Who Am I?

Understanding Identity and the Many Ways We

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 Who Am I?
Understanding Identity and the
Many Ways We Define Ourselves

Christine L. B. Selby
Copyright © 2022 by ABC-CLIO, LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a
review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Selby, Christine L. B., author.

Title: Who am I? : understanding identity and the many ways we define
ourselves / Christine L. B. Selby.
Description: Santa Barbara, California : Greenwood, [2022] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021025261 (print) | LCCN 2021025262 (ebook) | ISBN
9781440872044 (hardcover ; alk. paper) | ISBN 9781440872051 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Identity (Psychology) | Self. | Self-perception.
Classification: LCC BF697 .S42125 2022 (print) | LCC BF697 (ebook) | DDC
158.1—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021025261
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021025262
ISBN: 978-1-4408-7204-4 (print)
978-1-4408-7205-1 (ebook)
26 25 24 23 22   1 2 3 4 5
This book is also available as an eBook.
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This book is dedicated to the first person (LKH)
who truly accepted me as is
and to those who seek to understand themselves
while finding that kind of acceptance.
 Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xiii

Part One Defining Identity 1

Chapter 1 What Is Identity and Its Different Components? 3
Chapter 2 Types of Identity 15
Chapter 3 Theories of Identity Development 35

Part Two For Better or for Worse: The Factors

That Affect Identity 59
Chapter 4 Biopsychosocial Factors across the Life Span 61
Chapter 5 Fitting In versus Individualism 93
Chapter 6 Signs and Impacts of a Well-Developed Identity 107
Chapter 7 Signs and Impacts of a Poorly
Developed Identity 123

Part Three 
Identity and Challenges of the
Twenty-First Century 139
Chapter 8 Millennials and Generation Z 141
Chapter 9 Technology and Social Media 157
Chapter 10 Local Factors 169
Chapter 11 Global Factors 181
viiiContents

Part Four Case Studies 211

Sources for Further Information 233

Glossary 239
Bibliography 251
Index 269
 Preface

Who Am I? Understanding Identity and the Many Ways We Define Ourselves

explores the theories and factors that influence our respective answers to the
question, Who are you? There are easy answers to this question, including
things such as what you do in and outside of your home, where you grew up
and where you live, what your likes and dislikes are, and so on. More diffi-
cult answers to this question involve your core beliefs and values that drive
each decision you make. I do think we often give lip service to identifying
our core beliefs and values; most people will say things like, “I’m helpful,
kind, trustworthy,” and so on. But the question that remains, in my opinion,
is how do you truly live your life? Do the choices you make, small and large,
truly reflect those beliefs and values? Do your actions do the same? Answer-
ing those questions requires a much deeper dive into truly understanding
one’s self and one’s identity.
This book is intended to provide a brief examination of the theories that
explain how and why our identity develops, the different terminology used
in the context of self and identity that has great overlap and important dis-
tinctions, and the contemporary issues that, undoubtedly and beyond our
control, affect who we are and who we become.
The book is organized into four parts. Part 1, “Defining Identity,” includes
three chapters that explain what identity is and the terms we use to describe
identity, different types of identity, and a few of the theories that describe
identity development. Chapter 1 explores the basics with respect to con-
structs such as self-concept, self-esteem, and self-knowledge, with emphasis
on how these concepts help us understand ourselves as well as how others
may see us. Chapter 2 explores many of the different types of identity, such
as personal identity, social identity, racial identity, gender identity, and pro-
fessional identity. There are many other types of identity not included in this
chapter because one could likely write an entire book on the different types
of identity. Those covered here are those most commonly discussed in other
xPreface

writings on identity. The focus of chapter 3 turns to a few of the theories that
describe how our respective identities are formed. There are many other the-
orists who have contributed to this knowledge base; however, those selected
here include a combination of historical and currently relevant theories (e.g.,
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development) and contemporary theo-
ries that have seen a great deal of research supporting their respective tenets
(e.g., Richard Ryan and Edward Deci’s self-determination theory).
Part 2, “For Better or for Worse: The Factors That Affect Identity,” includes
four chapters that explore the factors that affect us at different stages in our
lives, whether we are motivated by fitting in or being individualistic, and
what a well-developed or poorly developed identity “looks like.” Chapter 4
takes a life span approach to examining the impact of various factors during
important periods in our lives: childhood, teenage years, and adulthood.
Chapter 5 explores what it means to “fit in” or conform and what it means to
maintain a sense of individualism. These concepts are explored at the indi-
vidual as well as cultural levels. Chapter 6 focuses on the signs of a well-
developed identity and the impact that knowing who you truly are has on
one’s life. Chapter 7 examines the antithesis of chapter 6 by identifying what
a poorly develop identity looks like and what impact that may have on an
individual’s life.
Part 3, “Identity and Challenges in the Twenty-First Century,” include four
chapters that examine the differences between the various generations and
how various forms of media (particularly social media) as well as local and
global factors affect how we view ourselves and the world around us. Chapter
8 explores the similarities and differences between the various generations,
including Generation Z (or iGen), millennials, Generation X, and baby boom-
ers, with a particular focus on understanding the millennial generation and
Generation Z. Chapter 9 examines how the rapid development and expan-
sion of technology and social media impact how we see ourselves and others.
Chapters 10 and 11 explore local and global factors, respectively. Chapter 10
takes a look at how the economic challenges of this century impact employ-
ment stability for individuals and their families and examines the issues of
bullying and diversity. Chapter 11 takes a broader approach and examines
climate-related concerns and threats of terrorism and how these issues may
impact our understanding of who we are.
Part 4, using the moniker “Case Studies,” includes ten different scenarios
involving various aspects of identity and the factors that can influence our
identity. Readers are presented with a description of various real-life inspired
situations and a brief analysis of what identity-related factors are involved.
The first scenario describes a twenty-year-old college female who is dealing
with pressures to conform and has foreclosed on her identity. Scenario two
involves an eighteen-year-old high school male who is dealing with a dif-
fused identity. Scenario three illustrates a nineteen-year-old female college
Preface xi

sophomore who is identified as being in the moratorium identity status. Sce-

nario four involves a twenty-four-year-old male college graduate who is iden-
tity achieved and appears to reflect fidelity to his identity. Scenario five
describes a twenty-five-year-old Latino male who is developing his racial and
ethnic identity. Scenario 6 examines a young man’s struggle to reconcile his
sexual identity. Scenario 7 describes a female high school senior who has a
high degree of athletic identity and how that impacts her life and well-being.
Scenario 8 discusses a sixteen-year-old male who is a junior in high school
and is grappling with his adoptive identity. Scenario 9 involves a ten-year-old
who was born a biological female but feels strongly like a male and is there-
fore exploring his gender identity. Scenario 10 describes a twenty-two-year-
old female who has begun her graduate-level professional education and
may have foreclosed on her identity, and is struggling with the imposter
phenomenon.
Finally, this book includes a resource section that contains links and
descriptions to various sources of information related to various topics in
this book, a glossary of terms used throughout the book that may be unfa-
miliar to readers, and a bibliography of sources from which information
included in this book was gleaned.
I hope you enjoy learning more about what it means to have an identity,
how one’s identity is formed, and the various factors that influence the devel-
opment of our individual identities. I also hope that you explore how the
material in this book applies to your own sense of who you are.
 Acknowledgments

My formal interest in the concept of identity extends back to my college

years. That is when I was first introduced to psychologists and philosophers
who contemplated and researched what it means to have an identity, what
constitutes the real versus false selves, and why living from one’s real self is
important for one’s overall well-being. I have the late Larry K. Hamilton to
thank for introducing me to many of these important thinkers. More impor-
tantly, I have him to thank for accepting me as I was—no matter what that
looked like. His unconditional acceptance led me to conclude for myself and
for my psychotherapy patients that there are very few things more powerful
than being truly accepted as you are, without judgment or qualification. In
my husband, I found such a person. It is difficult to write that without
becoming tearful, as no matter what, he has shown time and time again that
he accepts me, loves me, and tolerates the not so great parts of me because he
knows who I truly am and loves me unconditionally. Thank you for that
extraordinary gift, Brian.
My sons must be included on this list of acknowledgments. Both are now
young men, and I have had the great privilege of helping them learn how to
navigate and understand the world around them. And perhaps more impor-
tantly, I have been able to witness who they have become and how they have
expressed themselves throughout the years in ways with which I did not
always agree. The beauty is that I do not have to agree. Their choices are their
own, and it is clear when they make them that they both do so thoughtfully
(and, of course, sometimes impulsively!). On more than one occasion, they
have changed course when they realized on their own, or after discussion
with others, that the path they were headed down was not what was best for
them. I truly could not be more proud of them both and who they are.
I have, to date, written four books for ABC-CLIO; this book makes five.
The process by which each book was conceptualized, edited, and ultimately
published has been truly enjoyable. Each book was written with the
xivAcknowledgments

assistance of my editor, Maxine Taylor. She has been and continues to be a

fervent cheerleader. Her support allowed this book to materialize after I sug-
gested it, given my long-standing interest in and passion about all issues
identity. Without her support and belief in me as a writer, she would not
have been able to “sell” this book to the decision-makers at ABC-CLIO, who
ultimately agreed that a book on identity was worth devoting resources to.
As I have stated in the acknowledgment sections of previous books, this
book is in its current form because of her excellent guidance. Thank you,
Maxine, for helping me to hone my writing voice and to ABC-CLIO for com-
mitting resources to the production of this book.
There are numerous others who have undoubtedly influenced me, my
writing, and my interests. The influence of some is unseen, and therefore
they remain unnamed but nevertheless deserve my thanks. We do not always
recognize when we are influenced (positively or negatively) by those who
ultimately shape us. The influence of others is clearer and includes colleagues
and family: Justine Reel, Rachelle Smith, Robert Buntrock, and Gloria Bun-
trock (posthumously). There are many others, too numerous to include here,
who have influenced me. If you have ever crossed paths with me in any
meaningful way, you are among those counted here. Thank you.
 PART 1

Defining Identity
Each of us has our own unique identity. The question, of course, is whether
you know yourself well enough to understand and describe your identity. As
will be discussed in the chapters within part 1, exploring what it means to
have an identity and a thorough understanding of one’s experiences can help
individuals more fully understand who and what they are. Moreover, there
are myriad ways of describing one’s identity. In chapter 2, over ten types of
identity will be described. There are far more than this, but we will review
some of the more common types. Chapter 3 describes various psychological
theories about how our identities develop. Although there are numerous the-
ories on how identity develops, including theories that were developed in the
1800s, we will focus on some historical theories developed in the twentieth
century and more contemporary theories developed in the late twentieth
century.