Article

Reducing the Environmental Impact of Large Battery Systems

with Conductive Electric Road Systems—A Technical Overview
David Wenander * and Mats Alaküla

Division of Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation, LTH, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University,
P.O. Box 117, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: A radical transformation of the transport industry is required in order to achieve a fossil-fuel-
free vehicle fleet and reach the greenhouse gas emissions goals. Electrification plays a crucial role in
this radical process. An electric road system (ERS) is a road that supplies power to electric vehicles as
they drive on it, offering numerous advantages. These include an extended driving range, decreased
reliance on batteries, and increased flexibility and convenience for drivers, eliminating the need to
stop for recharging. This paper highlights the transformative potential of ERS in revolutionizing the
land transport sector. Through thorough testing with a conductive ERS demonstrator, the viability of
the presented technology is validated. Essential aspects like power transfer, efficiency, safety, and
environmental impact showcase ERS’s adaptability and scalability across diverse vehicle types. This
study recommends widespread ERS support for battery electric vehicles, emphasizing the route
toward a sustainable future.

Keywords: electric road system (ERS); dynamic charging; charging infrastructure; battery electric
vehicle (BEV); charging; infrastructure

1. Introduction
Citation: Wenander, D.; Alaküla, M.
The decarbonization of road transport is a fundamental step toward significant reduc-
Reducing the Environmental Impact
tions in global CO2 emissions. The electrification of road transport is a promising path
of Large Battery Systems with
toward CO2 reduction [1]. This electrification of road vehicles is however challenging
Conductive Electric Road Systems—A
from several viewpoints. The electric traction system (electric machine and corresponding
Technical Overview. World Electr. Veh.
J. 2024, 15, 59. https://doi.org/
inverter, excluding the battery) is an improvement compared to combustion-based propul-
10.3390/wevj15020059
sion, since an electric traction system is significantly smaller, lighter, and more efficient
than the corresponding combustion-based traction system. The challenge lies in how the
Academic Editor: Joeri Van Mierlo energy is transferred to and stored onboard a battery electric vehicle (BEV).
and Genevieve Cullen
The electric energy can be transferred in three different ways:
Received: 15 December 2023 1. The onboard battery energy storage can be filled via the direct transfer of electric
Revised: 1 February 2024 energy, called charging. The charging rate is constrained by the capacity of the battery
Accepted: 5 February 2024 to receive power. Modern full-electric-vehicle batteries are designed to store large
Published: 8 February 2024 amounts of energy, enabling faster charging. Fast charging, exemplified by the Kia
EV6 [2], can achieve partial recharging from 10% to 80% in about 20 min. Extended
charging times, such as during night-time, result in lower charging rates.
2. An alternative is to replace an empty battery with a full one, called battery swapping.
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
There are several automotive OEMs for both commercial vehicles and private cars, like
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
the Chinese car OEM NIO [3], that are designed for systematic battery replacement in
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
just a few minutes in dedicated battery-swapping stations. The empty battery is then
conditions of the Creative Commons
recharged in the battery swapping station at a lower charge rate than demanded at a
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
fast charging station.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 3. A continuous supply of electric energy can be provided at least for parts of a travelled
4.0/). distance on a public road. This kind of energy transfer can be referred to as an “electric

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15020059 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 2 of 16

road system” (ERS), which partly replaces the role of fast charging. While on an ERS,
energy can be provided for both propulsion of the vehicle and charging an onboard
battery. The need for onboard energy storage is reduced. As presented in [4], even
with fractional deployments of an ERS on a main road system, the battery capacity
installed in the majority of BEVs can be reduced by 50–70%.

1.1. Electric Roads

An electric road refers to a road that includes some kind of technology that facilitates
electric energy transfer from the road to the vehicles driving on it. The energy transfer can
be made in a conductive way, meaning that some kind of sliding contacts are used, as used
in trains, trams, and trolleybuses. Energy transfer can also occur inductively utilizing a
high-frequency magnetic field connecting a transmitting component, typically located just
beneath the road surface, and a receiving component installed in vehicles, usually beneath
the vehicle body. The company Electreon [5] manufactures an example of this technology.
This paper focuses on ERSs in the form of conductive ERSs.
Conductive ERSs exist in at least three different forms:
1. Siemens eHighway [6] is an example of conductive transfer from above the vehicle via
catenary lines. This technology is derived from train technology and is only designed
to supply power to electric trucks. The catenary lines are located on a highway in
Germany and was first commissioned using an electric truck in 2017.
2. Honda has introduced a conductive transfer system from the side of the road [7]. With
this technology, the vehicle connects to a continuous, parallel, two-pole supply on
the side of the road via an arm extended from the side of the vehicle. Honda has
developed a demonstrator ERS based on this technology located on a racing track.
The system has demonstrated exceptional performance, effectively transferring power
exceeding 450 kW at speeds of 150 km/h.
3. There are multiple companies that have built ERS demonstrators using conductive
transfer from the road surface, for instance, Alstom [8], Elways [9], and Elonroad [10].
For this type of conductive ERS technology, a mechanical arm or mechatronic device
establishes a connection with a continuous, parallel, two-pole supply located in the
road. Both Alstom and Elways have tested their own versions of this technology with
electric trucks in enclosed environments. Elonroad has tested this technology on a
public road using an electric bus, a passenger car, and a resistive load.
To validate the viability of conductive ERSs, this paper reports on experiences with com-
missioning an ERS demonstrator with different road vehicles drawing power from it.

1.2. Aspects of Different Charging Technologies

As outlined in [1], a fast-charging-based road transport system requires a ratio of
1:100 or denser of fast charging stations for BEV passenger cars. In Sweden, with about
5 million cars [11], this corresponds to about 50,000 fast charging spots distributed along
approximately 15,000 km of national and European roads. This results in at least 100 fast
chargers every 30 km on average across Sweden. Along traffic-intense roads, where an
even greater demand is expected, even more fast chargers will be needed.
Meeting the increasing demand for a high ratio of fast chargers to BEVs, coupled
with a lower overall vehicle count, presents a similar challenge in allocating fast chargers
for commercial vehicles. Modeling indicates that with the implementation of an ERS for
road transport, approximately 3000 to 4000 km out of the total 15,000 km of national and
European roads would require ERS coverage [12]. This coverage would facilitate “non-
stop” travel across the country, with vehicles needing 50–70% less battery capacity than a
fast-charger-based system.
These conclusions highlight two challenges with electromobility: (I) a huge number
of fast charging stations is needed in a fast-charging-based system; (II) by deploying ERS
technology on a wide scale, the abundant requirement of fast chargers can be diminished
and the amount and size of BEV batteries can be reduced significantly.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 3 of 16

1.3. Related CO2 Emissions

Figure 1 illustrates the CO2 emissions originating from both the manufacturing and
driving phases of passenger cars, local distribution trucks, and long-haul trucks in Sweden.
The analysis considers a fully electrified vehicle fleet, comparing a fast-charger-based
system (left bar) with an ERS-based system (right bar) in terms of required battery amount.
Note that the CO2 emissions from driving various vehicle types (depicted in the yellow
field) remain constant for both types of charging infrastructure. The CO2 emissions from
driving were calculated using the CO2 emissions related to electricity production from [13]
and consumption per vehicle from [4].

Figure 1. CO2 emissions from BEVs with a full electrification of cars and two types of trucks in
Sweden using either a fast-charger based system (left bar) or an ERS-based system (right bar).

However, the CO2 emissions related to battery manufacturing (indicated by the blue
field for passenger cars, gray for long-haul trucks, and orange for local distribution trucks)
are non-negligible compared to the emissions from driving, regardless of the charging
infrastructure. Moreover, employing an ERS significantly reduces the CO2 emissions
from battery manufacturing. The calculation of battery manufacturing emissions involved
several steps:
1. Determination of the distribution of vehicle types and their quantities in Sweden
based on data from [11].
2. Assumption of battery sizes: 30 kWh for passenger cars, 200 kWh for local distribution
trucks, and 250 kWh for long-haul trucks [1].
3. Computation of battery amounts for a fast-charger-based system compared to an
ERS-based system, relying on [4].
4. Adoption of an assumed emissions factor of 60 kg CO2 /kWh related to battery
production [14].
In conclusion, the figure highlights that the CO2 emissions from battery manufacturing
are dominated by passenger car batteries and that the selection of charging technology
significantly impacts CO2 emissions, indirectly via the reduced battery need.

2. Materials and Methods

This paper presents a conductive electric road demonstrator built by the company
Elonroad [10], located on a public road in an urban environment in Lund, Sweden, that
has been used to assess the potential of the presented electric road technology. The project
related to the demonstrator is known as the Evolution Road project [15], which consists of
partners from industry, academia, as well as the public sector in Sweden, and is funded
by the Swedish Transport Administration. Since the project started in 2019, a number of
aspects related to the technology has been tested encompassing the electric power transfer
to the installation and build procedures. In this paper, results and experiences from the
project concerning the following areas are presented:
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 4 of 16

• Electric power transfer;

• Efficiency calculations;
• Electrical safety;
• Mechanical safety *;
• Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) *;
• Acoustic tests *;
• Environmental perspective *.
Areas labeled with an asterisk provide a concise overview of the gained experiences
and results and are presented in Sections 2.3–2.5.

2.1. The Electric Road Demonstrator

The conductive electric road demonstrator consists of a transformer, a rectifier, and a
segmented conductive electric rail with a total length of 850 m embedded in the top layer
of the road surface, as presented in Figure 2. In the following subsection, each subsystem
of the demonstrator is presented.

Figure 2. The ERS demonstrator.

2.1.1. Alternating Short-Segmented Electric Road

The electric road presented in this paper is a form of conductive electric road known
as an alternating short-segmented electric road (ASSE). This means that the short segments
(1 m long) are arranged so that, as illustrated in Figure 3, every other short segment (dark
grey) is permanently connected to 0 V DC, and the remaining short segments can be
connected to either 0 V DC or 650 V DC by means of solid-state switches integrated in the
road. To mitigate the risks associated with hazardous voltage levels, a short segment is
activated with 650 V DC only when a vehicle is positioned on top of it. As a convenience and
safety measure, each short segment is equipped with LEDs to indicate the activation status
of 650 V DC. The activation of short segments is facilitated through wireless communication
between the vehicle and ERS.
The ASSE is rectangular in cross-section and built in 10 m sections that are integrated
in a groove in the road and secured by a bitumen mass, as presented in Figure 4. A 40 cm
wide and 6 cm deep groove is milled in the top layer of the road. The 10 m sections are then
placed in the groove hanging on bars, thus are level with the surrounding asphalt. The
remaining space is filled with a bitumen mass that fixes the rail to the road and the bars are
removed. The whole process is fast and has no negative impact on the underlying layers
of the road body. Once installed, the visual impact of the road is very limited, as shown
in Figure 2. However, more knowledge and research are required regarding the rectifier
station installations and cable installation between the rectifier station and the electric road,
as these installations are expected to be more time-consuming and labor-intensive than the
installation of the electric road.
The presented ERS technology does not only supply vehicles with power but also
offers control over both charge access as well as billing data for the charging vehicles. In
addition, the LEDs in the ASSE offer additional safety services such as alerts of traffic
accidents and risks of traffic congestion.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 5 of 16

Figure 3. Overview of the basic principle of a conductive ERS taken from [16]. All elements in green
are placed onboard the vehicle and represent the interface toward the electric road. The rest of the
vehicle is not shown for clarity.

Figure 4. (Left): Installation of a 10 m section of ASSE into a groove. (Right): Moulding a 10 m

section of ASSE into a groove in the road.

2.1.2. The Rectifier Station

A 6-pulse passive rectifier (bottom right in Figure 3) is used to provide 650 V DC to
the two internal main power conductors (illustrated in blue and red) in the ASSE. The
demonstrator is connected to a 400 V grid; therefore, a 400 kVA 400/450 V transformer is
used to achieve a mean three-phase rectified voltage of 650 V DC. In addition to the rectifier
and the transformer, the rectifier station also contains solid-state switches (used to connect
and disconnect the electric road) and computers that can handle billing and data as well as
survey and control the short segments and their corresponding LEDs in the road.

2.1.3. The Power Receiver in the Vehicle—The “Pick-Up”

In order to ensure a smooth power transfer between the ASSE and the vehicle, at least
three sliding contacts are required (illustrated in green in Figure 3). The device containing
the sliding contacts, presented in Figure 5, is referred to as the “pick-up”. The pick-up is a
mechatronic device equipped with sensors that automatically ensure contact with the ASSE
as it has the capability to lower, raise, and move the sliding contacts laterally. Additionally,
it can exert a specific contact force on the contacts. As the pick-up adjusts its position
automatically, limited input or attention is required from the driver.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 6 of 16

Figure 5. Two different types of pick-ups mounted on different vehicles providing contact between
ASSE and vehicle.

As a vehicle drives along the ERS and draws power, the sliding contact points alternate
between short segments that are connected to either 650 V DC or 0 V DC. As a consequence,
an onboard rectifier is required as the voltage perceived by the vehicle has an alternating
voltage polarity from the pick-up. In addition to the onboard rectifier, a DC/DC converter
is required onboard the vehicle for two reasons: (I) to match the voltage level of the high-
voltage battery with the ERS supply and (II) to provide galvanic isolation between the ERS
supply and the traction voltage system (TVS) of the BEV.
As roads are subjected to harsh weather conditions, the contact surface can be wet, icy,
or even covered in snow. In addition, small pebbles as well as sand can accumulate on the
contact surface. To mitigate the risk of poor contact during cold conditions, the project has
successfully used a snow plough to clear the contact surface. Small objects, such as sand or
pebbles, are cleared by the pickup due to the nature of the sliding contact. However, small
objects have the potential to lift the sliding contact, posing a risk of breaking the current
path to the rectifier and potentially causing an arc.
To address this issue concerning poor contact, two measures have proved effective during
the project: (I) dividing one sliding contact into several smaller contacts arranged in parallel
and (II) incorporating more than three sliding contacts per vehicle. Both of these strategies
provide alternative paths for the pick-up currents, mitigating the risk of arcing. Although the
pick-up has performed well during the project, with an efficiency well over 97% (as shown in
Section 3.2), little is known of its performance in terms of losses at higher speeds. In addition,
service intervals and maintenance costs related to the pick-up are hitherto unknown.

2.2. Electric Power Transfer and Efficiency Calculations

In this project, three different vehicles draw power from the electric road: an electric
bus, a passenger car, and a resistive load mounted on a trailer. In Figure 6, the interfaces
where voltage and current are measured in the demonstrator are depicted as follows: A—grid,
B—after the transformer, C—after the rectifier in the rectifier station, and E—after the rectifier
in the vehicle. These measurements serve as the basis for calculating power, losses, and efficiency
at these interfaces. A full description of the measurement system is presented in [17].

Figure 6. An overview of the measurement interfaces of the ERS demonstrator and the electric bus.
Red elements represent 650 V DC and blue represent 0 V DC.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 7 of 16

2.3. Safety
There are many safety aspects to consider related to conductive ERS technology. The
following issues are considered in this paper:
• The two main areas of electrical safety in a conductive ERS are related to the risk of
touch events related to hazardous voltages. This means that there should be no risk
related to touching the electric road or a vehicle that is connected to an electric road.
Firstly, touch protection of the ASSE is accomplished by the design, as the outer
exterior of the ASSE is grounded to 0 V potential in the rectifier station. In addition,
short segments are only activated with hazardous voltage levels of 650 V DC when
a vehicle is located over it; otherwise, they remain at safe ground potential of 0 V, as
presented in Section 2.1.1.
Secondly, the high-voltage battery, ERS supply voltage, and corresponding TVS in
the vehicle are galvanically isolated from the chassis to prevent hazardous touch
currents from flowing through a person’s body (standing on conductive ground)
when touching the vehicle’s chassis. Figure 7 presents the basic concept of an isolation
fault between the positive high-voltage pole of the ERS supply and the vehicle’s
chassis while a human body is in contact with the vehicle’s chassis and ground. This
event causes current to flow through the human body to ground and back to the
rectifier station.
However, to mitigate this risk, the vehicle is equipped with an isolation fault moni-
toring system. The isolation fault monitoring system is designed to ensure that the
impedance between the high-voltage poles in the TVS and the chassis is unaltered and
kept in the magnitude of MΩ. If an isolation fault occurs (meaning that the impedance
is instantly drastically reduced), the intended isolation fault monitoring system is
triggered and disconnects the high-voltage battery from the TVS as well as the vehicle
from the ERS supply.
In order to gain a greater understanding of this phenomenon, measurements of touch
currents were obtained when a human model, defined according to standard [18],
is connected to the electric bus chassis while the bus was drawing power from the
ERS. No isolation faults were present in the bus or the ERS demonstrator during
these measurements. A 4444 Picoscope [19] was used to measure the voltage over
the human model in order to assess the magnitude of touch current, as outlined in
the related standards [18,20]. The results of these measurements are presented in
Section 3.3 in this paper.

Figure 7. Conceptual overview of the electric safety issue of touch current when a vehicle is drawing
power from the ERS and a human body is connected to the vehicle’s chassis. Red elements represent
650 V DC and blue represent 0 V DC.

• Mechanical safety refers to the road friction on the short segments of an ASSE, which,
as a conductive ground-based technology, can cause poor friction compared to the
adjacent friction on the original road. To mitigate this risk, a pattern is engraved in
the short segments that is small enough to not interfere with the sliding contacts but
provide enough grip to the rubber in the wheels. Throughout the project, a number
of friction test have been conducted by two different parties, Ramboll consultancy
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 8 of 16

and The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI). All tests
concluded that the ASSE fulfilled the friction requirements for public roads in Sweden.
• Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is briefly mentioned in this paper as the ERS must
comply with standards concerning radiated emissions. However, as there are no
specific standards concerning ERSs, measurements were conducted based on best
practices concerning EMC as well as standards addressing similar infrastructure,
for instance, railways, tramways, and trolleybuses. Three different organizations
conducted measurements at different occasions: Research Institute of Sweden (RISE),
Swedish Defence Materiel Administration (FMV), and Department of Biomedical
Engineering, LTH, Faculty of Engineering. Measurements of radiated emissions, while
the bus is drawing power from the demonstrator ERS, identified peaks across a broad
spectrum of frequencies. To investigate this issue, further measurements are planned
to be conducted in a laboratory environment, aiming to mitigate the uncertainties
associated with background emissions.

2.4. Acoustic Tests

There are many aspects to consider in an ERS, for instance, the issue of noise pollution.
In order to assess the impact of the sliding contacts concerning noise, acoustic tests were
performed with the ERS demonstrator. The tests were performed according to ECE-R51 [21]
with the electric bus on the ERS demonstrator. The tests were performed at night time in
order to reduce the influence of background noise. The bus drove at different speeds with
the pick-up lowered and raised for each speed as to determine the impact of the sliding
contact. Initial results showed no significant increase in noise emissions with the pick-up
connected to the ASSE.

2.5. Environmental Perspective

As ERSs have the benefit of reducing CO2 emissions by allowing BEVs to have smaller
batteries, this paper also briefly addresses the environmental perspective of recycling
the ERS. As the ERS demonstrator is still in commission, the process of recycling is in a
preliminary phase. However, initial measures of recycling subsystems and parts of the ERS
have thus far produced promising results. The project is presently assessing the economic
benefits of recycling, with more detailed information forthcoming. However, it is evident
that recycling the entire system post use poses no practical challenges, and the metal value
of the components far surpasses the recycling costs.
A primary motivation behind the project is the need to lower the overall need for
batteries in a future, mostly for BEVs. A compelling argument for ERS-based infrastructure
capable of serving all BEV types lies in the fact that approximately 90% of the batteries in
existing and future vehicles are and will be in smaller vehicles, with about 10% in heavy
duty trucks (HDTs) [1]. Infrastructure that only services HDTs would have a comparatively
minor impact on the environmental footprint of battery production and the complexity
of recycling batteries. In conclusion, from an environmental standpoint, comprehensive
support for all BEV types is recommended.

3. Results
3.1. Electric Power Transfer
Two types of electric power transfer tests are presented in this paper: (I) two vehicles
(a passenger car and the electric bus) are drawing power from the ERS demonstrator
simultaneously, see Figure 8 (left), and (II) a resistive load mounted on a trailer, see Figure 8
(right), draws a power of 280 kW at a speed of 80 km/h.
The two-vehicle test showed that the road was able to provide individual supply to
several vehicles. In Figure 9, the total drawn power in interface C (interfaces defined in
Section 2.2) is presented while a passenger car (a Nissan Leaf) and an electric bus (Solaris
Trollino 15) draw power from 140 m of electric road. The measurements were sampled at
200 kHz using LEM sensors. The full measurement system is presented in [17].
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 9 of 16

Figure 8. (Left): An electric bus and a passenger car drawing power from the ERS demonstrator
simultaneously. (Right): The trailer designed to draw 300 kW.

Figure 9. Bus and passenger car drawing power from the ERS demonstrator.

At 0.5 s, static charging is initiated, and the bus is standing still while charging from
the ERS demonstrator and drew a power of 37 kW. During static charging, the drawn power
is limited to approximately 40 kW to avoid the risk of overheating the contact points in the
pick-up. As the bus starts to drive, at 18.5 s, the drawn power to the battery increases from
37 kW to roughly 80 kW. As dynamic charging commences, the bus accelerates, and the
total drawn power in interface C increases. While the bus is accelerating, the passenger car
starts to draw 13 kW dynamically (located behind the electric bus) at 26.5 s; consequently,
the total drawn power is instantly increased from 142 kW to 155 kW. At 32.5 s, the bus
reaches a top speed of approximately 20km/h, and, at 33 s, the bus starts to brake until it
disconnects from the electric road at 34 s. At 41 s, the passenger car drives off the electric
road and disconnects.
Throughout this charging event, the onboard DC/DC converter in the passenger car
is configured to draw 13 kW. Due to the low state of charge (SoC) in the car’s high-voltage
battery, the entire 13 kW is allocated to the battery circuit, where it is distributed between
the battery and the electric traction system. Since the DC/DC converter sets a limit on the
drawn power from the ERS demonstrator, the drawn power remains constant regardless of
whether the passenger car is charging statically or dynamically.
In Figure 10, measurements of the drawn power and speed from the ERS demonstrator
are presented from interface C (power on left y–axis, and speed on right y–axis) with the
trailer acting as the vehicle load. These measurements were obtained using the Elonroads
internal measurement system sampled at approximately 1 kHz. After 0.9 s, the trailer
connects to the first ASSE section and draws a power of 280 kW. As different versions of
the 10 m sections of ASSE were used during this measuring event, the first ASSE 10 m
sections that the trailer connected to were not equipped with sensors to measure speed.
Consequently, the speed of the trailer was unknown until 1.3 s when the trailer made
contact with a 10 m section of ASSE that could provide speed measurements. When speed
measurements were available at 1.3 s, the trailer had a speed of 75 km/h and reached a
speed of 80 km/h at 2.5 s. After 3 s, the car that was pulling the trailer started to break and
reached a speed of 13 km/h after 6.5 s. The trailer disconnected from the ASSE at 8.1 s, and
the power was 0 kW at this time. The trailer came to a complete stop after 8.6 s.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 10 of 16

As presented in Figure 10, the ERS demonstrator is able to provide a continuous power
of 280 kW with no disruption between 0.9 and 8.1 s at speeds up to 80 km/h. This verifies
that the presented ERS technology is capable of providing high power levels at high speeds
resembling highway conditions for trucks. This high power level of 280 kW is mainly intended
for heavy trucks and not expected to be drawn by cars that are expected to draw up to 50 kW
from the ERS. Although the ERS demonstrator is designed to provide 300 kW of power,
tests have shown that the installed transformer in the rectifier station is slightly undersized.
Consequently, the transformer restricts the trailer from drawing power at these levels.

Figure 10. Trailer drawing power from the ERS demonstrator. The left y–axis shows the drawn power
(blue line), and right y–axis shows the speed of the trailer (orange line).

3.2. Efficiency Calculations Based on Tests

To evaluate the efficiency between the grid and the vehicle for the showcased ERS
technology, a charging event was conducted wherein the electric bus draws power from the
ERS demonstrator. Figure 6, previously introduced in Section 2.2, presents an overview of
the ERS demonstrator and the electric bus with the corresponding measurement interfaces
(A–E), where current and voltage are used to calculate the losses and efficiency for the ERS
demonstrator. Interface A–C represents the losses in the transformer and the rectifier, and
interface C–E represents the losses in the underground cable to the ASSE, the ASSE, the
sliding contact, and the onboard rectifier.
In Figure 11, a charging event with 140 m of electric road and the electric bus drawing
power from it is presented. In the upper plot, losses (left y–axis) and drawn power (right
y–axis) at interfaces A–C, C–E, and A–E are presented with a moving average filter with a
time constant of 50 ms; in the lower plot, the efficiency (left y–axis) and drawn power (right
y–axis) at interfaces A–C, C–E, and A–E are presented with a moving average filter with a
time constant of 250 ms. Losses and efficiencies were calculated based on measurements of
voltage and current using the measurement system presented in [17].
At 2 s, the bus is at standstill and draws 39 kW from the electric road. The drawn
power, supplied to the battery during static charging, is limited to 39 kW in order to
avoid overheating the contact points in the pick-up. After 18 s, the bus starts to accelerate
and dynamic charging is initiated. Consequently, the previous power limit to the battery
increases from 39 kW to 79 kW at 19 s. Simultaneously, the drawn power required for
propulsion increases as the bus accelerates, reaching a peak power of 187 kW at 22.5 s. By
25 s, the bus has attained its final speed of 40 km/h, and at 27 s, the drawn power reduces
as the bus starts to cruise at 40 km/h.
During static charging, the loss in the ERS demonstrator from grid to vehicle (interface
A–E, upper plot) is 2.1 kW, which corresponds to an efficiency of 94% (interface A–E, lower
plot). A total of 1.7 kW of these losses occur in the rectifier station (interface A–C, upper
plot), which results in a efficiency of 95% for the rectifier station. The corresponding loss
in the ASSE and up to the BEV DC/DC converter (interface C–E, upper plot) is 0.4 kW,
which results in a efficiency of 98.7%. During dynamic charging, the total losses in the
ERS demonstrator (interface A–E, upper plot) at peak power (187 kW at 22.5 s) is 9 kW,
which results in a total efficiency of 95.4% (interface A–E, lower plot). The losses in the
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 11 of 16

rectifier station are now 3.6 kW (interface A–C, upper plot) and that in the ASSE up to the
DC/DC converter in the BEV (interface C–E, upper plot) reaches 5.4 kW. Although the
losses increase at peak power, and generally during dynamic charging, the efficiency for
the rectifier station (interface A–C, lower plot) increases to 98.1%, and the efficiency for the
ASSE and up to DC/DC converter in the BEV decreases to 97.2%. After peak power at 22.5
s, the efficiency for the ASSE and the vehicle (interface C–E) increases to 97.4%.

Figure 11. Power (right y–axis), losses (upper plot, left y–axis), and efficiency (lower plot, left y–axis)
when the bus is drawing power from the ERS demonstrator.

To conclude, from Figure 11, it is clear that the presented conductive ERS technology
offers great efficiency performance. For the ASSE and the vehicle (interface C–E), an
efficiency between 97.2 and 98.7% shows great promise for the presented ERS technology
as high efficiency is crucial for ERS deployment on a wide scale.
However, it is also evident that the efficiency performance is dependent on the power
drawn by the vehicles. During static charging, the efficiency for the rectifier station is
lower than during dynamic charging. This is because the relatively constant magnetization
losses cause the efficiency of the 400 kVA transformer in the rectifier station to increase
with increasing load. At lower loads (around 40 kW in this case), the no-load losses in the
transformer are high compared to the load-losses, which results in a low efficiency for the
transformer. This indicates that the transformer choice in conjunction with drawn power
load from the ERS are important factors for the efficiency of the presented ERS technology.
During static charging, the losses in the ASSE and in the vehicle are smaller than
during dynamic charging, which is due two main reasons: (I) The resistive losses in the
system increase with the square of the drawn current. Hence, a higher drawn power results
in higher losses, as seen in Figure 11 when dynamic charging commences. (II) During
dynamic charging, the contact resistance in the sliding contact between the pick-up and
short segment increases. As a result, the resistive losses in the system at interface C-E
increase as both the resistance and the drawn current increase, which leads to an overall
reduction in efficiency.

3.3. Electrical Safety Test—Touch Current

For a conductive ERS, the issue of electrical safety is critical. One of the most important
safety aspects is the issue of touch current related to the vehicle’s chassis, meaning that there
should be no safety risks of touching an electric vehicle’s chassis while it is charging on an
electric road. In order to assess the electrical safety aspect of touch current, measurements
were conducted on the ERS demonstrator with a model of a human body connected to
electric bus chassis while the bus was drawing power from the demonstrator.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 12 of 16

In Figure 12, the measurement setup for the touch current tests is presented, where a
human model is connected between a BEV chassis and ground while the BEV is drawing
power from an electric road. The human model (defined in [18]) comprised a resistor Rs
(1.5 kΩ), connected in parallel with a capacitor Cs (0.22 nF), which was connected in series
with the resistor Rb (0.5 kΩ). Resistor Rs and Cs correspond to the impedance of a human
body’s skin, while resistor Rb corresponds to the impedance of a human body excluding
the skin. The voltage Vb over resistor Rb was measured in order to assess the current that
flows through the human model when connected to the vehicle’s chassis.

Figure 12. Overview of the measurement setup related to touch current when a human model is
connected between a BEV chassis and the ground while the BEV is drawing power from an ERS. Red
elements represent 650 V DC and blue represent 0 V DC.

Figure 13 presents measurements of the voltage Vb and current through the human
model Ib when the electric bus is charging on 80 m of electric road with a human model
connected between its chassis and ground. The upper plot shows the voltage Vb , and
the lower plot shows the current Ib . In both plots, the unfiltered value (left y–axis) as
well as a moving root mean square (RMS) value (right y–axis) with a time constant of
100 ms are shown. The relevant levels of touch current are presented as RMS values in
the relevant standards [18,20]. Although the high-voltage system of the bus is isolated
from the chassis, there is a current that flows through the human body to the ground
when the bus is drawing power from the ERS demonstrator. This is caused by inadvertent
capacitive coupling (also known as-parasitic capacitance) between the high-voltage poles
of the TVS and the bus chassis. As presented in [22], the greatest impact on the voltage
Vb is the parasitic capacitance between the output of the converters in the TVS and the
bus chassis, for instance, the output of the onboard high voltage battery charger and the
traction inverter, see Figure 14. Therefore, the magnitude of touch current is greatly related
to which subsystems and corresponding converters are active in the TVS during charging.
In Figure 13, between 0.5 s and 3.5 s, the onboard charger starts its sequence to initiate
static charging from the ERS demonstrator. After 3.5 s, the bus draws 38 kW of power from
the electric road statically, and the RMS of Vb and Ib reaches values of 7.7 V and 15.6 mA,
respectively. As dynamic charging starts at 5.5 s, the traction inverter starts to draw power
from the ERS, and the current through the capacitive coupling between the output of the
traction inverter and bus’s chassis, see Figure 14, increases the RMS of Vb to 10.6 V and of
Ib to 21.2 mA in Figure 13.
The presented measurements show that the BEVs that charge from an ERS must account
for this parasitic capacitance in their onboard converters. Despite the observed touch cur-
rent values exceeding the recommendations specified by relevant standards [18,20], these
findings do not implicate an inherent fault in the presented ERS technology. Two primary
factors account for this discrepancy. Firstly, the particular electric bus that was used for the
measurements lacked complete double isolation between the TVS and chassis, a feature now
considered standard in modern BEVs. Single isolation elevates the risk of isolation faults
and the occurrence of parasitic capacitance. Secondly, the electric bus does not have a fully
functioning isolation fault monitoring system that is adapted for the presented conductive
ERS technology. Finally, it is probable that mitigating the touch current issues associated with
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 13 of 16

this phenomenon could be achieved through measures such as (I) using an isolated DC/DC
converter or (II) minimizing the parasitic capacitances during the vehicle’s design phase.

Figure 13. Measurements of the human model connected between the bus chassis and the ground.
Upper plot: Blue lines represents the unfiltered voltage Vb (left y–axis) and red (right y–axis) with a
moving RMS filter of 100 ms. Lower plot: Blue lines represents the unfiltered current Ib (left y–axis)
and red (right y–axis) with a moving RMS filter of 100 ms.

Figure 14. An overview of the bus’s TVS that illustrates the inadvertent capacitive coupling between
the output of the onboard converters and the bus’s chassis.

4. Discussion
Electrifying road transport demands strategic choices, where ERS emerges as a trans-
formative solution, mitigating both infrastructure demands and environmental footprint.
The showcased ERS demonstrator, along with its corresponding installation, commission-
ing, and comprehensive testing within the Evolution Road project, not only validates
and establishes the viability of the presented conductive ERS technology but also con-
firms the feasibility of the overall concept of ERS. This paper explores various aspects and
presents tests essential for the widespread deployment of ERS, including electric power
transfer, efficiency evaluation, electrical and mechanical safety, acoustic emissions, EMC,
and environmental considerations.
The electric power transfer tests showed the presented ERS technology’s capability of
supplying power to two vehicles simultaneously and showcasing its suitability for highway
implementation by using a trailer equipped with a resistive load. While the drawn power
was constrained to 280 kW, the limitations were not attributed to the design of the ERS
demonstrator but rather to the transformer in the rectifier station. Also, power levels
exceeding 300 kW are only considered for HDTs, whereas passenger cars are expected
to draw power in the range of 50 kW. Given the aforementioned distribution between
passenger cars and HDTs, these expected power levels pose no threat to an ERS’s power
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 14 of 16

capabilities. These results reinforce the ERS technology’s adaptability and scalability for
various vehicle types and power requirements with no implications.
The ERS demonstrator’s performance in terms of efficiency further showcases the
potential of this ERS technology for wide deployment. An efficiency of over 97% at power
levels of over 150 kW during dynamic charging between rectifier station and onboard
DC/DC converter in the vehicle, see Figure 11 interface C–E, is a noteworthy achieve-
ment. Although these results are impressive, the efficiency performance of the presented
technology under high-speed conditions, involving more challenging contact scenarios
on rough terrain with dirt, leaves, and snow, is hitherto unknown. At higher speeds, it
is anticipated that the pick-up may introduce risks in terms of reliable functionality due
to poor contact performance. However, the pick-up design is still in its early stages, and
preliminary designs and tests have indicated substantial potential for improvement.
Ensuring electrical safety is paramount for conductive ERSs. This paper presents the
critical concern of touch current related to the vehicle’s chassis during charging. Touch
current measurements, conducted with a human model connected to an electric bus’s chas-
sis drawing power from the ERS demonstrator, revealed inadvertent capacitive coupling
issues. The voltage and current through the human model were assessed during charg-
ing, highlighting the impact of parasitic capacitance between the output of the onboard
converters in the bus TVS and the bus’s chassis.
Despite touch current values exceeding recommended standards, it was clarified
that this does not inherently condemn ERS technology. Limitations in the tested electric
bus, lacking complete double isolation between the TVS and chassis, and the absence of
a fully functioning isolation fault monitoring system contribute to the observed touch
current values. Mitigation strategies, such as employing an isolated DC/DC converter or
minimizing the parasitic capacitances between the output of the onboard converters and
chassis during vehicle design, are proposed to address touch current concerns effectively.
Although the suggested solutions will be the subject of further work and their ef-
fectiveness is unknown, their impact and cost on vehicle design is expected to be minor.
While the phenomenon of capacitive coupling between the output of the onboard con-
verters and chassis is a novel consideration for conductive ERS safety, capacitive coupling
between the chassis and TVS is a well-known phenomenon, as it is considered in various
standards [23]. Given the automotive industry’s existing familiarity with and management
of such issues, the incorporation of these mitigating strategies is not anticipated to yield
significant implications for overall vehicle design and cost.
Despite the promising potential of ERS as a charging infrastructure, three significant
challenges remain unresolved: Firstly, for widespread deployment of ERSs, it is imperative
to establish common regulations and standardization on an international scale, ensuring
the implementation of compatible systems that facilitate international transport. The
second challenge concerns financing and business models during both deployment and
operation. The responsibility for conducting and financing the deployment and operation
of ERS remains uncertain, whether it should be undertaken by governments, companies,
or private vehicle owners. Thirdly, in connection with operational concerns, the matter of
maintenance and its associated costs remains unknown.
Throughout the year, the demonstrator has remained active and operational, enduring
various harsh weather conditions, but not without maintenance work. Although mainte-
nance is expected to be required for ERSs, accurately estimating the actual maintenance
needs proves challenging due to the experiences gained from the demonstrator. This diffi-
culty arises partly from reduced traffic volumes and partly from the experimental nature of
the installation. Given the absence of a fully operational conductive ERS on public roads,
additional knowledge regarding maintenance and associated costs is essential.
However, as this paper focused on technical issues related to ERSs, these three chal-
lenges are beyond the scope of this paper. Nevertheless, addressing these challenges is
pivotal for achieving widespread deployment of ERSs.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 59 15 of 16

5. Conclusions
The Evolution Road project illuminates the transformative potential of ERS in re-
shaping the land transport sector. Extensive testing has revealed ERS as a solution that
effectively balances charging infrastructure needs with environmental concerns. While
challenges related to regulation, operation, maintenance, financing, and business models
remain, the adaptability of the ERS across various vehicles highlights its viability and
scalability. To ensure an environmentally sustainable future, it is imperative to advocate for
the comprehensive support of all types of BEVs through ERS integration. Future endeavors
involve refining efficiency, addressing touch current concerns, and advancing societal
integration for widespread ERS adoption.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A. and D.W.; methodology, M.A. and D.W.; software,
D.W.; validation, D.W.; formal analysis, D.W.; investigation, D.W.; resources, M.A.; data curation,
D.W.; writing, D.W.; writing—review and editing, D.W. and M.A.; supervision, M.A.; project adminis-
tration, D.W. and M.A.; funding acquisition, M.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research and the Evolution Road project were funded by the Swedish Transport
Administration.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data available on request due to restrictions. The data presented in this
study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available
due to nondisclosure agreements within the Evolution Road project.
Acknowledgments: The authors express gratitude for the assistance and direction provided by
various project members, notably Anna Wilkens at Innovation Skåne for her involvement and
contribution to the first draft and outline of this paper. Special acknowledgment is extended to
Johan Gran from the Department of Biomedical Engineering, LTH, Faculty of Engineering at Lund
University for his valuable feedback on the EMC results.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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