Social Development, 3rd Edition

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To my partner Bonnie, my children Gillian,Timothy, Megan, Sarah, Jennifer and
Zachary and my grandchildren Benjamin, Liah, Sydney, Tess, Nathan and Noah.
Ross D. Parke

For Chryle Elieff and Nathan Roisman always, but this time especially for
Jay Martin
Glenn I. Roisman

To my husband, Chris Robert, our children Emma and Zack, and my parents
Bernard and Jolene Rose
Amanda J. Rose
 BRI EF CON TE N TS

Preface xix

Part I Theories, Themes, and Tools for Discovery

1 Introduction: Theories of Social Development 1
2 Research Methods: Tools for Discovery 43

Part II Early Tasks of Social Development

3 Biological Foundations: Roots in Neurons and Genes 85
4 Attachment: Forming Close Relationships 127
5 Emotions: Thoughts about Feelings 165
6 Self and Other: Getting to Know Me, Getting to Know You 206

Part III Contexts of Social Development

7 Family: Early and Enduring Influences 248
8 Peers: A World of Their Own 297
9 Schools, Mentors, and Media: Connections with Society 345

Part IV Processes and Products of Social Development

10 Sex and Gender: Vive La Différence? 388
11 Morality: Knowing Right, Doing Good 432
12 Aggression: Insult and Injury 476

Part V Policy and Prospects

13 Policy: Improving Children’s Lives 519
14 Overarching Themes: Integrating Social Development 560

Glossary 575
Author Index 587
Subject Index 609

v
 CON TE N TS

Prefacexix

1 Introduction: Theories of Social Development 1

■■ Bet You Didn’t Know That . . . Newborns Can Recognize
Their Mothers by Smell, 2
Social Development: A Brief History, 2
Critical Questions about Social Development, 3
How Do Biological and Environmental Influences Affect Social
Development?, 3
What Role Do Children Play In Their Own Development?, 4
What Is The Appropriate Unit for Studying Social Development?, 4
■■ Insights from Extremes: Genie, a “Wild Child”, 5

Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous?, 5

Is Social Behavior the Result of the Situation or the Child?, 7
Is Social Development Universal Across Cultures?, 7
■■ Cultural Context: Parenting Advice Around the Globe, 8

How Does Social Development Vary Across Historical Eras?, 9

Is Social Development Related to Other Developmental
Domains?, 10
How Important Are Mothers for Children’s Social
Development?, 10
■■ Research Up Close: Children of the Great Depression, 11

Is There a Single Pathway of Social Development?, 12

What Influences How We Judge Children’s Social Behavior?, 13
Do Developmental Psychologists “Own” Social Development?, 13
Is Social Development Focused on Only Basic Research or on
Applied and Policy Relevant Concerns as Well?, 14
Theoretical Perspectives on Social Development, 14
Psychodynamic Perspective, 15
■■ Into Adulthood: Fatherhood and Generativity, 19

Traditional Learning Theory Perspective, 20

Cognitive Learning Perspective, 21
Information-Processing Perspective, 24
Cognitive Developmental Perspective, 26

vii
viii  Contents

Systems-Theory Perspective, 29
Biological Perspective, 31
Life Span Perspective, 35
A Variety of Theoretical Perspectives, 36
■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 36

Chapter Summary, 38
Key Terms, 41
■■ At the Movies, 41

2 Research Methods: Tools for Discovery 43

Getting Started: Formulating Hypotheses, Asking Questions, 44
Research Methods: Establishing Patterns and Causes, 44
The Correlational Method, 45
Laboratory Experiments, 46
Field Experiments, Interventions, and Natural Experiments, 48
■■ Insights from Extremes: Lost and Found Children, 49

Combining Different Methods, 50

■■ Real-World Application: Treating an Aggressive Child, 51

The Case Study Approach, 52

Studying Change Over Time, 52
Cross-Sectional Design, 52
The Longitudinal Design, 52
■■ Into Adulthood: Behavior in Childhood Predicts Adult
Outcomes, 55
The Cross-Sequential Design, 55
Selecting a Sample, 57
Representativeness of the Sample, 57
The National Survey Approach, 58
Meta-Analysis: Combining Results Across Studies, 59
Studying Development Cross-Culturally, 59
■■ Cultural Context: Challenges for Researchers, 60

Gathering Data, 61
Children’s Self-Reports, 61
■■ Research Up Close: The Puppet Interview Method, 62

Reports by Family Members, Teachers, and Peers, 64

Focus Groups, 65
Direct Observation, 66
■■ Bet You Thought That . . .: Parents Can Accurately
Report Retrospectively About Their Children’s Early
Years, 67
Ways of Recording and Coding Observations, 70
Analyzing Data, 74
 Contents  ix

Ethics of Research with Children, 76

■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 78

Chapter Summary, 81
Key Terms, 83
■■ At the Movies, 83

3 Biological Foundations: Roots in Neurons and Genes, 85

Biological Preparedness for Social Interaction, 86
How Are Babies Prepared?, 86
Why Are Babies Prepared?, 90
The Neurological Basis of Social Development, 90
The Brain, 91
Brain Growth and Development, 91
Hemispheric Specialization, 93
Neurons and Synapses, 94
Brain Development and Experience, 95
Mirror Neurons and the Social Brain, 95
Genetics and Social Development, 99
■■ Bet You Thought That . . .: Genes Determine Your Potential, 99

Methods of Studying Genetic Contributions to Development, 100

Models of Genetic Influence, 103
Genetic Anomalies, 108
■■ Research Up Close: A Genetic Risk for Drug Use, 109
■■ Insights from Extremes: Autism, 110
■■ Real-World Application: Genetic Counseling,
Genetic Selection, 112
Temperament: Causes and ­Consequences, 113
Defining and Measuring Temperament, 113
■■ Cultural Context: Are Temperaments the Same
Around the World?, 115
The Biological Basis of Temperament, 115
Early Evidence of Temperament, 117
Consequences and Correlates of Temperament, 117
■■ Into Adulthood: Shy Children Thirty Years Later, 120
■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 121

Chapter Summary, 123

Key Terms, 125
■■ At the Movies, 126

4 Attachment: Forming Close Relationships 127

Theories of Attachment, 128
Psychoanalytic Theory, 128
x  Contents

Learning Theories, 129

Cognitive Developmental Theory, 129
Ethological Theory, 130
■■ Insights from Extremes: Maternal Bonding, 131

How Attachment Develops, 132

Formation and Early Development of Attachment, 133
What It Means to Be Attached, 133
Attachment to Whom?, 134
The Nature and Quality of Attachment, 135
■■ Bet You Thought That . . .: Babies Become Attached
to Their Teddy Bears and Blankets, 135
Different Types of Attachment Relationships, 136
■■ Cultural Context: Assessing Attachment in
Different Cultures, 140
Parents’ Role in Infants’ Attachment Development, 141
■■ Research Up Close: Early Experience, Hormones,
and Attachment, 145
■■ Real-World Application: Attachment When Mother
(or Father) Goes to Prison, 149
Effects of Infant Characteristics on Attachment, 150
Stability and Consequences of Attachment, 151
Stability and Change in Attachment Over Time, 151
Attachments in Older Children, 153
Consequences of Attachment, 153
■■ Into Adulthood: From Early Attachment to Later Romantic
Relationships, 158
■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 159

Chapter Summary, 161

Key Terms, 163
■■ At the Movies, 163

5 Emotions: Thoughts about Feelings 165

What Are Emotions?, 166
Why Are Emotions Important?, 166
Perspectives on Emotional Development, 166
Biological Perspective, 167
Learning Perspective, 167
Functional Perspective, 168
Development of Emotions, 168
Primary Emotions, 169
■■ Bet You Thought That. . .: A Smile Is a Smile Is a Smile, 172

Secondary Emotions, 178

Individual Differences in Emotional Expressiveness, 181
 Contents  xi

Development of Emotional Understanding, 182

Recognizing Emotions in Others, 182
■■ Cultural Context: Expressing and Understanding Emotions
in Different Cultures, 184
Beyond Recognition: Knowledge of and Understanding About
Emotions, 185
Emotion Regulation, 188
Socialization of Emotion, 189
■■ Into Adulthood: Controlling Negative Emotions
in Adulthood, 190
Socialization by Parents, 191
Socialization by Other Children, 194
■■ Research Up Close: Emotional Development in a High School
Theater Program, 194
Socialization by Teachers, 195
■■ Real-World Application: Teachers as Promoters of Emotional
Competence, 196
When Emotional Development Goes Wrong, 197
■■ Insights from Extremes: When Children Commit Suicide, 199

Causes of Childhood Depression, 200

Treating Childhood Depression, 201
■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 202

Chapter Summary, 203

Key Terms, 204
■■ At the Movies, 204

6 Self and Other: Getting to Know Me, Getting to Know You 206
The Sense of Self, 207
Developmental Origins of Self-Concept, 208
■■ Cultural Context: How Culture Shapes Self-Representations, 210

Difficulty Developing a Sense of Self: Autistic Children, 211

Self-Perceptions, 212
Global Self-Esteem, 212
Domain-Specific Perceptions, 212
Learning Self-Appraisal, 213
Gender Variations in Global Self-Esteem, 214
Social Determinants of Self-Esteem, 215
Identity Formation, 216
■■ Into Adulthood: Identity Formation Continues, 219

Ethnic Identity, 220

Religious Identity, 225
■■ Real-World Application: Sexual Orientation and Identity, 226

Development of Knowledge about Others, 228

xii  Contents

Early Understanding of Intentions and Norms, 228

Later Understanding of Mental States: Theory of Mind, 228
■■ Research Up Close: The Brain Beneath Theory of Mind, 229
■■ Bet You Thought That . . .: Babies Are Not Mind Readers, 230

Understanding Psychological Trait Labels, 231

Perspective Taking, 232
Advancing Social Understanding, 233
Stereotyping and Prejudice, 235
■■ Insights from Extremes: The Most Extreme Prejudice:
Genocide, 238
Communication Between Me and You: The Role of Language, 239
Steps Toward Language Fluency, 239
Semantic Development: The Power of Words, 241
The Acquisition of Grammar: From Words to Sentences, 241
Learning the Social Uses of Language, 242
■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 244

Chapter Summary, 245

Key Terms, 247
■■ At the Movies, 247

7 Family: Early and Enduring Influences 248

The Family System, 249
The Couple System, 249
■■ Into Adulthood: Transition to Parenthood, 253

The Parent–Child System, 254

■■ Research Up Close: Transmission of Hostile Parenting
across Generations, 259
■■ Bet You Thought That . . .: Parenting Is a Brain Drain,
Not a Brain Booster, 262
The Coparenting System, 264
■■ Insights from Extremes: When Is a Family Too Large?, 265

The Sibling System, 265

The Family Unit: Stories, Rituals, and Routines, 270
■■ Real-World Application: “Let’s Have Dinner”, 271

Family Variation: Social Class and Culture, 272

Differences in Family Values and Practices Related
to Socioeconomic Status, 272
Cultural Patterns in Child Rearing, 273
■■ Cultural Context: How Effects of Parenting Vary
Across Cultures, 274
The Changing American Family, 276
Parents’ Employment and Child Development, 277
Parenting after Thirty, 280
 Contents  xiii

New Reproductive Technologies, 281

Adoption: Another Route to Parenthood, 281
Gay and Lesbian Parents, 282
Parenting Alone, 283
Divorce and Remarriage, 284
■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 291

Chapter Summary, 293

Key Terms, 295
■■ At the Movies, 295

8 Peers: A World of Their Own 297

Definitions and Distinctions, 298
Developmental Patterns of Peer Interaction, 298
First Encounters in Infancy, 298
Social Exchanges between Toddlers, 300
Peer Play in Early Childhood, 301
Peer Society in the School Years, 302
Peer Interactions in Adolescence, 304
Peers as Socializers, 304
Modeling Behavior, 305
Reinforcing and Punishing Behavior, 305
Contagion, 305
Social Comparison, 306
■■ Cultural Context: Peer Roles and Relationships in
Different Cultures, 306
Peer Status, 308
Studying Peer Status: Acceptance and Rejection, 308
Factors that Affect Peer Acceptance, 309
Consequences of Peer Rejection, 315
■■ Bet You Thought That . . .: Names Would Never Hurt You, 316
■■ Research Up Close: When “Love Thine Enemy” Fails, 317
■■ Insights from Extremes: From Rejection to Revenge?, 318

Promoters of Peer Acceptance, 320

Parents as Promoters of Peer Acceptance, 320
Researchers as Promoters of Peer Acceptance, 324
Peers Can Help Too, 326
When Peers Become Friends, 326
Age Changes in Friendship, 326
Interactions with Friends, 329
■■ Insights from Extremes: When Children Love and Protect
Each Other, 330
Friendship Patterns, 331
xiv  Contents

The Pros and Cons of Friendship, 332

Romantic Relationships, 332
Interaction in Groups, 334
Dominance Hierarchies, 335
Cliques, Crowds, and Gangs, 336
■■ Into Adulthood: What Happens When Jocks, Brains, and
Princesses Grow Up, 337
■■ Real-World Application: Youth Gangs, 339
■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 339

Chapter Summary, 341

Key Terms, 343
■■ At the Movies, 344

9 Schools, Mentors, and Media: Connections with Society 345

The Role of the School in Social Development, 346
Schools as Social Communities, 346
School Size and Organization, 347
Class Size and Organization, 350
■■ Bet You Thought That . . .: Homeschooled Children Were
Socially Disadvantaged, 352
The Teachers’ Impact, 353
School–Family Links, 355
■■ Cultural Context: Matching Classroom Organization
to Cultural Values and Practices, 356
School Integration, 359
After-School Programs, 360
Mentors Supporting Social Development, 361
Natural Mentors, 362
Mentor Programs, 363
Electronic Media and Children’s Social Lives, 364
Screen Media: Television and Digital Media, 364
Positive Effects of Screen Media, 364
Potential Negative Effects of Screen Media, 365
Do Children Understand What They See?, 369
■■ Real-World Application: Advertising Influences Children’s
Choices, 371
How Can Parents and Siblings Modify TV’s Negative Effects?, 372
■■ Into Adulthood: Still Playing Games?, 373

Playing Video Games, 374

Smartphones and Social Media, 375
Potential Positive Effects of Smartphones and Social Media, 375
Concerns Regarding Smartphones and Social Media, 377
■■ Research Up Close: Role-Playing Games and Social
Life, 380
 Contents  xv

■■ Insights from Extremes: The Risks of Sexting, 381

■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 381

Chapter Summary, 384

Key Terms, 386
■■ At the Movies, 386

10 Sex and Gender: Vive La Différence? 388

Getting Started: Defining Sex and Gender, 388
Gender Differences in Growth, Abilities, Activities, and Interests, 389
Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood, 392
Stability of Gender Typing, 393
■■ Into Adulthood: Occupations for Men and Women, 393

Sex Differences in Gender Typing, 395

Gender Stereotypes, 395
■■ Cultural Context: Cultural Differences in Gender
Stereotypes, 397
Biological Factors in Gender Differences, 398
■■ Bet You Thought That . . .: Gender Identity was Determined
by Biological Sex, 398
Evolutionary Theory and Gender Development, 400
■■ Insights from Extremes: The First American Transgendered
Person, 400
Hormones and Social Behavior, 401
Gender and the Brain, 402
Genetics of Gender, 404
Biology and Cultural Expectations, 404
Cognitive Factors in Gender Typing, 405
Cognitive Developmental Theory, 406
Gender-Schema Theory: An Information-Processing Approach, 407
Comparison of Cognitive Developmental and Gender-Schema
Theories, 408
Social Influences on Gender Typing, 408
Theories of Social Influence, 408
Parents’ Influence on Children’s Gender-Typed Choices, 409
Parents’ Behavior toward Girls and Boys, 410
Modeling Parents’ Characteristics, 413
When Father Is Absent, 413
■■ Research Up Close: Gender Roles in Counterculture
Families, 414
Siblings as Agents of Gender Socialization, 416
Role Models in Books, Games, and Television, 417
Peers, Gender Roles, and Gender Segregation, 418
■■ Real-World Application: Do Computers Widen the
Gender Gap?, 419
xvi  Contents

Schools and Teachers, 422

Nature and Nurture, 425
Androgyny, 425
■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 427

Chapter Summary, 428

Key Terms, 430
■■ At the Movies, 431

11 Morality: Knowing Right, Doing Good 432

Moral Judgment, 433
Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Moral Judgment, 433
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theory of Moral Judgment, 435
■■ Insights from Extremes: Moral Heroes, 437
■■ Cultural Context: Justice versus Interpersonal Obligations
in India and the United States, 441
Turiel’s Social Domain Theory, 443
How Children Learn the Rules and Distinguish between Social
Domains, 446
Moral Behavior, 449
■■ Bet You Thought That . . .: Moral Judgment Leads to
Moral Action, 450
Self-Regulation of Behavior, 451
Individual Differences in Moral Behavior, 451
Consistency of Moral Behavior across Situations and Time, 452
■■ Into Adulthood: The Love of Money Is the Root of All Evil, 453
■■ Research Up Close: Children Telling Lies, 454

Moral Emotions, 456

Development of Moral Emotions, 456
Do Moral Emotions Affect Moral Behavior?, 458
■■ Real-World Application: Adolescents’ Competence
to Stand Trial as Adults, 459
The Whole Moral Child, 460
Prosocial and Altruistic Behavior, 461
How Prosocial Behavior and Reasoning Develop, 461
Determinants of Prosocial Development, 464
■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 470

Chapter Summary, 473

Key Terms, 474
■■ At the Movies, 474

12 Aggression: Insult and Injury 476

Types of Aggression, 477
Patterns of Aggression, 479
 Contents  xvii

Developmental Changes in Aggression, 479

Gender Differences in Aggression, 481
Stability of Individual Differences in Aggression, 483
■■ Into Adulthood: From Childhood Aggression
to Road Rage, 485
Causes of Aggression, 486
Biological Origins of Aggressive Behavior, 486
Social Influences on the Development of Aggression, 489
■■ Insights from Extremes: Child Soldiers, 493

Combined Biological and Social Influences on Aggression, 497

■■ Research Up Close: Genes, Environmental Triggers, and
Aggressive Behavior, 499
Sociocognitive Factors in the Development of Aggression, 500
Bullies and Victims, 502
Behavior of Bullies and Victims, 503
Consequences of Bullying, 505
■■ Real-World Application: Cyberfighting and
Cyberbullying, 505
Conditions Leading to Bullying, 507
Control of Aggression, 508
■■ Bet You Thought That . . .: You Could Reduce Aggressive
Feelings by “Letting off Steam”, 508
Cognitive Modification Strategies, 509
Parents as Agents for Reducing Aggression, 509
Schools as Venues for Intervention, 510
Aggression Prevention: A Multipronged Effort, 510
Cultural Context: Preventing Youth Violence, 513
■■ Learning from Living Leaders, 514

Chapter Summary, 516

Key Terms, 517
■■ At the Movies, 518

13 Policy: Improving Children’s Lives 519

What Determines Public Policy for Children?, 520
Types of Public Policy, 521
Children in Poverty: A Social Policy Challenge, 523
Economic Hardship and Social Disadvantage, 523
Effects of Poverty on Children, 523
Programs to Reverse Effects of Poverty, 524
■■ Real-World Application: Early Intervention with Children
in Poverty, 527
Child Care: A Problem Lacking a Unified Policy, 528
Choosing Child Care: What’s a Parent to Do?, 528
Effects of Child Care on Children, 529