A comprehensive list of geotechnical engineering terms

🔹 I. Soil Types & Classifications

1. Gravel
2. Sand
3. Silt
4. Clay
5. Organic Soil
6. Peat
7. Loam
8. Laterite Soil
9. Collapsible Soil
10. Expansive Soil (e.g., Black Cotton Soil)

🔹 II. Soil Properties

➤ Physical Properties

1. Moisture Content (Water Content)

2. Specific Gravity
3. Void Ratio
4. Porosity
5. Degree of Saturation
6. Unit Weight (Bulk, Dry, Saturated)
7. Density
8. Relative Density (for granular soils)
9. Particle Size Distribution (Grain Size Analysis)

➤ Consistency Limits (Atterberg Limits)

1. Liquid Limit (LL)

2. Plastic Limit (PL)
3. Shrinkage Limit (SL)
4. Plasticity Index (PI)

🔹 III. Soil Strength & Behavior

 1. Shear Strength
2. Cohesion (c)
3. Angle of Internal Friction (ϕ)
4. Stress-Strain Relationship
5. Plasticity
6. Elasticity
7. Compressibility
8. Permeability
9. Consolidation
10. Creep
11. Swelling and Shrinkage
12. Suction Pressure (for unsaturated soils)

🔹 IV. Soil Failure Mechanisms

1. Bearing Capacity Failure
2. Slope Failure / Landslides
3. Liquefaction
4. Heaving (e.g., under foundations)
5. Lateral Spreading
6. Foundation Settlement (Immediate, Consolidation, Secondary)
7. Collapse Potential (in collapsible soils)

🔹 V. Geotechnical Testing Methods

➤ Laboratory Tests

1. Moisture Content Test

2. Atterberg Limits Test
3. Specific Gravity Test
4. Sieve Analysis (for coarse soils)
5. Hydrometer Analysis (for fine soils)
6. Standard Proctor Test / Modified Proctor Test (Compaction)
7. Permeability Test (Constant and Falling Head)
8. Direct Shear Test
9. Triaxial Compression Test
10. Unconfined Compression Test (UCS)
11. Consolidation Test (Oedometer Test)
12. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

➤ Field Tests

1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

 2. Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
3. Plate Load Test
4. Vane Shear Test
5. Field Density Test (Sand Cone or Core Cutter)
6. Percolation Test
7. Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)

🔹 VI. Geotechnical Analysis Concepts

1. Effective Stress Principle (σ' = σ - u)
2. Stress Path
3. Pore Water Pressure
4. Critical State Soil Mechanics
5. Compaction Curve
6. Settlement Analysis
7. Earth Pressure Theories
o Rankine
o Coulomb
o Terzaghi’s Earth Pressure
8. Bearing Capacity Theory
o Terzaghi
o Meyerhof
o Hansen
o Vesic
9. Slope Stability Analysis
o Limit Equilibrium Method
o Finite Element Method
o Method of Slices (Bishop, Janbu)

🔹 VII. Geotechnical Structures & Systems

1. Shallow Foundation (Isolated, Combined, Strip Footing)
2. Deep Foundation (Pile Foundation, Caisson)
3. Retaining Walls
4. Geosynthetics (Geotextile, Geogrid)
5. Soil Nailing
6. Ground Improvement Techniques
7. Drainage Systems
8. Reinforced Soil
9. Cut-off Walls
10. Seepage Control Systems
🔹 VIII. Seismic Geotechnical Terms
1. Seismic Site Classification (based on Vs30)
2. Soil Amplification
3. Liquefaction Potential
4. Seismic Slope Stability
5. Dynamic Soil Properties (Shear Modulus, Damping Ratio)
6. Ground Response Analysis

🔹 IX. Advanced Soil Behavior Models

1. Mohr-Coulomb Model
2. Cam-Clay Model (Modified/Original)
3. Hardening Soil Model
4. Drucker-Prager Model
5. Bounding Surface Plasticity
6. Hypoplasticity Model
7. Critical State Model

🔹 X. Soil Improvement Techniques

1. Compaction
2. Soil Stabilization (Lime, Cement, Bitumen)
3. Grouting
4. Stone Columns
5. Vertical Drains
6. Vibroflotation
7. Preloading
8. Reinforced Earth
9. Geosynthetic Encased Columns (GEC)

In-Depth Discussion on Geotechnical Terms

I. Soil Types & Classifications
1. Gravel

Gravel consists of coarse particles larger than 4.75 mm. It is excellent for drainage and has high
shear strength.

2. Sand

Sand particles range from 0.075 mm to 4.75 mm. Sand has good drainage properties but poor
cohesion.

3. Silt

Silt is fine-grained and has a smooth texture. It has moderate plasticity and poor drainage.

4. Clay

Clay has the smallest particle size and exhibits plasticity. It holds water well and is prone to
swelling and shrinkage.

5. Organic Soil

This contains decomposed plant and animal matter. It is highly compressible and unsuitable for
structural foundations.

6. Peat

Peat is a type of organic soil with high water content and extremely low bearing capacity.

7. Loam

Loam is a balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay. It is ideal for agriculture and moderately good
for engineering.

8. Laterite Soil

Found in tropical regions, it is rich in iron and aluminum. It hardens upon exposure.

9. Collapsible Soil

These soils lose strength when wet, leading to sudden settlement.

10. Expansive Soil

Swells significantly with moisture (e.g., black cotton soil), causing structural damage.
II. Soil Properties
Physical Properties

 Moisture Content: Percentage of water in the soil. Affects strength and compaction.
 Specific Gravity: Ratio of soil particle density to water. Typically ranges from 2.60 to
2.80.
 Void Ratio: Ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids.
 Porosity: Percentage of voids in total soil volume.
 Degree of Saturation: Proportion of voids filled with water.
 Unit Weight: Includes bulk, dry, and saturated weights.
 Density: Mass per unit volume. Affects load-bearing.
 Relative Density: Indicates the compactness of granular soil.
 Particle Size Distribution: Helps classify soils and predict behavior.

Consistency Limits

 Liquid Limit: Water content at the boundary between liquid and plastic state.
 Plastic Limit: Water content at the boundary between plastic and semi-solid state.
 Shrinkage Limit: Minimum water content at which soil volume ceases to decrease.
 Plasticity Index: Difference between LL and PL; indicates plasticity.

III. Soil Strength & Behavior

 Shear Strength: Resistance to shearing stress. Important for slope and foundation
design.
 Cohesion: Attractive force between particles. Clay has high cohesion.
 Friction Angle: Resistance due to internal friction. High in sands.
 Stress-Strain Relationship: Describes deformation under load.
 Plasticity: Soil's ability to undergo permanent deformation.
 Elasticity: Ability to recover shape after load removal.
 Compressibility: Tendency to decrease in volume.
 Permeability: Ability of soil to transmit water.
 Consolidation: Gradual reduction in volume due to water expulsion.
 Creep: Slow deformation under constant stress.
 Swelling/Shrinkage: Expansion/contraction with moisture variation.
 Suction Pressure: Negative pressure in unsaturated soils.

IV. Soil Failure Mechanisms

Soil failure mechanisms are critical aspects in the analysis and design of geotechnical systems.
These failures may occur due to excessive loading, environmental conditions, or inherent
weaknesses in soil properties. Understanding these mechanisms enables engineers to design
more robust foundations and slope systems.

 Bearing Capacity Failure: Occurs when the soil beneath a foundation cannot sustain the
applied load, leading to sudden or progressive shear failure. A notable example is the
2013 collapse of a building in Thane, India, where poor soil strength and excessive load
contributed to failure.
 Slope Failure: The movement of soil masses along a slope due to gravitational forces,
often exacerbated by rainfall or seismic activity. The 2005 Kashmir earthquake induced
numerous slope failures in soft and weathered soil zones.
 Liquefaction: Happens when saturated, loose sandy soils lose strength due to earthquake
shaking, behaving like a liquid. During the 1964 Niigata Earthquake in Japan, widespread
liquefaction caused buildings to tilt and sink.
 Heaving: Upward movement of soil, often due to the swelling of expansive clay or frost
action. This has been problematic in parts of Texas, where expansive soils have led to
pavement uplift and foundation cracking.
 Lateral Spreading: Horizontal displacement of soil, typically due to liquefaction or
ground shaking. In the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake, lateral spreading caused severe
damage to bridge abutments and pipelines.
 Foundation Settlement: This includes immediate settlement (elastic deformation),
consolidation settlement (due to expulsion of pore water), and secondary settlement
(creep). For instance, Mexico City has experienced significant long-term settlement due
to consolidation of its clayey soil strata.
 Collapse Potential: Involves sudden settlement of collapsible soils when they become
saturated. A famous case is the collapse of light structures in Sudan and Egypt built over
loess deposits, which suddenly lost strength during heavy rains.

Incorporating these failure types into analysis helps engineers choose appropriate foundation
types, reinforcement methods, and ground improvement techniques, particularly in soft soil
zones or seismic regions.

 Bearing Capacity Failure: Occurs when soil can't support load.

 Slope Failure: Instability in inclined soil masses.
 Liquefaction: Sudden loss of strength during earthquake in saturated sands.
 Heaving: Upward soil movement.
 Lateral Spreading: Horizontal ground movement.
 Foundation Settlement: Can be immediate, consolidation, or secondary.
 Collapse Potential: Risk of sudden settlement.

V. Geotechnical Testing Methods

Laboratory Tests
  Moisture Content Test: Oven drying method.
 Atterberg Limits: Determines soil plasticity.
 Specific Gravity Test: Pycnometer used.
 Sieve Analysis: Determines grain size.
 Hydrometer Analysis: For fine-grained soils.
 Proctor Tests: Compaction characteristics.
 Permeability Test: Water flow under head.
 Shear Tests: Direct, triaxial, and UCS.
 Consolidation Test: Measures settlement.
 CBR Test: Used in pavement design.

Field Tests

 SPT: Resistance to penetration.

 CPT: Measures tip resistance.
 Plate Load Test: Determines bearing capacity.
 Vane Shear Test: In-situ shear strength.
 Field Density: Using core cutter or sand cone.
 Percolation Test: For drainage.
 DCPT: Dynamic cone penetration resistance.

VI. Geotechnical Analysis Concepts

 Effective Stress: Stress carried by soil skeleton.
 Stress Path: Variation during loading.
 Pore Water Pressure: Internal water pressure.
 Critical State Soil Mechanics: Soil behavior at failure.
 Compaction Curve: Relation between moisture and density.
 Settlement Analysis: Calculation of total and differential settlements.
 Earth Pressure Theories: Used in retaining wall design.
 Bearing Capacity Theories: Terzaghi, Meyerhof, Hansen, Vesic.
 Slope Stability: Using Limit Equilibrium, FEM, Method of Slices.

VII. Geotechnical Structures

 Shallow Foundations: Support near surface.
 Deep Foundations: Transfer loads to deeper strata.
 Retaining Walls: Hold back soil.
 Geosynthetics: Improve soil performance.
 Soil Nailing: Reinforces soil slopes.
 Ground Improvement: Enhances weak soils.
  Drainage Systems: Prevent water accumulation.
 Reinforced Soil: Combines soil with reinforcements.
 Cut-off Walls: Control seepage.
 Seepage Control: Prevents piping and erosion.

VIII. Seismic Geotechnical Terms

 Site Classification: Based on shear wave velocity.
 Soil Amplification: Increase in seismic wave intensity.
 Liquefaction Potential: Risk assessment.
 Seismic Slope Stability: Analysis under earthquakes.
 Dynamic Soil Properties: Includes shear modulus, damping ratio.
 Ground Response Analysis: Predicts ground behavior.

IX. Soil Models

In geotechnical design, selecting an appropriate soil model is crucial for predicting soil behavior
under various loading and environmental conditions. The choice of model depends on the soil
type, project scale, expected loading conditions (static, dynamic, cyclic), and the level of
accuracy required. For example, the Mohr-Coulomb model is widely used for its simplicity and
is suitable for preliminary design in many foundation and slope stability problems. More
complex models like Cam-Clay and Hardening Soil are necessary for simulating clay behavior
under consolidation and stress history in advanced numerical simulations such as Finite Element
Method (FEM). Applications vary from embankment analysis, tunnel design, to earthquake-
resistant foundations where constitutive models must accurately represent nonlinearity,
anisotropy, and time-dependent responses such as creep or cyclic degradation.

 Mohr-Coulomb: Basic strength envelope.

 Cam-Clay: For clays under consolidation.
 Hardening Soil Model: Advanced stress-strain.
 Drucker-Prager: Smooth yield surface.
 Bounding Surface: Captures cyclic loading.
 Hypoplasticity: Nonlinear behavior.
 Critical State Model: Based on long-term behavior.

X. Soil Improvement
 Compaction: Reduces voids.
 Stabilization: Adds stabilizers like lime.
  Grouting: Injecting cementitious materials.
 Stone Columns: Increases bearing capacity.
 Vertical Drains: Speeds up consolidation.
 Vibroflotation: Densifies loose soil.
 Preloading: Applies load before construction.
 Reinforced Earth: Includes geosynthetics.
 GEC: Geosynthetic-encased columns.

This document can serve as a foundational reference for research, presentations, or academic
exams in geotechnical engineering.