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ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF POLYPHENOLS & ALKALOIDS IN INDIAN

MEDICINAL PLANTS

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ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF POLYPHENOLS

& ALKALOIDS IN INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS
Dr Sunil Kumar1, Dr. S. Priyanka2, Dr. Namdeo Bhagwan Admuthe3, Dr Tulika Mishra4, Ms.
Divya R Sawant5, Dr. M. Velammal6*
1
Department of Botany, DAV (P. G.) College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India.
2
Department of Biotechnology, D.K. Govt. College for Women(A), Nellore, Andhra Pradesh,
India.
3
Department of Botany, Annasaheb Awate Arts, Commerce and Hutatma Babu Genu Science
College, Manchar, Dist. Pune, Maharashtra
4
Department of Botany, D.D.U Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, U.P, India
5
DPM's Shree Mallikarjun and Shri Chetan Manju Desai College Goa, India.
6*
Department of Chemistry, Yadava College, Tiruppalai, Madurai, Tamilnadu, India.
*Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]**

Abstract – Indian medicinal plants are found to be good sources of bioactive compounds in the
form of polyphenols and alkaloids, which contain strong antimicrobial activity. The
phytochemicals are reported to play important roles in countering bacterial, fungal, and viral
infections through microbial cell wall targeting, interruption of enzyme processes, and
preventing biofilm production. The rising global interest in antimicrobial resistance (AMR)
has led to increased studies of natural substitutes, and polyphenols and alkaloids are showing
great promise as new antimicrobial drugs. The structural diversity of these compounds, their
mechanism of action, and their use in traditional and conventional medicine are the subject of
this chapter. It also elaborates on recent scientific research that has proven their effectiveness,
highlighting Indian medicinal plants like Azadirachta indica (neem), Ocimum sanctum (tulsi),
Tinospora cordifolia (giloy), and Rauwolfia serpentina. The synergistic potential of these
phytochemicals with traditional antibiotics is also reviewed to emphasize their contribution to
improving antimicrobial therapy.
Keywords
Polyphenols, alkaloids, antimicrobial activity, medicinal plants, natural antibiotics, bioactive
compounds, antimicrobial resistance, phytochemicals

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Dr Sunil Kumar1, Dr. S. Priyanka2, Dr. Namdeo ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF

3 4
Bhagwan Admuthe , Dr Tulika Mishra , Ms. POLYPHENOLS & ALKALOIDS IN
Divya R Sawant5, Dr. M. Velammal6* INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS

I. INTRODUCTION

The sudden onset of antibiotic resistance is now an important global health issue, curtailing the
effectiveness of standard antimicrobial treatments and enhancing the occurrence of multidrug-
resistant (MDR) pathogens. Excessive and indiscriminate use of antibiotics in healthcare,
agriculture, and livestock husbandry has further promoted the emergence of resistant microbial
populations, threatening public health (Hosain et al.,2021). In consequence, there is also a rising
interest in investigating natural products, notably plant-based bioactive compounds, as potent
antimicrobial agents.
India, being rich in biodiversity and having a well-documented history of traditional medicine, is a
treasure trove of medicinal plants with strong antimicrobial activity. The Ayurveda, Siddha, and
Unani systems of medicine have been using plant-based formulations for centuries to cure a
variety of microbial infections based on the therapeutic potential of secondary metabolites like
polyphenols and alkaloids (Ahmed et al.,2024). Such phytochemicals have been documented to
exhibit wide-spectrum antimicrobial activities against bacteria, fungi, and viruses and are hopeful
candidates for new antimicrobial agent development.
Polyphenols, such as flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic acids, are well known for their potent
antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. They act by disturbing microbial cell membranes,
inhibiting bacterial enzyme systems, and regulating quorum sensing mechanisms controlling
microbial virulence. Alkaloids, a structurally diverse group of nitrogenous compounds, also
possess outstanding antimicrobial activity through mechanisms like DNA intercalation, protein
synthesis inhibition, and disruption of microbial metabolic processes (Abass et al.,2024). A
number of medicinal plants of Indian origin, e.g., Azadirachta indica (neem), Curcuma longa
(turmeric), Tinospora cordifolia (giloy), and Rauwolfia serpentina (Indian snakeroot), are well
researched in terms of polyphenol and alkaloid properties and have found to possess robust
antimicrobial action against drug-resistant microorganisms.
With the growing need for natural and sustainable therapeutic agents, research on plant-derived
antimicrobial compounds has picked up pace. Recent developments in phytochemical profiling,
molecular docking studies, and in vitro/in vivo models have shed more light on the antimicrobial
action of polyphenols and alkaloids (Singh et al.,2024). Additionally, the possibility of synergistic
interactions of these compounds with current antibiotics has created new opportunities for
combination therapies to combat resistance.

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Dr Sunil Kumar1, Dr. S. Priyanka2, Dr. Namdeo ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF

3 4
Bhagwan Admuthe , Dr Tulika Mishra , Ms. POLYPHENOLS & ALKALOIDS IN
Divya R Sawant5, Dr. M. Velammal6* INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS

This chapter explores the structural variability, antimicrobial modes of action, and
pharmacological uses of Indian medicinal plant polyphenols and alkaloids. It also outlines recent
scientific breakthroughs, their potential in upgrading traditional antimicrobial therapies, and future
directions in incorporating plant-based bioactives into mainstream medicine (Gupta et al.,2024).
By filling the gap between conventional wisdom and contemporary scientific studies, this chapter
hopes to give a clear picture of how plant-derived substances can help in the fight against
microbial infections due to increasing antibiotic resistance.

2. Polyphenols: Structure and Antimicrobial Mechanisms

Polyphenols are a vast and structurally diverse group of secondary metabolites produced by plants
as part of their defense mechanisms. These compounds are characterized by the presence of
multiple hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to aromatic rings, which contribute to their strong
antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Polyphenols have gained significant attention in recent
years for their potential in combating multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens due to their ability to
interfere with various microbial processes (Elkhalifa et al.,2024). In Indian medicinal plants,
polyphenols are abundant and contribute to the therapeutic effects of several herbal remedies used
in traditional medicine systems such as Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha. The antimicrobial action of
polyphenols is linked to their ability to disrupt bacterial cell membranes, inhibit essential
microbial enzymes, and chelate metal ions necessary for bacterial survival. Additionally, some
polyphenols modulate the host immune response, enhancing the body’s natural defense
mechanisms against infections.
2.1 Structural Classification of Polyphenols
Polyphenols exhibit a wide range of structural diversity, and they can be classified into different
subgroups based on their chemical composition and biological activity. Among them, flavonoids,
tannins, lignins, and phenolic acids are the most significant groups with strong antimicrobial
properties. Flavonoids represent one of the largest and most diverse subclasses, consisting of
compounds such as flavones, flavonols, flavanones, isoflavones, and anthocyanins (Billowria et
al.,2024). These molecules are widely distributed in plants and contribute to antimicrobial activity
by interacting with bacterial membranes and metabolic pathways. For instance, quercetin, a
flavonol found in onions and neem, is known to disrupt bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation,
preventing the colonization of pathogens. Another notable group, tannins, includes hydrolyzable
and condensed tannins, which possess antimicrobial properties by binding to bacterial proteins and

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Dr Sunil Kumar1, Dr. S. Priyanka2, Dr. Namdeo ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF

3 4
Bhagwan Admuthe , Dr Tulika Mishra , Ms. POLYPHENOLS & ALKALOIDS IN
Divya R Sawant5, Dr. M. Velammal6* INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS

enzymes, leading to cell death.

Lignins, another group of polyphenols, are complex macromolecules that provide structural
support to plant cell walls and act as a barrier against microbial invasion (Riseh et al.,2024). These
compounds break down into smaller phenolic derivatives such as p-coumaric acid and ferulic acid,
which exhibit strong antimicrobial properties by damaging bacterial cell walls and inhibiting
enzymatic functions. Phenolic acids, including gallic acid and ellagic acid, interfere with microbial
metabolic pathways and reduce oxidative stress, limiting bacterial growth and virulence. The
presence of these polyphenols in medicinal plants makes them an excellent natural source of
antimicrobial agents, with potential applications in treating bacterial and fungal infections.

POLYPHENOLS

PHENOLIC
FLAVONOIDS TANNINS LIGNINS
ACID

Breakdown
Hydrolyzable
Flavones products (Ferulic Gallic acid
tannins
acid)

Flavonols Condensed
Ellagic acid
(Quercetin) tannins

Flavanones

Isoflavones

Anthocyanins

Figure 1: Classification of Polyphenols

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Dr Sunil Kumar1, Dr. S. Priyanka2, Dr. Namdeo ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF

3 4
Bhagwan Admuthe , Dr Tulika Mishra , Ms. POLYPHENOLS & ALKALOIDS IN
Divya R Sawant5, Dr. M. Velammal6* INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS

2.2 Antimicrobial Mechanisms of Polyphenols

The antimicrobial properties of polyphenols are attributed to their ability to target multiple aspects
of microbial physiology. One of the most prominent mechanisms involves the disruption of
bacterial cell membranes. Many polyphenols interact with the lipid bilayers of bacterial
membranes, altering their permeability and causing leakage of intracellular contents. This
disruption weakens the bacterial structure, making it more susceptible to lysis and ultimately
leading to cell death (Liu et al.,2022). Additionally, polyphenols such as catechins from green tea
exhibit strong membrane-disrupting effects, reducing bacterial viability and preventing biofilm
formation, which is crucial for pathogenic bacteria to establish infections.
Another important antimicrobial mechanism of polyphenols is the inhibition of microbial
enzymes. Many bacterial species rely on specific enzymes for DNA replication, protein synthesis,
and metabolism, and polyphenols can interfere with these vital processes. For instance, curcumin
from turmeric inhibits bacterial DNA gyrase, preventing the unwinding of bacterial DNA and
thereby halting replication (Akhtar et al.,2022). Similarly, flavonoids such as apigenin from holy
basil interfere with bacterial RNA polymerase, disrupting gene expression and bacterial growth.
The ability of polyphenols to inhibit essential microbial enzymes makes them effective against a
wide range of pathogenic bacteria, including antibiotic-resistant strains.
Polyphenols also exhibit antimicrobial activity by chelating metal ions that are necessary for
microbial survival. Many bacteria require metal ions such as iron and magnesium to facilitate
enzymatic functions and maintain cellular integrity. Polyphenols can bind to these metal ions,
depriving bacteria of essential nutrients and inhibiting their growth (Scarano et al.,2023). For
example, tannins found in pomegranate interact with bacterial iron transport systems, effectively
starving the bacteria of iron and reducing their virulence. This mechanism is particularly useful in
combating pathogenic bacteria that rely on iron acquisition for their survival and proliferation.
Apart from directly targeting bacteria, polyphenols also play a role in modulating the host immune
response. Some polyphenols have been found to enhance immune cell activity, stimulating
macrophages and neutrophils to engulf and destroy invading pathogens. Additionally, certain
polyphenols modulate cytokine production, reducing inflammation and improving immune system
function. By strengthening the host’s natural defense mechanisms, polyphenols not only combat
infections but also help prevent the recurrence of microbial diseases. This dual action—direct
antimicrobial effects and immune system modulation—makes polyphenols a promising alternative
to conventional antibiotics.

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Dr Sunil Kumar1, Dr. S. Priyanka2, Dr. Namdeo ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF

3 4
Bhagwan Admuthe , Dr Tulika Mishra , Ms. POLYPHENOLS & ALKALOIDS IN
Divya R Sawant5, Dr. M. Velammal6* INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS

2.3 Indian Medicinal Plants Rich in Antimicrobial Polyphenols

Indian medicinal plants are a rich source of polyphenols with strong antimicrobial properties.
Several plants used in traditional medicine contain polyphenolic compounds that exhibit broad-
spectrum activity against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. One of the most well-known examples is
Curcuma longa (turmeric), which contains curcumin, a powerful antimicrobial polyphenol.
Curcumin disrupts bacterial membranes, inhibits biofilm formation, and interferes with bacterial
enzymatic activity, making it effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
(Trigo-Gutierrez et al.,2021). It has shown promising results against antibiotic-resistant strains
such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.
Another important medicinal plant rich in polyphenols is Camellia sinensis (green tea), which
contains catechins—potent antimicrobial flavonoids. Catechins have been found to inhibit
bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation, preventing pathogens from establishing infections.
Studies have demonstrated that green tea catechins can reduce the virulence of Helicobacter
pylori, a bacterium responsible for gastric ulcers, by interfering with its adhesion to stomach lining
cells. The antimicrobial potential of green tea polyphenols has also been explored in oral health
applications, where they help reduce the growth of Streptococcus mutans, the primary bacterium
responsible for dental caries (Kong et al.,2022).
Emblica officinalis (amla) is another medicinal plant known for its rich polyphenolic content,
particularly ellagic acid and gallic acid. These compounds exhibit strong antibacterial activity by
inhibiting microbial toxins and reducing bacterial virulence. Amla extracts have been studied for
their effectiveness against respiratory and gastrointestinal pathogens, including Klebsiella
pneumoniae and Salmonella typhi (Van Doan et al.,2022). The ability of amla-derived
polyphenols to modulate the immune response further enhances their antimicrobial efficacy.
Azadirachta indica (neem) is widely recognized in Indian traditional medicine for its antimicrobial
properties, primarily due to its polyphenolic constituents such as quercetin and nimbin. These
compounds interfere with bacterial metabolic pathways and inhibit quorum sensing, the bacterial
communication system responsible for coordinating virulence factor production. Neem extracts
have been found to be effective against a variety of pathogens, including Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and Enterococcus faecalis, both of which are known for their resistance to multiple
antibiotics (Mudenda et al.,2024).

3. Alkaloids: Chemical Nature and Antimicrobial Properties

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Dr Sunil Kumar1, Dr. S. Priyanka2, Dr. Namdeo ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF

3 4
Bhagwan Admuthe , Dr Tulika Mishra , Ms. POLYPHENOLS & ALKALOIDS IN
Divya R Sawant5, Dr. M. Velammal6* INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS

Alkaloids are a diverse group of nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds that exhibit potent
biological activities. These secondary metabolites are primarily found in plants and play a crucial
role in their defense mechanisms against herbivores, pathogens, and environmental stressors.
Structurally, alkaloids are characterized by the presence of nitrogen atoms within their cyclic
frameworks, contributing to their chemical reactivity and interactions with biological systems.
Due to their strong physiological effects, alkaloids have been widely explored for their medicinal
applications, particularly in antimicrobial drug development.
The antimicrobial properties of alkaloids stem from their ability to disrupt essential microbial
functions. One of the key mechanisms of action involves interfering with microbial protein
synthesis. By binding to bacterial ribosomes, alkaloids prevent the translation of vital proteins
necessary for cell survival, leading to bacterial inhibition or death (Seukep et al.,2023).
Additionally, some alkaloids target microbial cell membranes, causing disruption in membrane
integrity and permeability. This results in leakage of intracellular contents, ultimately leading to
microbial cell lysis. Another crucial antimicrobial action of alkaloids is the inhibition of quorum
sensing, a bacterial communication system that regulates virulence and biofilm formation. By
blocking quorum sensing pathways, alkaloids prevent bacteria from coordinating infection
strategies, reducing their pathogenicity.
Several naturally occurring alkaloids have demonstrated significant antimicrobial properties.
Among them, berberine, found in Berberis aristata (Indian barberry), has gained attention for its
potent activity against multi-drug-resistant (MDR) bacteria (Ahmad et al.,2025). Berberine
functions by intercalating with bacterial DNA, inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis and disrupting
metabolic processes. Its broad-spectrum antimicrobial action makes it effective against Gram-
positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.
Moreover, berberine has been found to enhance the effectiveness of conventional antibiotics,
making it a promising candidate for combination therapies against resistant pathogens.
Quinine, an alkaloid derived from Cinchona species, is well known for its antimalarial properties.
However, it also exhibits antibacterial effects, particularly against respiratory pathogens such as
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Quinine acts by interfering with microbial metabolism and
disrupting energy production pathways, leading to reduced bacterial growth. Its ability to target
multiple microbial processes makes it valuable in treating bacterial infections that have become
resistant to standard antibiotics.
Another significant alkaloid is reserpine, extracted from Rauwolfia serpentina (Indian snakeroot).

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Dr Sunil Kumar1, Dr. S. Priyanka2, Dr. Namdeo ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF

3 4
Bhagwan Admuthe , Dr Tulika Mishra , Ms. POLYPHENOLS & ALKALOIDS IN
Divya R Sawant5, Dr. M. Velammal6* INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS

Reserpine is traditionally used for its antihypertensive and sedative effects, but recent research has
highlighted its antimicrobial potential (Paul et al.,2022). It works synergistically with antibiotics
by inhibiting bacterial efflux pumps—mechanisms that bacteria use to expel antimicrobial agents
and develop resistance. By blocking these efflux pumps, reserpine restores bacterial susceptibility
to antibiotics, making it a valuable adjunct in antimicrobial therapy.
The structural diversity and multifaceted mechanisms of action of alkaloids make them promising
candidates for novel antimicrobial drug development. Their ability to interfere with protein
synthesis, disrupt membrane integrity, and inhibit bacterial communication pathways highlights
their potential in overcoming antibiotic resistance. With the increasing global threat of MDR
infections, alkaloids from medicinal plants such as Berberis aristata, Cinchona species, and
Rauwolfia serpentina offer a natural and sustainable alternative to conventional antibiotics.
Further research into the optimization of alkaloid extraction, bioavailability enhancement, and
synergistic drug formulations could pave the way for the next generation of antimicrobial
therapies.
4. Synergistic Potential with Antibiotics
Recent research has highlighted the promising potential of combining polyphenols and alkaloids
with conventional antibiotics to enhance their antimicrobial efficacy. When used together, these
natural compounds work synergistically with antibiotics to create a multi-faceted attack on
pathogenic microorganisms. Polyphenols can compromise bacterial cell membranes and disrupt
biofilm formation, while alkaloids may inhibit protein synthesis and efflux pump activities. This
complementary interaction not only amplifies the antibacterial action of antibiotics but also allows
for a reduction in the necessary dosage, thereby lowering the risk of adverse side effects (Vaou et
al.,2022). Moreover, the synergy between these compounds can help mitigate the development of
antibiotic resistance, as the combination targets multiple bacterial processes simultaneously,
making it more challenging for pathogens to adapt. This integrated approach provides a
compelling strategy to reinvigorate existing antibiotic therapies and offers a promising solution to
the growing global threat of multidrug-resistant infections.
5. Applications in Medicine and Future Prospects
The extensive antimicrobial properties of polyphenols and alkaloids, combined with their
synergistic potential with antibiotics, position them as attractive candidates for pharmaceutical
development. Their use in medicine is not limited to standalone antimicrobial applications; these
compounds are also being explored as adjuncts to enhance the efficacy of current treatments

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Dr Sunil Kumar1, Dr. S. Priyanka2, Dr. Namdeo ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF

3 4
Bhagwan Admuthe , Dr Tulika Mishra , Ms. POLYPHENOLS & ALKALOIDS IN
Divya R Sawant5, Dr. M. Velammal6* INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS

(Adeniji et al.,2022). Future research is likely to focus on conducting clinical trials to validate
their safety and effectiveness in human populations, as well as on developing advanced
formulation techniques that improve their bioavailability and targeted delivery. Innovations in
nanotechnology and drug delivery systems hold promise for overcoming the challenges associated
with the extraction, standardization, and large-scale production of these bioactive compounds.
With further refinement, polyphenols and alkaloids could play a transformative role in
personalized medicine, leading to the development of next-generation antimicrobial therapies that
are both effective and sustainable (Kaur et al.,2022). As we deepen our understanding of their
molecular mechanisms, the integration of these natural compounds into mainstream clinical
practice could significantly enhance our ability to manage and treat infectious diseases in an era of
rising antibiotic resistance.
Table 1 : Applications in Medicine and Future Prospects of Polyphenols and Alkaloids
Aspect Details

Antimicrobial Properties Exhibit strong antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal activity.

Synergy with Antibiotics Enhance the effectiveness of existing antibiotics, helping to

combat resistance.

Adjunctive Therapy Used alongside conventional treatments to improve patient

outcomes.

Clinical Trials Future research will validate their safety and efficacy in human
populations.

Formulation Techniques Advanced techniques aim to enhance bioavailability and targeted

drug delivery.

Nanotechnology Applications Nanoformulations improve stability, solubility, and controlled

release.

Challenges in Production Issues include extraction efficiency, standardization, and

scalability.

Role in Personalized Potential for tailored treatments based on individual patient

Medicine profiles.

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Dr Sunil Kumar1, Dr. S. Priyanka2, Dr. Namdeo ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITIES OF

3 4
Bhagwan Admuthe , Dr Tulika Mishra , Ms. POLYPHENOLS & ALKALOIDS IN
Divya R Sawant5, Dr. M. Velammal6* INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS

Next-Generation Could lead to innovative, sustainable alternatives to synthetic

Antimicrobials drugs.

Combatting Antibiotic Offer new strategies to manage infections in the face of rising
Resistance resistance.

Conclusion
The antimicrobial properties of Indian medicinal plant-derived polyphenols and alkaloids are a
promising and effective approach to the increasing problem of drug-resistant infections. By
leveraging the varied structural and functional attributes of these natural products, ancient
remedies are being reassessed in the context of contemporary scientific evidence, uniting
centuries-old knowledge with modern research. Polyphenols, in their capacity to interfere with
bacterial membranes, block vital enzymes, chelate essential metal ions, and interfere with the host
immune response, provide a multi-faceted strategy for inhibiting pathogens. Concurrently,
alkaloids show strong antimicrobial activity through interference with microbial protein synthesis,
membrane disruption, and inhibition of quorum sensing, all of which are vital in preventing
bacterial virulence and the emergence of resistance.
In addition, the synergistic activity seen when these phytochemicals are combined with traditional
antibiotics further emphasizes their clinical significance. These combinations not only increase the
effectiveness of current antibiotic therapy but also decrease the dosages needed, reducing side
effects and preventing the development of resistance. In the future, the incorporation of these
bioactive compounds into contemporary medicine has the potential to transform antimicrobial
therapy by providing renewable, natural alternatives to synthetic antibiotics. Further investigation
into clinical uses, cutting-edge formulation processes, and industrially scalable manufacture is
needed in order to optimize the potential of these compounds. Ultimately, utilizing the
antimicrobial capabilities of polyphenols and alkaloids in Indian medicinal plants may result in
novel, efficacious treatments to decrease our reliance on traditional antibiotics and offer hope in
the combat against multidrug-resistant infections.
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Bhagwan Admuthe , Dr Tulika Mishra , Ms. POLYPHENOLS & ALKALOIDS IN
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