal oxide (by heating)

o Reacting a metal with an aqueous solution of a metal compound

• For example, it is possible to reduce copper(II) oxide by heating it with zinc.

• The reducing agent in the reaction is zinc:

Zn + CuO → ZnO + Cu

zinc + copper oxide → zinc oxide + copper

Metal oxide displacement table

Equation for
Mixture Products
Reaction

Iron(III) oxide and aluminium - thermite Fe2O3 + 2Al → 2Fe +

Iron and aluminium oxide
reaction Al2O3

No reaction as sodium is above

Sodium oxide and magnesium -----
magnesium

Ag2O + Cu → 2Ag +
Silver oxide and copper Silver and copper(II) oxide
CuO

Zinc oxide and calcium Zinc and calcium oxide ZnO + Ca → Zn + CaO

No reaction as lead is more reactive

Lead(II) oxide and silver ------
than silver

Fe + CuCl2 → FeCl2 +
Iron nail and copper(II) chloride Copper and iron(II) chloride
Cu

Thermite

• The thermite reaction is a highly exothermic reaction that occurs when iron(III) oxide is
reacted with aluminium metal

• As aluminium is more reactive than iron, the iron in iron(III) oxide is displaced

iron(III) oxide + aluminium → iron + aluminium oxide

Fe2O3 + 2Al → 2Fe + Al2O3

• The reaction releases so much heat that the iron formed is molten so this process is
used in welding and incendiary devices

Displacement reactions between metals & aqueous solutions of metal salts

 • The reactivity between two metals can be compared using displacement reactions in
salt solutions of one of the metals

• This is easily seen as the more reactive metal slowly disappears from the
solution, displacing the less reactive metal

• For example, magnesium is a reactive metal and can displace copper from a copper
sulfate solution:

Mg + CuSO4 → MgSO4 + Cu

• The blue colour of the CuSO4 solution fades as colourless magnesium sulfate solution is
formed.

• Copper coats the surface of the magnesium and also forms solid metal which falls to
the bottom of the beaker

Diagram showing the colour change when magnesium displaces copper from copper
sulfate

Other displacement reactions

Metal solutions displacement table

Mixture Products Equation for Reaction

Magnesium and iron(II) sulfate Magnesium sulfate and iron Mg + FeSO4 → MgSO4 + Fe

Zinc and sodium chloride No reaction as sodium is above zinc ------

Lead and silver nitrate Lead(II) nitrate and silver Pb + AgNO3 → Pb(NO3)2 + Ag

Copper and calcium chloride No reaction as calcium is above copper -------

Iron and copper(II) sulfate Iron(II) sulfate and copper Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
Extraction of metals & reduction

• The Earth’s crust contains metals and metal compounds such as gold, copper, iron
oxide and aluminium oxide

• Useful metals are often chemically combined with other substances forming ores

o A metal ore is a rock that contains enough of the metal to make it worthwhile
extracting

• They have to be extracted from their ores through processes such as electrolysis, using
a blast furnace or by reacting with more reactive material

• In many cases, the ore is an oxide of the metal

o Therefore, the extraction of these metals is a reduction process since oxygen is

being removed

• Common examples of oxide ores are iron and aluminium ores which are
called haematite and bauxite respectively

• Unreactive metals do not have to be extracted chemically as they are often found as
the uncombined element

• This occurs as they do not easily react with other substances due to
their chemical stability

• They are known as native metals and examples include gold and platinum which can
both be mined directly from the Earth’s crust

Extraction of metals and the reactivity series

• The most reactive metals are at the top of the series

• The tendency to become oxidised is thus linked to how reactive a metal is and
therefore its position on the reactivity series

• Metals higher up are therefore less resistant to oxidation than the metals placed lower
down which are more resistant to oxidation

• The position of the metal on the reactivity series determines the method of extraction

• Higher placed metals (above carbon) have to be extracted from their compounds
using electrolysis as they are too reactive and cannot be reduced by carbon

Which element is used for extracting metals from their compounds by reduction?

• Lower placed metals can be extracted from their compounds by heating with carbon
which reduces them

o E.g. The oxides of metals which are below carbon can be reduced by heating
them with carbon

▪ The carbon removes the oxygen from the metal oxide

▪ Carbon dioxide is formed as well as the metal element:

metal oxide + carbon → metal + carbon dioxide

Metals extraction method table

Metal Extraction method

Most reactive

Potassium

Sodium

Lithium Extracted by electrolysis of the molten chloride or oxide

Calcium Large amounts of electricity are required, which makes this an expensive process

Magnesium

Aluminium

Zinc
Extracted by heating with a reducing agent such as carbon or carbon monoxide in a blast
Iron furnace

A cheap process as carbon is cheap and can also be a source of heat

Copper

Silver
Found as pure elements
Gold

Least reactive

The extraction method depends on the position of a metal in the reactivity series

Oxidation & reduction in terms of electrons

Higher tier only

• As well as understanding oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen, you need to

understand these reactions in terms of electrons

o When a substance loses electrons it is oxidised

o When a substance gains electrons it is reduced

o If this occurs in the same reaction, the reaction is a redox reaction

• For example, when iron reacts with a compound of copper such as copper sulfate a
displacement reaction occurs

iron + copper sulfate → iron(II) sulfate + copper

Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu

• We can write this as an ionic equation

Fe + Cu2+ + SO42– → Fe2+ + SO42– + Cu

• The sulfate ions, SO42-, appear on both sides of the equation unchanged
 o This means that they are spectator ions and do not participate in the chemistry
of the reaction

o So, they can be removed from the equation

Fe + Cu2+→ Fe2+ + Cu

• This balanced ionic equation can be further split into two half equations illustrating
oxidation and reduction individually

Fe → Fe2+ + 2e–

Cu2+ + 2e–→ Cu

• The iron has lost electrons to become a positive ion, so has been oxidised

• The positive copper ion has gained electrons to become an atom, so have been reduced

The redox reaction between Fe and Cu2+

The Fe atom is oxidised (loses electrons) and the Cu2+ ion is reduced (gains electrons)

Electrolysis

• Oxidation and reduction take place during the process of electrolysis at the anode
(positive electrode) and the cathode (negative electrode)

• Positive ions are attracted towards the cathode

o Reduction (gain of electrons) takes place here

▪ E.g. Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb

• Negative ions are attracted towards the anode

o Oxidation (loss of electrons) takes place here

▪ E.g. 2Br– → Br2 + 2e–

• Which change in the following equation is oxidation?

• V3+ + Fe3+ → V4+ + Fe2+
Identifying oxidised & reduced species

Higher tier only

• Using the principles of electron loss and gain it is possible to identify which species
undergo oxidation and reduction in redox reactions

2)Zinc displaces copper from a solution of copper(II)sulfate. Using ionic equations, determine
which species undergoes oxidation and which species undergoes reduction.
 Reaction of metal
Metal and Acid
Reactions of acids with metals

• Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids

o Therefore copper can not react with acids

• The more reactive the metal then the more vigorous the reaction will be

• Metals that are placed high on the reactivity series such as potassium and sodium
are very dangerous and react explosively with acids

• When acids react with metals they form a salt and hydrogen gas:

• The general equation is:

metal + acid ⟶ salt + hydrogen

• Some examples of metal-acid reactions and their equations are given below:

Table of acid-metal reactions

Metal Sulfuric acid Hydrochloric acid

Magnesium Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Zinc Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Iron Fe (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Fe (s) + 2HCl (aq) → FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Metals & acid reactions as redox reactions

Higher tier only

• Metal-acid reactions are redox reactions

• Redox means reduction and oxidation at the same time

• If we analyse the ionic equation for the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric
acid:

Zn + 2HCl ⟶ ZnCl2 + H2

• The ionic equation is:

Zn + 2H+⟶ Zn2+ + H2

• This equation can be further split into two half equations illustrating oxidation and
reduction individually:

Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–

2H+ + 2e–→ H2
 • The zinc atoms are thus oxidised as they lose electrons.

• The hydrogen ions are thus reduced as they gain electrons.

• Both reactions are occurring at the same time and in the same reaction chamber
hence it is a redox reaction

Acid-base reactions

• When an acid reacts with a base, a neutralisation reaction occurs

• A base is a chemical that neutralises acids

• Examples of bases include:

o Metal oxides, e.g. copper(II) oxide, Cu2O

o Metal hydroxides, e.g. sodium hydroxide, NaOH

o Metal carbonates, e.g. calcium carbonate, CaCO3

• Bases have pH values above 7

• Many bases are insoluble in water

• Some bases dissolve in water and are called alkalis because they form
an alkaline solution

o Examples of alkalis are soluble metal hydroxides such as sodium hydroxide,

NaOH (aq), and calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 (aq)

Neutralisation reactions

• In all acid-base neutralisation reactions, salt and water are produced:

acid + base ⟶ salt + water

• If the base is a metal carbonate, carbon dioxide is also produced:

acid + base ⟶ salt + water + carbon dioxide

• The identity of the salt produced depends on the acid used and the positive ions in the
base

o Hydrochloric acid produces chlorides

o Sulfuric acid produces sulfate

o Nitric acid produces nitrates

Table salt / sodium chloride

Sodium chloride is commonly known as table salt and can be formed from a neutralisation
reaction

Photo by Chemical Safety Facts

Reactions of acids with metal oxides

• Metal oxides also act as bases by reacting with acids in a neutralisation reaction to
produce the corresponding metal salt and water

• The following are some specific examples of reactions between acids and metal oxides:

2HCl + CuO ⟶ CuCl2 + H2O

H2SO4 + Na2O⟶ Na2SO4 + H2O

2HNO3 + MgO ⟶ Mg(NO3)2 + H2O

Reactions of acids with metal hydroxides

• Metal hydroxides also act as bases by reacting with acids in a neutralisation reaction
to produce the corresponding metal salt and water

• The following are some specific examples of reactions between acids and metal
hydroxides:

2HCl + 2LiOH ⟶ 2LiCl + H2O

H2SO4 + 2NaOH ⟶ Na2SO4 + 2H2O

HNO3 + KOH ⟶ KNO3 + H2O

Reactions of acids with metal carbonates

• Metal carbonates act as bases by reacting with acids in a neutralisation reaction to

form the corresponding metal salt, carbon dioxide and water

• These reactions are easily distinguishable from acid – metal oxide/hydroxide reactions
due to the effervescence caused by the release of carbon dioxide gas

o We can test for the presence of carbon dioxide gas by bubbling it through
limewater

o If the limewater turns milky or cloudy carbon dioxide is present

 • The following are some specific examples of reactions between acids and metal
carbonates:

2HCl + Na2CO3 ⟶ 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

H2SO4 + CaCO3⟶ CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

2HNO3 + MgCO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2

Predicting the salts

• The name of a salt has two parts

o The first part comes from the metal, metal oxide or metal carbonate used in
the reaction

o The second part comes from the acid

• Hydrochloric acid always produces salts that end in chloride and contain
the chloride ion, Cl–

• Sulfuric acid always produces salts that end in sulfate and contain the sulfate ion, SO42–

• Nitric acid always produces salts that end in nitrate and contain the nitrate ion, NO3–

Naming salts examples

Acid Base Name of Salt Formula of Salt

Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 Calcium carbonate, CaCO3 Calcium sulfate CaSO4

Hydrochloric acid, HCl Magnesium oxide, MgO Magnesium chloride MgCl2

Nitric acid, HNO3 Potassium hydroxide, KOH Potassium nitrate KNO3

1)Name the salts formed in the following reactions:

1. Zinc + hydrochloric acid

2. Copper oxide + sulfuric acid

3. Calcium carbonate + nitric acid

 • Salts have no overall charge since the sum of the charges on the ions is equal to zero

• If you know the ions present in a salt you can identify the formula from balancing the
charges

Naming salts using ions table

Ion Formula Ion Formula

Group 1 metals M+, e.g. Na+ Group 7 halides X–, e.g. Br–

Group 2 metals M2+, e.g. Mg2+ Sulfate SO42–

Iron(II) Fe2+ Nitrate NO3–

Iron(III) Fe3+ Phosphate PO43–

Copper(II) Cu2+ Hydroxide OH–

Aluminium Al3+ Hydrogen carbonate HCO3–

Chromium Cr3+ Carbonate CO32–

Ammonium NH4+ Oxide O2-

Predict the formula of magnesium phosphate.

Preparing soluble salts

• A soluble salt can be made from the reaction of an acid with an insoluble base

• During the preparation of soluble salts, the insoluble reactant is added in excess to
ensure that all of the acid has reacted

• If this step is not completed, any unreacted acid would

become dangerously concentrated during evaporation and crystallisation

• The excess reactant is then removed by filtration to ensure that only the salt and water
remain

• Since all of the acid has reacted and the excess solid base has been removed then the
solution left can only be salt and water

• The water is evaporated by heating until small crystals begin to appear

o This is typically once half of the water is left

o Allowing the filtered solution to evaporate slowly over a period of days results in
the formation of larger crystals

• If a carbonate was used as the solid base instead of an oxide or hydroxide, then any
carbon dioxide gas produced would have been released into the atmosphere

• A common example is the preparation of copper(II) sulfate which can be made with
copper(II) oxide and dilute sulfuric acid:

CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ⟶ CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

Copper sulfate crystals

After filtering and heating copper sulfate crystals will form. Larger crystals will form if the
water in the solution is left to evaporate slowly

Photo by Wikimedia commons

• Acids can react with metal to produce the salt if:

o The metal is above hydrogen in the reactivity series

o The metal is not too reactive, which could result in a dangerous reaction
Required practical 1: Preparation of a soluble salt

Objective:

To prepare a pure, dry sample of a soluble salt from an insoluble oxide or carbonate using a
Bunsen burner and dilute acid

Hypothesis:

A salt can be prepared and separated by an acid-base neutralisation reaction

Materials:

• 1.0 mol/dm3 dilute sulfuric acid

• Copper(II) oxide

• Spatula & glass rod

• Measuring cylinder & 100 cm3 beaker

• Bunsen burner

• Tripod, gauze & heatproof mat

• Filter funnel & paper, conical flask

• Evaporating basin and dish.

The steps in the preparation of a soluble salt

Practical Tip:

The base is added in excess to use up all of the acid, which would become dangerously
concentrated during the evaporation and crystallisation stages

Method:

1. Add 50 cm3 dilute acid into a beaker and warm gently using a Bunsen burner

2. Add the insoluble oxide slowly to the hot dilute acid and stir until the base is in excess
(i.e. until the base stops dissolving and a suspension of the base forms in the acid)

3. Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess base

4. Gently heat the solution in a water bath or with an electric heater to evaporate the water
and to make the solution saturated

5. Check the solution is saturated by dipping a cold glass rod into the solution and seeing if
crystals form on the end

6. Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallise

7. Decant excess solution and allow the crystals to dry

Results:

Hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals should be bright blue and regularly shaped

Evaluation:

Describe how your crystals compare to the description in the results section. If different,
suggest an explanation

Conclusion:

Acid-base reactions produce salt and water with the regular shape of the salt reflecting the ionic
lattice structure in its bonding
Acids & bases

• When acids are added to water, they form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)

o The presence of H+ ions is what makes a solution acidic

• When alkalis are added to water, they form negative hydroxide ions (OH–)

o The presence of the OH– ions is what makes the aqueous solution an alkali

• The pH scale is a numerical scale which is used to show how acidic or alkaline a
solution is

o It is a measure of the amount of the hydrogen ions present in solution

The pH scale

What is the pH scale?

• The pH scale goes from 1 – 14

• All acids have pH values of below 7

• All alkalis have pH values of above 7

• The lower the pH then the more acidic the solution is

o pH 1-3 = strong acid

▪ Extremely acidic substances can have values of below 1

o pH 4-6 = weak acid

• The higher the pH then the more alkaline the solution is

o pH 8-11 = weak alkali

o pH 12-14 = strong alkali

• A solution of pH 7 is described as being neutral

The pH scale showing acidity, neutrality and alkalinity

Worked Example

The following table shows the pH of some substances.

Substance pH

lemon juice 2.2

limewater 10.5

saliva 6.3

milk of magnesia 10.1

1. Name the strongest alkali

2. Name the strongest acid

3. Name the substances which is closest to neutral

Answers:

i) Limewater has the highest pH in the table of 10.5 so is the strongest alkali

ii) Lemon juice has the lowest pH in the table of 2.2 so is the strongest acid

iii) Saliva is the closest substance to being neutral as its pH value of 6.3 is closest to pH 7

Measuring pH

• pH can be measured using a digital pH meter or an indicator

• pH meters contain a special electrode with a thin glass membrane that allows hydrogen
ions to pass through; the ions alter the voltage detected by the electrode

• An indicator is a substance which changes colour depending on the pH of the solution

to which it is added

• There are natural indicators and synthetic indicators which have different uses

• Generally, natural indicators are wide range indicators contain a mixture of different
plant extracts and so can operate over a broad range of pH values

• Synthetic indicators mostly have very narrow pH ranges at which they operate

o They have sharp colour changes meaning they change colour quickly and
abruptly as soon as a pH specific to that indicator is reached

• Indicators are intensely coloured and very sensitive so only a few drops are needed

Universal indicator

• Universal indicator is a wide range indicator and can give only an approximate value for
pH

• It is made of a mixture of different plant indicators which operate across a broad pH

range and is useful for estimating the pH of an unknown solution

• A few drops are added to the solution and the colour is matched with a colour chart
which indicates the pH which matches with specific colours
 • Universal indicator colours vary slightly between manufacturer so colour charts are
usually provided for a specific indicator formulation

pH scale with the universal indicator colours used to determine the pH of a solution

A common error is to suggest using universal indicator as a suitable indicator for an acid-base
titration.

This is incorrect as a sharp colour change is required to identify the end-point, which cannot
be achieved with Universal Indicator.
Neutralisation

• A neutralisation reaction occurs when an acid reacts with an alkali

o Acids are a source of hydrogen ions, H+

o Bases (or alkalis) are a sources of hydroxide ions, OH–

• When they react together in a neutralisation reaction, the H+ ions react with the OH– ions
to produce water

• This is the net ionic equation of all acid-base neutralisations and is what leads to a
neutral solution, since water has a pH of 7:

H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)⟶ H2O (l)

• Not all reactions of acids are neutralisations

o For example when a metal reacts with an acid, although a salt is produced there
is no water formed so it does not fit the definition of neutralisation

• Neutralisation is very important in the treatment of soils to raise the pH as some crops
cannot tolerate pH levels below 7

o This is achieved by adding bases to the soil such as limestone and quicklime

• i) Write the balanced symbol for the reaction between copper(II) hydroxide
and sulfuric acid to form copper sulfate and water.
• ii) Write the simplest ionic equation for the neutralisation reaction
Strong & weak acids

Higher tier only

• Acids can be either strong or weak, depending on how many ions they produce when
they dissolve in water

• When added to water, acids ionise or dissociate to produce H+ ions

o For example, the general acid HX dissociates to form H+ and X–

HX ⟶ H+ + X–

What is a strong acid?

• Strong acids dissociate completely in water

o This produces a solution with a high concentration of H+ ions

o This means that strong acids have a low pH, typically pH 1 - 3

• Examples of strong acids include:

o Hydrochloric acid, HCl

HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)

• Nitric acid, HNO3

HNO3 (aq) → H+ (aq) + NO3– (aq)

• Sulfuric acid, H2SO4

H2SO4 (aq) → H+ (aq) + SO42– (aq)

What is a weak acid?

• Weak acids partially dissociate (or ionise) in water

o This produces a solution with a low concentration of H+ ions

o This means that weak acids have pH values that are closer to the middle of the
pH scale, whilst still being below 7, i.e. pH 4 - 6

• For weak acids, there is usually an equilibrium set-up between the molecules and their
ions once they have been added to water

• Propanoic acid for example dissociates as follows:

CH3CH2COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3CH2COO–

• The ⇌ symbol indicates that the process is reversible, as the products can react
together forming the original reactants

• The equilibrium lies to the left, indicating a high concentration of intact acid molecules,
with a low concentration of H+ ions in the solution

• Another example of a weak acid is ethanoic acid which will react with alkalis such as
sodium hydroxide to form ethanoate salts
ethanoic acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium ethanoate + water

CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O

• Weak acids such as ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, and hydrofluoric acid, HF, only partially
ionise in water, producing solutions of pH values between 4 – 6

• Careful: The terms strong and weak refer to the ability to dissociate whereas
the term concentration refers to the amount of acid present in solution.
• A dilute solution of a strong acid can have a lower pH than a concentrated
solution of a weak acid, due to the stronger acid undergoing complete
dissociation.

Hydrogen ion concentration

Higher tier only

• A concentrated solution of either an acid or a base is one that contains a high

number of acid or base molecules per dm3 of solution so would produce pH values
below 4 and above 10

• A dilute acid or base solution is therefore one that has much fewer acid or base
molecules per dm3 of solution, hence the pH value would lie between 5 and 9

• It does not necessarily mean that the acid or base is strong as it may be made from a
weak acid or base which does not dissociate completely but a lot of it was added to the
solution

• For example, a dilute solution of HCl will be more acidic than a concentrated solution of
ethanoic acid, since most of the HCl molecules dissociate but very few of the
CH3COOH molecules do

Remember concentration describes the total number of acid molecules added to the solution
but does not consider those that dissociated. This is measured using the pH scale.

Relative acidity
Higher tier only

• We have already seen that pH is a measure of the concentration of H+ ions in solution

• The pH scale is logarithmic, meaning that each change of 1 on the scale represents a
change in concentration by a factor of 10

• Therefore an acid with a pH of 3 has ten times the concentration of H+ ions than an acid
of pH 4

• An acid with a pH of 2 has 10 x 10 = 100 times the concentration of H+ ions than an acid
with a pH of 4

• From this we can summarise that for two acids of equal concentration, where one
is strong and the other is weak, then the strong acid will have a lower pH due to its
capacity to dissociate more and hence put more H+ ions into solution than the weak
acid
Acid strength indicates the proportion of acid molecules that dissociate while concentration is a
measure of how much acid there is per unit volume of water.

Titration
What titrations are used for

• Titrations are a method of analysing the concentration of solutions

• Acid-base titrations are one of the most important kinds of titrations

• They can determine exactly how much alkali is needed to neutralise a quantity of acid –
and vice versa

• You may be asked to calculate the moles present in a given amount,

the concentration or volume required to neutralise an acid or a base

Types of titrations

• Titrations can also be used to prepare salts or other precipitates and in redox reactions

• Indicators are used to show the endpoint in a titration

• Wide range indicators such as litmus are not suitable for a titration as they do not give a
sharp enough colour change at the end point

• Some of the most common indicators with their corresponding colours are shown below

Common indicators and their corresponding colours table

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkali Colour in neutral

Litmus solution Red Blue Purple

Litmus paper: red Stays red Turns blue No change

Litmus paper: blue Turns red Stays blue No change

Methyl orange Red Yellow Orange

Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Colourless

Required practical 2: Strong acid & strong alkali titration

Objective:

To determine the reacting volumes of a strong acid and a strong alkali by titration

Hypothesis:

The titration method can be used to calculate the concentration of an acid

Materials:

• 25 cm3 volumetric pipette

• Pipette filler

• 50 cm3 burette

• 250 cm3 conical flask

• Small funnel

• 0.1 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide solution

• Sulfuric acid – concentration unknown

• Phenolphthalein indicator

• Clamp stand, clamp & white tile

Performing a titration
Use a funnel to fill the burette but be sure to remove it before starting the practical as it can drip
liquid into the burette, making the initial reading false.

Method:

1. Use the pipette and pipette filler and place exactly 25 cm3 sodium hydroxide solution
into the conical flask

2. Place the conical flask on a white tile so the tip of the burette is inside the flask

3. Add a few drops of a suitable indicator to the solution in the conical flask

4. Perform a rough titration by taking the burette reading and running in the solution in 1 – 3
cm3 portions, while swirling the flask vigorously

5. Quickly close the tap when the end-point is reached (sharp colour change) and record
the volume, placing your eye level with the meniscus

6. Now repeat the titration with a fresh batch of sodium hydroxide

7. As the rough end-point volume is approached, add the solution from the burette one
drop at a time until the indicator just changes colour

8. Record the volume to the nearest 0.05cm3

9. Repeat until you achieve two concordant results (two results that are within 0.1cm3 of
each other) to increase accuracy

Results:

Record your results in a suitable table, e.g:

Rough Titre Titre 1 Titre 2

Final reading (cm3)

First reading (cm3)

Titre (cm3)

Evaluation:

Only concordant results should be used to calculate a mean titre

Conclusion:

The mean titre is calculated and used to calculate the concentration of the acid in mol/dm3,
ignoring any anomalous results
How to do titration calculations

Higher tier only

• Once a titration is completed and the average titre has been calculated, you can now
proceed to calculate the unknown variable using the formula triangle as shown below

Formula triangle showing the relationship between concentration, number of moles and
volume of liquid

25.00 cm3 of 0.15 mol/dm3 barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2, was required to neutralise 12.80 cm3 of
nitric acid, HNO3 , during a titration. Calculate the concentration of HNO3 that was used. Give
your answer to 2 decimal places.

Ba(OH)2 (aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Ba(NO3)2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

 The Process of Electrolysis
Electrolytic cells

• When an electric current is passed through a molten ionic compound the

compound decomposes or breaks down

• The process also occurs for aqueous solutions of ionic compounds

• Liquids and solutions that are able to conduct electricity are called electrolytes

• Covalent compounds cannot conduct electricity hence they do not undergo

electrolysis

• An electrolytic cell is the name given to the set-up used in electrolysis and which
consists of the following:

o Electrode: a rod of metal or graphite through which an electric current flows

into or out of an electrolyte

o Electrolyte: ionic compound in molten or dissolved solution that conducts

the electricity

o Anode: the positive electrode of an electrolysis cell

o Anion: negatively charged ion which is attracted to the anode

o Cathode: the negative electrode of an electrolysis cell

o Cation: positively charged ion which is attracted to the cathode

An electrolytic cell

The basic set-up of an electrolysis cell

Use the PANIC mnemonic to remember which electrode is the positive and which is the
negative: Positive (is) Anode Negative Is Cathode.

Electrical conductivity of ionic compounds

Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compounds

• Ionic compounds in the solid state cannot conduct electricity since they have no free
ions that can move and carry the charge

• The ions must be able to move and can only do so in the molten state or when dissolved
in a solution, usually aqueous

• When the cell is turned on and an electric current is passed through an electrolyte the
ions in the solution start to move towards the electrodes

Particles in solid and molten / solution in ionic compounds

Particles in ionic compounds are in fixed position in the solid state but can move around
when molten or in solution

Cations are attracted to the cathode and anions are attracted to the anode. Electron flow in
electrochemistry occurs in alphabetical order as electrons flow from the anode to the cathode.
Movement of ions

Movement of ions during electrolysis

• During electrolysis the electrons move from the power supply towards the cathode

• Electron flow in electrochemistry thus occurs in alphabetical order as electrons flow

from the anode to the cathode

• Positive ions within the electrolyte migrate towards the negatively charged electrode
which is the cathode

• Negative ions within the electrolyte migrate towards the positively charged electrode
which is the anode

The flow of electrons and ions in electrolysis

Diagram showing the direction of movement of electrons and ions in the electrolysis of
NaCl
Electrolysis of simple ionic compounds

What is produced at the anode and cathode?

• Lead(II) bromide is a binary ionic compound meaning that it is a compound consisting of

just two elements joined together by ionic bonding

• When these compounds are heated beyond their melting point, they become molten
and can conduct electricity as their ions can move freely and carry the charge

• These compounds undergo electrolysis and always produce their corresponding

element

• To predict the products of any binary molten compound first identify the ions present

• The positive ion will migrate towards the cathode and the negative ion will migrate
towards the anode

• Therefore the cathode product will always be the metal and the product formed at
the anode will always be the non-metal

Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide

Diagram showing the electrolysis of lead (II) bromide

Method

• Add lead(II) bromide into a crucible and heat so it will turn molten, allowing ions to be
free to move and conduct an electric charge

• Add two graphite rods as the electrodes and connect this to a power pack or battery

• Turn on the power pack or battery and allow electrolysis to take place

• Negative bromide ions move to the positive electrode (anode) and lose two electrons to
form bromine molecules. There is bubbling at the anode as brown bromine gas is given
off

• Positive lead ions move to the negative electrode (cathode) and gain electrons to form
grey lead metal which deposits on the bottom of the electrode

What are the products at the anode and cathode?

• Anode: Bromine gas

• Cathode: Lead metal

Extracting metals

Choosing methods for metal extraction

• The position of the metal on the reactivity series determines the method of extraction

• Higher placed metals (above carbon) have to be extracted using electrolysis as they are
too reactive and cannot be reduced by carbon

• Lower placed metals can be extracted by heating with carbon which reduces

• Electrolysis is very expensive as large amounts of energy are required to melt the ores
and produce the electrical current

• The reactivity series of metals is shown below with the corresponding method of
extraction

Extracting metals

Metal Extraction method

Most reactive

Potassium

Sodium

Lithium Extracted by electrolysis of the molten chloride or oxide

Calcium Large amounts of electricity are required, which makes this an expensive process

Magnesium

Aluminium
Zinc
Extracted by heating with a reducing agent such as carbon or carbon monoxide in a blast furnace
Iron
A cheap process as carbon is cheap and can also be a source of heat
Copper

Silver
Found as pure elements
Gold

Least reactive

The extraction of aluminium

How is aluminium extracted?

• Aluminium is a reactive metal, above carbon in the reactivity series

• Its main ore, is bauxite, which contains aluminium oxide

• Aluminium is higher in the reactivity series than carbon, so it cannot be extracted by

reduction using carbon

• Instead, aluminium is extracted by electrolysis

The electrolytic cell for extraction of aluminium

Diagram showing the extraction of aluminium by electrolysis

• Bauxite is first purified to produce aluminium oxide, Al2O3

• Aluminium oxide is then dissolved in molten cryolite

o This is because aluminium oxide has a melting point of over 2000°C which would
use a lot of energy and be very expensive
 o The resulting mixture has a lower melting point without interfering with the
reaction

• The mixture is placed in an electrolysis cell, made from steel, lined with graphite

• The graphite lining acts as the negative electrode, with several large graphite blocks as
the positive electrodes

• Aluminium is produced at the cathode

• Oxygen is produced At the anode

Why does the anode need to be replaced?

• The carbon in the graphite anodes reacts with the oxygen produced to produce CO2

C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

• As a result the anode wears away and has to be replaced regularly

• A lot of electricity is required for this process of extraction, this is a major expense

• Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions

Electrolysis of an aqueous solution using inert electrodes

Ions present in aqueous solutions

• Aqueous solutions will always contain water molecules (H2O)

• In the electrolysis of aqueous solutions, the water molecules dissociate producing

H+ and OH– ions:

H2O ⇌ H+ + OH–

• These ions are also involved in the electrolysis process and their chemistry must be
considered

• We now have an electrolyte that contains ions from the compound plus ions from the
water

• Which ions get discharged and at which electrode depends on the relative reactivity of
the elements involved

Note: The concentration of the solution can affect the products of electrolysis, however, this is
beyond the scope of this course and you are not expected to know the specific details of this

When answering questions on this topic, it helps if you first write down all of the ions present
first. Only then you should start comparing their reactivity and deducing the products formed.
Electrode reactions

What is produced at the positive electrode?

• Negatively charged OH– ions and non-metal ions are attracted to the positive electrode

• If halide ions (Cl-, Br-, I-) and OH- are present then the halide ion is discharged at the
anode, loses electrons and forms a halogen (chlorine, bromine or iodine)

• If no halide ions are present, then OH- is discharged at the anode, loses electrons and
forms oxygen

• In both cases the other negative ion remains in solution

What is produced at the negative electrode (cathode)

• Positively charged H+ and metal ions are attracted to the negative electrode but only one
will gain electrons

• Either hydrogen gas or the metal will be produced

• If the metal is above hydrogen in the reactivity series, then hydrogen will be produced
and bubbling will be seen at the cathode

• This is because the more reactive ions will remain in solution, causing the least reactive
ion to be discharged

• Therefore at the cathode, hydrogen gas will be produced unless the positive ions from
the ionic compound are less reactive than hydrogen, in which case the metal is
produced

The reactivity series

The reactivity series of metals including hydrogen and carbon

Predict the products formed at each electrode in the electrolysis of magnesium iodide solution.

Predict the products formed at each electrode in the electrolysis of copper sulfate solution
Determining what gas is produced

• The gas produced can be tested to determine its identity

• If the gas produced at the cathode burns with a ‘pop’ with a lighted splint then the gas
is hydrogen

• If the gas produced at the anode relights a glowing splint dipped into the gas then the
gas is oxygen

• If the gas produced at the anode turns damp blue litmus paper red and is then bleached
white then the gas is chlorine

• The halogen gases all produce their own colours (bromine is red-brown, chlorine
is yellow-green)
Required practical 3: Electrolysis of aqueous solutions

Objective

To investigate what happens when aqueous solutions are electrolysed using inert electrodes

Hypothesis

A metal will be produced at the negative electrode because metal ions are positive

Materials

• Test tubes

• Electrolyte solutions

• 100 cm3 beaker

• Stand and clamp

• Two carbon rod electrodes

• Two crocodile / 4 mm plug leads

• Low voltage power supply

• Blue litmus paper

Electrolytic cell
Diagram showing the electrolysis of aqueous solutions

Practical Tips

1. Make sure the test tubes do not cover the electrodes completely and fall to the bottom
of the cell or the conductivity will fall considerably and the rate of electrolysis will be
very slow

2. Replacing the test tubes with graduated test tubes or measuring cylinders means that
the volume of gas produced over time can be measured

Method

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram

2. Add the aqueous solution to the beaker

3. Add two graphite rods as the electrodes and connect this to a power pack or battery

4. Turn on the power pack or battery and allow electrolysis to take place

5. Record the results in a suitable table (see below) and repeat for another solution,
checking the electrodes in between runs to see if any metal has been deposited

6. The following aqueous solutions are suitable for this investigation: copper chloride,
copper sulfate, sodium chloride, sodium bromide, sodium nitrate

7. The gases produced can be collected in the test tubes to be tested later

Results: Record your results in a suitable table:

Electrolysis of aqueous solutions table

Electrolyte Observations at anode & gas test results Observation at cathode & gas tes

Aqueous sodium nitrate, Effervescence, no colour, splint relights so gas Effervescence, no colour, squeaky
NaNO3 is oxygen hydrogen

Evaluation

The gases and corresponding tests are:

• Hydrogen – lighted splint goes out with a squeaky pop

• Oxygen – a glowing splint relights

• Chlorine – damp blue litmus paper turns red and is then bleached white

Conclusion

Describe how the results obtained compare with the expected results based on the hypothesis
 Half Equations in Electrolysis
Half equations

Higher tier only

• In electrochemistry we are mostly concerned with the transfer of electrons, hence

the definitions of oxidation and reduction are applied in terms of electron
loss or gain rather than the addition or removal of oxygen

• Oxidation is when a substance loses electrons and reduction is when a

substance gains electrons

• As the ions come into contact with the electrode, electrons are either lost or gained
and they form neutral substances

• These are then discharged as products at the electrodes

• At the anode, negatively charged ions lose electrons and are thus oxidised

• At the cathode, the positively charged ions gain electrons and are thus reduced

• This can be illustrated using half equations which describe the movement of
electrons at each electrode

• It is important to make sure that the charges as well as the number of atoms/ions
on each side of the equation are balanced

Electrolysis of molten lead(II)bromide

• In the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide the half equation at the negative
electrode (cathode) is:

Pb2+ + 2e– ⟶ Pb

• At the positive electrode (anode) bromine gas is produced by the discharge of

bromide ions:

2Br- – 2e– ⟶ Br2

OR

2Br- ⟶ Br2 + 2e–

Electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide

• Aluminium ions are discharged at the negative electrode (cathode) and the
aluminium is collected at the bottom of the cell:

Al3+ + 3e– ⟶ Al

• At the positive electrode (anode) oxygen gas is produced:

2O2- – 4e– ⟶ O2

OR

2O2- ⟶ O2 + 4e–
 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions

• At the negative electrode (cathode), when the metal is more reactive than
hydrogen, hydrogen is discharged and the half equation is:

2H+ + 2e– ⟶ H2

• When the metal is less reactive than hydrogen, the metal is discharged, e.g.:

Cu2+ + 2e– ⟶ Cu

• At the positive electrode (anode), if a halide ion is present, the corresponding

halogen is formed e.g.:

2Cl– – 2e– ⟶ Cl2

OR

2Cl– ⟶ Cl2 + 2e–

• When a halide ion is not present, oxygen is formed as hydroxide ions are
discharged, e.g.:

4OH– ⟶ O2 + 2H2O + 4e–

OR

4OH– - 4e– ⟶ O2 + 2H2O

Summary of the half equations at the anode and cathode

Half equations at electrodes

Electrolyte Anode reaction Cathode reaction

Copper(II) chloride (CuCl2) 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e–→ Cu

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e– 2H+ + 2e– → H2

Copper(II) sulftate (CuSO4) 4OH– → O2 + 2H2O + 4e– Cu2+ + 2e–→ Cu

Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) 4OH– → O2 + 2H2O + 4e– 2H+ + 2e– → H2

Concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e– 2H+ + 2e– → H2

Water acidified with sulfuric acid (H2SO4) 4OH– → O2 + 2H2O + 4e– 2H+ + 2e– → H2