Purposive Communication

Chapter 1

Communication Processes,
Principles and Ethics

Chapter 1

Communication Processes, Principles and Ethics

Introduction

Effective communication is a communication between two or more persons wherein the

intended message is successfully delivered, received and understood. In other words, the
communication is said to be effective when all the parties (sender and receiver) in the
communication, assign similar meanings to the message and listen carefully to what all have
been said and make the sender feel heard and understood.

For better understanding, topics on the nature, processes, principles and ethical
considerations of communication are discussed thoroughly in this module. Varied activities
are also provided at the end.

Specific Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

- Describe the variables involved in the communication process

- Demonstrate mastery of the principles for effective oral and written
communications
- Evaluate the differences between oral and written communications
- Apply the importance of code of ethics in communication

Duration
Chapter 1: Communication Processes, Principles and = 9 hours
Ethics (7 hours discussion; 2 hours
 assessment)
Lesson Proper

COMMUNICATION

- It was derived from the Latin words con which means “a business,” communis
which means “common,” and communico which means “to confer” or “to relate
with one another” (Igoy et al., 2014).

- It is, therefore, defined as the process of accomplishing a goal, “with a business to

confer or relate with one another.” Thus, in business and workplace situations, an
effective communication is vital to a company’s overall success.

- Communication is a two-way process by which information is exchanged

between or among individuals through a common system of symbols, signs and
behavior (Martinez 1).

- According to DeSantis, the communication is made between two sides, the source
and the receiver. For him the source, which is the creator of the message,
performs four roles: determining the meaning of what is to be communicated,
encoding the meaning into the message, sending the message, and perceiving and
reacting to a listener's response to the message. However, the receiver decodes the
messages by analysing and interpreting them. Then, the receiver has to store and
recall the message, and finally, to respond to the source, message, channel,
environment, and noise.

ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Communication is integrated in all parts of our lives.

Communication is valued in the real world. At any given moment, we
explore how communication is integrated into all episodes of our lives. Our
lives consist of four domains: academic, professional, personal, and civic.

• ACADEMICS. Communication skills are tied to academic success.

Students who are good at writing and speaking perform better not only
in the English classroom but also in the content areas and all other
areas of learning.

• PROFESSIONAL. Desired communication skills vary from one

career to another. However, English courses provided important skills
essential for functioning in entry-level jobs. In such a competitive job
market, being able to demonstrate that you have received
communication instruction and training from communication
 professionals can give you the edge needed to stand out from other
applicants or employees.
• PERSONAL. Having a vocabulary to name the communication
phenomena in our lives increases our ability to alter consciously our
communication. This is activated in order to achieve our goals, avoid
miscommunication, and analyse and learn from our inevitable
mistakes. Communication is crucial for a person’s success.

• CIVIC. There is a connection between communication and a person’s

civic engagement. We are engaged with the world around us,
participate in our society, and become a virtuous citizen. Civic
engagement refers to working to make a difference in our
communities by improving the quality of life of community members;
raising awareness about social, cultural, or political issues; or
participating in a wide variety of political and non-political process
(Ehrlich, 2000).

2. Communication meets needs.

The exchange of messages and information is important for many reasons, but
it is not enough to meet the various needs we have as human beings. While
the content of our communication may help us achieve certain physical and
instrumental needs, it also feeds into our identities and relationships in ways
that far exceed the content of what we say.

• Physical needs. The need to communicate keep our bodies and minds
functioning. Communication, which we most often associate with our
brain, mouth, eyes, and ears, actually has many more connections to
and effects on our physical body and well-being.

• Instrumental needs. Communicating for instrumental needs helps us

get things done in our day-to-day lives and achieve short- and
longterm goals.

• Relational needs. Communicating for relational needs helps us

maintain social bonds and interpersonal relationships. Communication
meets our relational needs by giving us a tool through which to
develop, maintain, and end relationships.

• Identity needs. Communication allows us to present ourselves in a

distinct manner. Identity needs include the need to present ourselves to
others and be thought of in particular and desired ways. Our identity
changes as we progress through life, but communication is the primary
means of establishing our identity and fulfilling our identity needs.
 3. Communication is guided by culture and context.
O’Neil (2006) defines culture as the full range of learned human
behaviour patterns. It includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom,
and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Conversely, context is the circumstances that form the setting for an event,
statement, or idea, and in terms of which it can be fully understood (Oxford
Dictionary, 2018).
Culture and context also influence how we perceive and define
communication.

4. Communication is learned.
We are born with the capacity to learn a language and the ability to
communicate. However, our manner of communication varies from one
person to another based on culture and context. This is because
communication is learned rather than innate. It is learned through human
contact.

5. Communication has ethical implications.

Communication ethics deals with the process of negotiating and reflecting on
our actions and communication regarding what we believe to be right or
wrong. In communication ethics, we are more concerned with the decisions
people make about what is right and wrong.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION: VERBAL AND NONVERBAL

Ø Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message
is transmitted verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of
writing. Objective of every communication is to have people understand what we
are trying to convey. In verbal communication remember the acronym KISS
(keep it short and simple).
When we talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying
because we know what we are saying. But this is not the case. Usually people
bring their own attitude, perception, emotions and thoughts about the topic and
hence creates barrier in delivering the right meaning.

Verbal Communication is further divided into:

Oral Communication
In oral communication, spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face
conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice
over internet. In oral communication, communication is influence by pitch,
volume, speed and clarity of speaking.
 Written Communication
In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to
communicate. A written message may be printed or hand written. In written
communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report, memo
etc. Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary &
grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language used.

Ø Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages.
We can say that communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body
language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal
communication. Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of
speaker.
Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received.

Nonverbal communication cues can play five roles:

• Repetition: they can repeat the message the person is making verbally.
• Contradiction: they can contradict a message the individual is trying to convey.
• Substitution: they can substitute for a verbal message. For example, a person's eyes
can often convey a far more vivid message than words.
• Complementing: they may add to or complement a verbal message. A boss who pats
a person on the back in addition to giving praise can increase the impact of the
message.
• Accenting: they may accent or underline a verbal message. Pounding the table, for
example, can underline a message.

The many different types of nonverbal communication include:

 Facial expressions
 Body movements and posture
 Gestures
 Eye contact
 Touch
 Space

TWO TYPES OF SETTINGS WHERE WE COMMUNICATE:

Informal Settings: chats and conversations
-We certainly engage in chats and conversations daily in informal settings. These
daily occurrences rarely merit our attention yet these are important parts of our
lives.
Formal Settings: interviews, debates, public speaking, group discussions and
parliamentary procedures
-It is the communication that takes place along the “official” lines of
communication within an organization.
 ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

1. SENDER/ENCODER

The sender also known as the encoder decides on the message to be sent, the
best/most effective way that it can be sent. All of this is done bearing the receiver in
mind. In a word, it is his/her job to conceptualize. The
sender may want to ask him/herself questions like: What words will I use? Do I need
signs or pictures?

2. MEDIUM

The medium is the immediate form which a message takes. For example, a message
may be communicated in the form of a letter, in the form of an email or face to face
in the form of a speech.

3. CHANNEL

The channel is that which is responsible for the delivery of the chosen message form.
For example, post office, internet, radio.

4. RECEIVER

The receiver or the decoder is responsible for extracting/decoding meaning from the
message. The receiver is also responsible for providing feedback to the sender. In a
word, it is his/her job to INTERPRET.

5. FEEDBACK

This is important as it determines whether or not the decoder grasped the intended
meaning and whether communication was successful.

6. NOISE (also called Interference)

This is any factor that inhibits the conveyance of a message. That is, anything that
gets in the way of the message being accurately received, interpreted and responded
to. Noise may be internal or external. A student worrying about an incomplete
assignment may not be attentive in class (internal noise) or the sounds of heavy rain
on a galvanized roof may inhibit the reading of a storybook to second graders
(external noise).
FIVE STEPS TO THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS IN THE
WORKPLACE

• Creation. Creating the message is the first step of the process. It is the
forming the communicative intent where the sender generates an idea. This
requires the individual who is sending the message to decide what he wants to
say and select a medium through which to communicate this information.

• Transmission. After a message is created, it must be transmitted. This

transmission may be as simple as meeting with the intended recipient of the
message and orally sharing the message, or calling the individual to
communicate orally over the phone.

• Reception. After transmitting the message, the communication duties change

hands and fall upon the receiver of the message. This individual must obtain
the message either from the written format the sender selected or by listening
carefully as the message is delivered orally.

• Translation. Once receiving the message, the recipient must translate the
messages into terms that s/he can easily understand.

• Response. Communication is a two-way street and response is often

necessary. Message recipients take the lead in concluding the communication
process by crafting a response to the message. This response may be verbal or
written.

ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION
Essential issues to be aware of in any communication situation are:

v Content refers to the information and experiences that are provided to the
receiver of the communication process. It is what the receiver derives value
from. Thus, content must be presented in a language that makes a
grammatical sense. Words have different meanings and may be used or
interpreted differently. So even simple words and messages can be
misunderstood.

v Process refers to the way the message is presented or delivered-- the

nonverbal elements in speech such as the tone of voice, the look in the
 sender’s eyes, body language, hand gestures, and state of emotions such as
anger, fear, uncertainty, and confidence that can be detected.

v Context refers to the situation or environment in which your message is

delivered. Important contextual factors that can subtly influence the
effectiveness of a message include the physical environment.

COMMUNICATION ETHICS IN THE ACADEMIC CONTEXT

Communication ethics deals with the behavior of an individual or a group
which is governed by their morals and in turn affects communication.

• Writing should be done carefully.

• Uphold research ethical standards.
• When dealing with the faculty and staff, students should show their
respect toward them by showing politeness, humility, honesty, and
sincerity.
• Transactions or communication plans should follow a protocol for
their acceptance or approval.
• Never tell a lie or misinterpret facts to your teachers, classmates, or to
any people.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication models are systematic representations of the process which helps in
understanding how communication works can be done. Models show the process
metaphorically and in symbols. They form general perspectives on communication by
breaking communication from complex to simple and keeps the components in order.
Communication models can sometimes encourage traditional thinking and stereotyping but
can also omit some major aspects of human communication.
Methods and channels of communication to be used and the purpose of
communication, must be considered before choosing a specific communication model.
Models are used by business companies and other firms to foster their communication,
explore their options and to evaluate their own situations. It is also used to understand how
the receivers will interpret the message.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION MODEL

There are three general types of communication models in which all other
communication models are mostly categorized.

1. Linear Model of Communication

Linear model of communication is a simple one-way communication model. The message
flows in a straight line from sender to the receiver. There is no concept of feedback. The only
task that a receiver does here is to receive the message. Different models that follow linear
model of communication are:
Aristotle’s Model Shannon Weaver Model Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model

ARISTOTLE’S MODEL
One Sentence Overview: A framework for thinking about how to improve your
communication abilities, by looking at key aspects underpinning a situation.

Aristotle’s model of
communication is the
oldest communication model,
dating back to 300BC. The model was
designed to examine how to become a
better and more convincing
communicator.
Aristotle argues we should look at five
elements of a communication event to
analyze how best to communicate:
speaker, speech, occasion,
target audience and effect. He also identified three elements that will improve
communication: ethos (credibility), pathos (ability to connect) and logos (logical argument).
Aristotle’s model does not pay attention to the role of feedback in communication.

SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL
One Sentence Overview: The Shannon-Weaver model is the first to highlight the
role of ‘noise’ in communication, which can disrupt or alter a message between sender and
receiver.

The Shannon-
Weaver model sees
communication occurring
in five key parts: sender,
encoder, channel, decoder,
receiver. It emphasizes the
importance of encoding
and decoding messages for
them to be sent (e.g.
During the process of encoding, sending and decoding, ‘noise’ occurs that can disrupt or
cloud a message. In the most traditional sense, this may be static on a radio broadcast, or
even extend to mishearing a conversation or misspelling an email. This model was the first to
introduce the role of noise in the communication process. The idea of feedback was
retroactively introduced to this model.

BERLO’S S-M-C-R MODEL

One Sentence Overview: Berlo’s S-M-C-R model explains it in four steps: Source,
Message, Channel, and Receiver.

Berlo’s model of communication explains it in four steps: Source, Message, Channel,

and Receiver. The unique aspect of Berlo’s model is that it gives a detailed account of the
key elements in each step that will affect how well the message is communicated:

Source: Elements of the source include communication skills of the sender, their
attitude and their culture.
Message: Elements of the message include its content, structure and code.
Channel: Elements of the channel include the senses of hearing, seeing, touching,
smelling, etc.
Receiver: Elements of the receiver include their attitude, knowledge and culture.

See a summary of all elements in the image below:

2. Transactional Model of Communication

In transactional model, senders and receivers
both are known as communicators and both
play equally important role in communication.
Transactional model relates commun ication
with social reality, cultural up -bringing and
relational context (relationships). Non-verbal
feedback like gestures, body language, is also
considered as feedback in this
model that
follow transactional model of communication
models
are:
model. Different

Barnlund’s Transactional Model

Helical Model

BARNLUND’S TRANSACTIONAL MODEL

One Sentence Overview: Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication
highlights the role of private and public cues that impact our messages.

Barnlund’s Transactional Model of

Communication is a model that
explores interpersonal, immediate-feedback
communication. Central to this approach is the idea
that feedback for the sender is the reply for the
receiver.
This model also highlights the role of ‘cues’ in
impacting our messages. Barnlund highlights the
role of public cues which are environmental cues,
and private cues which are a person’s personal
thoughts and background. With this emphasis on
cues, Barnlund’s model highlights the factors that
influence what we think and say.

DANCE’S HELICAL MODEL

One Sentence Overview: Dance’s Helical Model sees communication as a circular
process that gets more and more complex as communication occurs, which can be
represented by a helical spiral.

Dance’s Helical Model builds on circular models by

explaining how we improve our messages over time by using
feedback. When we communicate with others, their feedback
will influence our next statement. We become more
knowledgeable with each cycle of communication, enabling up
to ‘expand our circle’, as represented by the increasingly wider
and wider circles. The movement up the spiral indicates that
each communication practice is new and different from the
previous, as communication does not ever perfectly repeat
itself.
3. Interactive Model of Communication
Interactive model or convergence model is similar to transactional model as they are both
two way communication model. But, interactive model is mostly used for new media like
internet. Here, people can respond to any mass communications like videos, news, etc.
People can exchange their views and ideas. Different models that follow interactive model of
communication are:
Schramm’s Interactive Model

OSGOOD-SCHRAMM MODEL
One Sentence Overview: The Osgood-Schramm model shows.

The Osgood-Schramm model explores

communication that is equal and reciprocal. It
does not differentiate between the sender and
receiver, but sees each as being in an equal
position as message encoders and decoders.
This model is best for explaining and
examining personal synchronous
communication where feedback is immediate
(such as face-to-face discussions). As
feedback is immediate, noise can be reduced through ongoing clarification of messages
during the conversation.

References/Additional Resources/Readings
(list down all references/additional resources/readings used; you may also provide links)
• This includes all third-party materials or sources in developing the material. It shall follow
the American Psychological Association (APA) Manual of Style 6th or 7th Edition.