CHAPTER

WORLD CLIMATE AND

CLIMATE CHANGE

T
he world climate can be studied by related them to the distribution of vegetation
organising information and data on and used these values for classifying the
climate and synthesising them in climates. It is an empirical classification based
smaller units for easy understanding, on mean annual and mean monthly
description and analysis. Three broad temperature and precipitation data. He
approaches have been adopted for classifying introduced the use of capital and small letters
climate. They are empirical, genetic and to designate climatic groups and types.
applied. Empirical classification is based on Although developed in 1918 and modified over
observed data, particularly on temperature a period of time, Koeppen’s scheme is still
and precipitation. Genetic classification popular and in use.
attempts to organise climates according to their Koeppen recognised five major climatic
causes. Applied classification is for specific groups, four of them are based on temperature
purpose. and one on precipitation. Table 11.1 lists the
climatic groups and their characteristics
KOEPPE N ’S SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION according to Koeppen. The capital letters : A,C,
OF C LIMATE
D and E delineate humid climates and B dry
climates.
The most widely used classification of climate The climatic groups are subdivided into
is the empirical climate classification scheme types, designated by small letters, based on
developed by V. Koeppen. Koeppen identified seasonality of precipitation and temperature
a close relationship between the distribution characteristics. The seasons of dryness are
of vegetation and climate. He selected certain indicated by the small letters : f, m, w and s,
values of temperature and precipitation and where f corresponds to no dry season,
Table 11.1 : Climatic Groups According to Koeppen

Group Characteristics

A - Tropical Average temperature of the coldest month is 18° C or higher

B - Dry Climates Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation

C - Warm Temperate The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climates
years is higher than minus 3°C but below 18°C

D - Cold Snow Forest Climates The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3° C or below

E - Cold Climates Average temperature for all months is below 10° C

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m - monsoon climate, w- winter dry season and islands of East Indies. Significant amount of
s - summer dry season. The small letters a, b, rainfall occurs in every month of the year as
c and d refer to the degree of severity of thunder showers in the afternoon. The
temperature. The B- Dry Climates are temperature is uniformly high and the annual
subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe range of temperature is negligible. The
or semi-arid and W for deserts. The climatic maximum temperature on any day is around
30°C while the minimum temperature is
types are listed in Table 11.2. The distribution
around 20°C. Tropical evergreen forests with
of climatic groups and types is shown in
dense canopy cover and large biodiversity are
Table 11.1.
found in this climate.

Table 11.2 : Climatic Types According to Koeppen

Group Type Letter Code Characteristics

Tropical wet Af No dry season
A-Tropical Humid
Climate Tropical monsoon Am Monsoonal, short dry season
Tropical wet and dry Aw Winter dry season
Subtropical steppe BSh Low-latitude semi arid or dry
Subtropical desert BWh Low-latitude arid or dry
B-Dry Climate
Mid-latitude steppe BSk Mid-latitude semi arid or dry
Mid-latitude desert BWk Mid-latitude arid or dry
Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
C-Warm
temperate (Mid- Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer
latitude) Climates
Marine west coast Cfb No dry season, warm and cool summer

D-Cold Snow- Humid continental Df No dry season, severe winter

forest Climates Subarctic Dw Winter dry and very severe
Tundra ET No true summer
E-Cold Climates
Polar ice cap EF Perennial ice

Group A : Tropical Humid Climates Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over
of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The sun the Indian sub-continent, North Eastern part
being overhead throughout the year and the of South America and Northern Australia.
presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone Heavy rainfall occurs mostly in summer. Winter
(ITCZ) make the climate hot and humid. is dry. The detailed climatic account of this
Annual range of temperature is very low and climatic type is given in the book on India:
annual rainfall is high. The tropical group is Physical Environment.
divided into three types, namely (i) Af- Tropical
wet climate; (ii) Am - Tropical monsoon climate; Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)
(iii) Aw- Tropical wet and dry climate.
Tropical wet and dry climate occurs north and
south of Af type climate regions. It borders with
Tropical Wet Climate (Af)
dry climate on the western part of the continent
Tropical wet climate is found near the equator. and Cf or Cw on the eastern part. Extensive
The major areas are the Amazon Basin in South Aw climate is found to the north and south of
America, western equatorial Africa and the the Amazon forest in Brazil and adjoining parts

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of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, often causing famine. Rain occurs in short
Sudan and south of Central Africa. The annual intense thundershowers in deserts and is
rainfall in this climate is considerably less than ineffective in building soil moisture. Fog is
that in Af and Am climate types and is variable common in coastal deserts bordering cold
also. The wet season is shorter and the dry currents. Maximum temperature in the summer
season is longer with the drought being more is very high. The highest shade temperature of
severe. Temperature is high throughout the 58° C was recorded at Al Aziziyah, Libya on
year and diurnal ranges of temperature are the 13 September 1922. The annual and diurnal
greatest in the dry season. Deciduous forest and ranges of temperature are also high.
tree-shredded grasslands occur in this climate.
Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates-C
Dry Climates : B
Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates extend
Dry climates are characterised by very low from 30° - 50° of latitude mainly on the eastern
rainfall that is not adequate for the growth of and western margins of continents. These
plants. These climates cover a very large area climates generally have warm summers with
of the planet extending over large latitudes from mild winters. They are grouped into four types:
15° - 60° north and south of the equator. At (i) Humid subtropical, i.e. dry in winter and
low latitudes, from 15° - 30°, they occur in the hot in summer (Cwa); (ii) Mediterranean (Cs);
area of subtropical high where subsidence and (iii) Humid subtropical, i.e. no dry season and
inversion of temperature do not produce mild winter (Cfa); (iv) Marine west coast climate
rainfall. On the western margin of the (Cfb).
continents, adjoining the cold current,
particularly over the west coast of South Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa)
America, they extend more equatorwards and
Humid subtropical climate occurs poleward of
occur on the coast land. In middle latitudes,
Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, mainly in
from 35° - 60° north and south of equator, they
North Indian plains and South China interior
are confined to the interior of continents where
plains. The climate is similar to Aw climate
maritime-humid winds do not reach and to
except that the temperature in winter is warm.
areas often surrounded by mountains.
Dry climates are divided into steppe or Mediterranean Climate (Cs)
semi-arid climate (BS) and desert climate (BW).
They are further subdivided as subtropical As the name suggests, Mediterranean climate
steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) at occurs around Mediterranean sea, along the
latitudes from 15° - 35° and mid-latitude west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes
steppe (BSk) and mid-latitude desert (BWk) at between 30° - 40° latitudes e.g. — Central
latitudes between 35° - 60°. California, Central Chile, along the coast in
south eastern and south western Australia.
Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical These areas come under the influence of sub
Desert (BWh) Climates tropical high in summer and westerly wind in
winter. Hence, the climate is characterised by
Subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical
hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter. Monthly
desert (BWh) have common precipitation and
average temperature in summer is around
temperature characteristics. Located in the
25° C and in winter below 10°C. The annual
transition zone between humid and dry
precipitation ranges between 35 - 90 cm.
climates, subtropical steppe receives slightly
more rainfall than the desert, adequate enough Humid Subtropical (Cfa) Climate
for the growth of sparse grasslands. The rainfall
in both the climates is highly variable. The Humid subtropical climate lies on the eastern
variability in the rainfall affects the life in the parts of the continent in subtropical latitudes.
steppe much more than in the desert, more In this region the air masses are generally

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unstable and cause rainfall throughout the snowy. The frost free season is short. The
year. They occur in eastern United States of annual ranges of temperature are large. The
America, southern and eastern China, weather changes are abrupt and short.
southern Japan, northeastern Argentina, Poleward, the winters are more severe.
coastal south Africa and eastern coast of
Australia. The annual averages of precipitation
Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)
vary from 75-150 cm. Thunderstorms in
summer and frontal precipitation in winter are Cold climate with dry winter occurs mainly
common. Mean monthly temperature in over Northeastern Asia. The development of
summer is around 27°C, and in winter it varies pronounced winter anti cyclone and its
from 5°-12° C. The daily range of temperature weakening in summer sets in monsoon like
is small. reversal of wind in this region. Poleward
summer temperatures are lower and winter
Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb) temperatures are extremely low with many
locations experiencing below freezing point
Marine west coast climate is located poleward temperatures for up to seven months in a year.
from the Mediterranean climate on the west Precipitation occurs in summer. The annual
coast of the continents. The main areas are: precipitation is low from 12-15 cm.
Northwestern Europe, west coast of North
America, north of California, southern Chile, Polar Climates (E)
southeastern Australia and New Zealand. Due
to marine influence, the temperature is Polar climates exist poleward beyond 70°
moderate and in winter, it is warmer than for latitude. Polar climates consist of two types:
its latitude. The mean temperature in summer (i) Tundra (ET); (ii) Ice Cap (EF).
months ranges from 15°-20°C and in winter
Tundra Climate (ET)
4°-10°C. The annual and daily ranges of
temperature are small. Precipitation occurs The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the
throughout the year. Precipitation varies types of vegetation, like low growing mosses,
greatly from 50-250cm. lichens and flowering plants. This is the region
of permafrost where the sub soil is permanently
Cold Snow Forest Climates (D) frozen. The short growing season and water
logging support only low growing plants.
Cold snow forest climates occur in the large During summer, the tundra regions have very
continental area in the northern hemisphere long duration of day light.
between 40°-70° north latitudes in Europe,
Asia and North America. Cold snow forest Ice Cap Climate (EF)
climates are divided into two types: (i) Df- cold
climate with humid winter; (ii) Dw- cold climate The ice cap climate (EF) occurs over interior
with dry winter. The severity of winter is more Greenland and Antartica. Even in summer, the
pronounced in higher latitudes. temperature is below freezing point. This area
receives very little precipitation. The snow and
ice get accumulated and the mounting pressure
Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df)
causes the deformation of the ice sheets and
Cold climate with humid winter occurs they break. They move as icebergs that float in
poleward of marine west coast climate and mid the Arctic and Antarctic waters. Plateau
latitude steppe. The winters are cold and Station, Antarctica ,79°S, portray this climate.

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WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 95

C LIM ATE C HANGE

LIMATE crop failures, of floods and migration of people
tell about the effects of changing climate. A
The earlier chapters on climate summarised
number of times Europe witnessed warm, wet,
our understanding of climate as it prevails now.
cold and dry periods, the significant episodes
The type of climate we experience now might
were the warm and dry conditions in the tenth
be prevailing over the last 10,000 years with
and eleventh centuries, when the Vikings
minor and occasionally wide fluctuations. The
settled in Greenland. Europe witnessed “Little
planet earth has witnessed many variations in
Ice Age” from 1550 to about 1850. From about
climate since the beginning. Geological records
1885-1940 world temperature showed an
show alteration of glacial and inter-glacial
upward trend. After 1940, the rate of increase
periods. The geomorphological features,
in temperature slowed down.
especially in high altitudes and high latitudes,
exhibit traces of advances and retreats of Causes of Climate Change
glaciers. The sediment deposits in glacial lakes
also reveal the occurrence of warm and cold The causes for climate change are many. They
periods. The rings in the trees provide clues can be grouped into astronomical and
about wet and dry periods. Historical records terrestrial causes. The astronomical causes are
describe the vagaries in climate. All these the changes in solar output associated with
evidences indicate that change in climate is a sunspot activities. Sunspots are dark and
natural and continuous process. cooler patches on the sun which increase and
India also witnessed alternate wet and dry decrease in a cyclical manner. According to
periods. Archaeological findings show that the some meteorologists, when the number of
Rajasthan desert experienced wet and cool sunspots increase, cooler and wetter weather
climate around 8,000 B.C. The period 3,000- and greater storminess occur. A decrease in
1,700 B.C. had higher rainfall. From about sunspot numbers is associated with warm and
2,000-1,700 B.C., this region was the centre drier conditions. Yet, these findings are not
of the Harappan civilisation. Dry conditions statistically significant.
accentuated since then. An another astronomical theory is
In the geological past, the earth was warm Millankovitch oscillations, which infer cycles
some 500-300 million years ago, through the in the variations in the earth’s orbital
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian periods. characteristics around the sun, the wobbling
During the Pleistocene epoch, glacial and of the earth and the changes in the earth’s axial
inter-glacial periods occurred, the last major tilt. All these alter the amount of insolation
peak glacial period was about 18,000 years received from the sun, which in turn, might
ago. The present inter-glacial period started have a bearing on the climate.
10,000 years ago. Volcanism is considered as another cause
for climate change. Volcanic eruption throws
Climate in the recent past up lots of aerosols into the atmosphere. These
Variability in climate occurs all the time. The aerosols remain in the atmosphere for a
nineties decade of the last century witnessed considerable period of time reducing the sun’s
extreme weather events. The 1990s recorded radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. After the
the warmest temperature of the century and recent Pinatoba and El Cion volcanic
some of the worst floods around the world. The eruptions, the average temperature of the earth
worst devastating drought in the Sahel region, fell to some extent for some years.
south of the Sahara desert, from 1967-1977 The most important anthropogenic effect
is one such variability. During the 1930s, on the climate is the increasing trend in the
severe drought occurred in southwestern Great concentration of greenhouse gases in the
Plains of the United States, described as the atmosphere which is likely to cause global
dust bowl. Historical records of crop yield or warming.

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Global Warming it will take for earth’s atmospheric system to

recover from any change brought about by the
Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the
latter.
atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse. The
The largest concentration of GHGs in the
atmosphere also transmits the incoming solar
atmosphere is carbon dioxide. The emission
radiation but absorbs the vast majority of long
of CO 2 comes mainly from fossil fuel
wave radiation emitted upwards by the earth’s
combustion (oil, gas and coal). Forests and
surface. The gases that absorb long wave
oceans are the sinks for the carbon dioxide.
radiation are called greenhouse gases. The
Forests use CO 2 in their growth. So,
processes that warm the atmosphere are often
deforestation due to changes in land use, also
collectively referred to as the greenhouse effect.
increases the concentration of Co2. The time
taken for atmospheric CO2 to adjust to changes
The term greenhouse is derived from the
analogy to a greenhouse used in cold in sources to sinks is 20-50 years. It is rising
areas for preserving heat. A greenhouse at about 0.5 per cent annually. Doubling of
is made up of glass. The glass which is concentration of CO2 over pre-industrial level
transparent to incoming short wave solar is used as an index for estimating the changes
radiation is opaque to outgoing long wave in climate in climatic models.
radiation. The glass, therefore, allows in Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are products
more radiation and prevents the long of human activity. Ozone occurs in the
wave radiation going outside the glass stratosphere where ultra-violet rays convert
house, causing the temperature inside oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultra violet rays do
the glasshouse structure warmer than
not reach the earth’s surface. The CFCs which
outside. When you enter a car or a bus,
during summers, where windows are
drift into the stratosphere destroy the ozone.
closed, you feel more heat than outside. Large depletion of ozone occurs over Antarctica.
Likewise during winter the vehicles with The depletion of ozone concentration in the
closed doors and windows remain warmer stratosphere is called the ozone hole. This
than the temperature outside. This is allows the ultra violet rays to pass through the
another example of the greenhouse effect. troposphere.
International efforts have been initiated for
Greenhouse Gases(GHGs) reducing the emission of GHGs into the
atmosphere. The most important one is the
The primary GHGs of concern today are carbon Kyoto protocol proclaimed in 1997. This
dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), protocol went into effect in 2005, ratified by
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone 141 nations. Kyoto protocol bounds the 35
(O3). Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) industrialised countries to reduce their
and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react with emissions by the year 2012 to 5 per cent less
GHGs and affect their concentration in the than the levels prevalent in the year 1990.
atmosphere. The increasing trend in the concentration
The effectiveness of any given GHG of GHGs in the atmosphere may, in the long
molecule will depend on the magnitude of the run, warm up the earth. Once the global
increase in its concentration, its life time in the warming sets in, it will be difficult to reverse it.
atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation The effect of global warming may not be
that it absorbs. The chlorofluorocarbons uniform everywhere. Nevertheless, the adverse
(CFCs) are highly effective. Ozone which effect due to global warming will adversely affect
absorbs ultra violet radiation in the the life supporting system. Rise in the sea level
stratosphere is very effective in absorbing due to melting of glaciers and ice-caps and
terrestrial radiation when it is present in the thermal expansion of the sea may inundate
lower troposphere. Another important point to large parts of the coastal area and islands,
be noted is that the more time the GHG leading to social problems. This is another
molecule remains in the atmosphere, the longer cause for serious concern for the world

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WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 97

community. Efforts have already been initiated warming of the 20th century was during the
to control the emission of GHGs and to arrest two periods, 1901-44 and 1977-99. Over each
the trend towards global warming. Let us hope of these two periods, global temperatures rose
the world community responds to this challenge by about 0.4oC. In between, there was a slight
and adopts a lifestyle that leaves behind a livable cooling, which was more marked in the
world for the generations to come. Northern Hemisphere.
One of the major concerns of the world The globally averaged annual mean
today is global warming. Let us look at how temperature at the end of the 20th century was
much the planet has warmed up from the about 0.6oC above that recorded at the end of
temperature records. the 19th century. The seven warmest years
The annual average near -surface air during the 1856-2000 were recorded in the
temperature of the world is approximately 14oC. last decade. The year 1998 was the warmest
An increasing trend in temperature was year, probably not only for the 20th century
discernible in the 20th century. The greatest but also for the whole millennium.

Write an explanatory note

on “global warming”.

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98 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following is suitable for Koeppen’s “A” type of climate?
(a) High rainfall in all the months
(b) Mean monthly temperature of the coldest month more than freezing
point
(c) Mean monthly temperature of all the months more than 18o C
(d) Average temperature for all the months below 10° C
(ii) Koeppen’s system of classification of climates can be termed as :
(a) Applied (b) Systematic (c) Genetic (d) Empirical
(iii) Most of the Indian Peninsula will be grouped according to Koeppen’s system
under:
(a) “Af” (b) “BSh” (c) “Cfb” (d) “Am”
(iv) Which one of the following years is supposed to have recorded the warmest
temperature the world over?
(a) 1990 (b) 1998 (c) 1885 (d) 1950
(v) Which one of the following groups of four climates represents humid
conditions?
(a) A—B—C—E
(b) A—C—D—E
(c) B—C—D—E
(d) A—C—D—F
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Which two climatic variables are used by Koeppen for classification of the
climate?
(ii) How is the “genetic” system of classification different from the “empirical
one”?
(iii) Which types of climates have very low range of temperature?
(iv) What type of climatic conditions would prevail if the sun spots increase?
3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
(i) Make a comparison of the climatic conditions between the “A” and “B”
types of climate.
(ii) What type of vegetation would you find in the “C” and “A” type(s) of climate?
(iii) What do you understand by the term “Greenhouse Gases”? Make a list of
greenhouse gases.

Project Work
Collect information about Kyoto declaration related to global climate changes.

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