-- Geography: Its' Nature and Perspectives --

.
: landscape ☆ is used to show relationships between tiMe, space,
Markings (physical and scale; used for gov, school, etc
features), ☆ Tech to gather this data includes Geographic Infor Mation SysteMS
depic , Global Positioning SysteM , online Mapping software, &
t elevation, & reMote sensing
used in navigation ☆
☆ north and south lines
☆ east and west Meridian lines
, ☆ is defining the relationship between places in
rep. specific relation to each other
geographic theMes, ☆ coordinates
depicts ☆ in relation to other places
☆ things that Make relative
distances seeM Shorter; Modern transportation, online coMMUnication

* , used ☆ study of relationships btw political, econoMical, and

in weather reports, social factors in regards to environMent
separate colored ☆ study of huMan and environMental interaction
regions that have value ☆ societal body of beliefs and Material traits that
or constitute specific custoMS, traditions, styles, and laws.
☆ the spreading and expansion of cultures, goods,
custoMS, activities, etc froM one place to all over the world; ex - the
internet, travel
of goods, entertainMent (netflix), MUSic

rep. or ☆ Patterns between the huMans and

voluMe of soMething in an environMental spaces that describes distribution of people, cultures,
area wtc
☆ specific region froM where things originate
☆ specific area defined by specific traits
☆ cliMate, topography,
elevation, landMarks, anything that physically defines a
landscape
use arrows to ☆ why do phenoMena (siMilarities and differences)
and occur within a region; ex - cultural and language differences
indicate size of MoveMent ☆ specific area were people
share traits, May have distinct boundaries; states, countries
☆ area organized around a focal point
where activity occurs; wifi hotspot, circulation area of Magazines
☆ conceptually defined area; the big
apple, Midwest, the south

distorts Maps ☆ geographers use the knowledge of

to depict physical site characteristics, political and cultural ecology, and
regions in order to understand why spatial patterns occur
☆ hearth-like, has highest intensity of soMething and
intensity lessens further froM this “center”
☆ surrounding area, region’s Margins

peoples ☆ gather data that provide useful to gov, builders,

Maps of architects, health care industry (CDC), population studies, econoMic
places developMent, etc and May interpret theM for real-life application
☆
☆ disease hubs, consuMer concentration, econoMic
developMent
 -- Population £ Migration Patterns --
.

☆Stage 1: pre-Modern tiMes, long doubling-rates (tiMe to 2x

pop.); lack of food & knowledge for hygiene & disease
control; no countries
☆Stage 2: iMproved food supply due to advanced farMing in
18th century (crop rotation, selective breeding);
iMproveMent in health (better water supply &
sewers); Sub-Saharan Africa, Afgan.
☆Stage 3: countries start developing - urban living starts to
norMalize, leading to a change is value and education
and thus decline in birth rate; woMen are educated
and enter workforce
☆Stage 4: population is stable; tech booM; includes Most
developed countries like US, Canada, China, Singapore,
South Korea, & Most of Europe; ideal stage
☆Stage 5: population decline, Japan - people focusing More on
☆China’s One-Child Policy: pop. was inc beyond working and due to large older age population, More
sustainability, thus # births had to decline are dying off; while less children are being born
☆Changed social, econoMic, and political roles for woMen relative to older age population
changed fertility and Migration, less # births
☆Dependency Ratio: working pop:older pop ☆Ravenstein's Laws of Migration:
Migration: in the Modern world of instant coMMUnication & 1. Most Migrations are short-distance
easy travel 2. It occurs in steps

𝖾 Push Factors: reasons to leave (conflict, no job, bad life)

☆Causes: jobs, security froM gov, lack of opportunities 3. Big cities attract long-distance Migrants

𝖾 Pull Factors: reasons to coMe (better jobs, liberty,

4. Migration happens froM rural to urban cities
5. There’s a counterflow to Migration
safety) 6. Single adults are More likely to travel than faMilies

𝖾 Involuntary:
7. Most international Migrants are young Males
𝖾 Voluntary: one leaves because of their personal during tiMes of war (refuges)
reasons forced to leave ☆Globalization: Migrations
causes spread of ideas and people; why people froM around Malthusian Also know
the world coMe to US; travel of goods & people Theory Population PyraMids
EpideMiologic Transition Model
Zelinsky Model of Migration
 -- Cultural Patterns --
.

linked w/ heterogeneous groups in areas; practiced by hoMogenous groups in isolation

Celebration of , custoMS influenced by ☆ : wine is for the rich; MUSliMS and jews don’t eat pork
☆ of goods & ideas, especially in western societies ☆ : adultery, MUrder, cannabalisM are frowned upon
☆ plays a huge role (social Media, websites, Marketing, ☆ : deterMined by environMent (houses are Made
etc) out of wood in the jungle) and class (rich get bigger
☆ex. Include blue jeans, pop MUSic, food chains, tik tok, youtube houses)
☆ leaders Monitor youth, woMen
☆ anyone can be a part of it (✝,☸,☪) eMpowerMent, “outsiders,” they Make sure custoMS
☆ belongs to particular ethnic or political group (ॐ,✡) reMain preserved

division within a religion 𝖾 𝖾

☆ sMall, cultural/tribal groups (syncretisM and aniMisM)
☆
☆ rectangular parcels of land west of
☆ 1 deity ☆ MUltiple deities
Appalachian
➸ (Mono & largest): spread thru expansion,
☆ narrow parcels of land between rivers, roads, or
hierarchical, & relocation diffusion throughout the world; Main
canals; found in French territories
branches are Catholics, Orthodox, & Protestant; follows
☆ disperse settlers evenly across US
teaching of Jesus, holy book is the Bible
interior
➸ : following teachings of MohaMMed; holy book is the farMlands; designed by ThoMas Jefferson
Quran; branches divided into sunni and shiite; spread thru ☆ uses owned land deeds and natural
expansion diffusion features to Mark land boundaries; found east of
Appalachian Mts.
➸ polythestic; spread thru relocation of hindus in achieving nirvana - ➸ Conservativ
Moving to other places for better jobs; follows the caste enlightenMent; divided Mono; es, &
systeM into Theravada & divided into ReforM;
➸ follows teaching of GautaMa BUddha; believes Mahayana Orthodix, known for
MUltiple diasporas throughout history due to persecution can unify or - adoption of
change technology
groups of people
 -- Political Patterns --
.

State: countries recognized by the UN (US, Brazil, Democracy: gov of the people, vote directly or thru
Turkey, etc) Nation: group of people w/ same culture, representatives Autocracy: single person with unlimited
but don’t necessarily have political sovereignty like power
that of a state; individual Native American tribes are Aristocracy: the rich rule; passed through generations
often nations of their own Plutocracy: the rich rule, not necessarily hereditary
City-State: countries governed by an independent Theocracy: religious authority rules
central city and may control adjacent territories; Monarchy: king or queen rules for life and passes rule by
Monaco, Singapore, Vatican City Nation-State: a state birth ligarchy: gov by few people
or country in which the people share a common Anarchy: no government, people are free to do
culture; India, China, the Koreas, Japan, Portugal whatever Republic: gov w/ head of state that is
Stateless Nation: groups of people with common usually elected Dictatorship: one person or group
culture, but do not have a country to call their own; controls entire gov Capitalism: country’s trade is
Kurds, Jews, Palestinians Multinational State: countries w/ controlled privately for profit Communism: state
multiple ethnic/cultural groups; US Multistate Nation: controls economy; goods are shared equally Socialism:
nations spread across multiple countries; Koreas everything ($) must be owned by the people as whole
Multiethnic State: state/country w/ multiple ethnicities; Fascism: authoritarian rule coupled with extreme
US,Canada Autonomous Region: part of state w/ some oppression
level of independence, more freedoms and own laws;
Hong Kong, Quebec, Aruba, Tibet Centripetal Forces: unify people within a state
Centrifugal Forces: disunify people within a state
Delimited: drawn by cartographer on a map Cultural Cohesion: multiple ethnic groups living in mutual
Demarcated: marked by physical means on the ground; agreement Trade Agreement: agreement on tariffs and
fence/wall Natural: marked by natural landscape; treaties on goods Gerrymandering: change boundaries
mountain, ocean, desert Cultural: defines where a to favor a party Balkanization: dividing a state/region
cultural, linguistic, or religious group lives Geometric: due to hostility
drawn using straight line, w/o regard for the Apartheid: systematic racial segregation in South Africa
environment or culture; US/Canada, Indonesia/Papua Genocide: purposefully killing large groups of people
New Guinea Antecedent: created before existence of (ethnic/cultural) Shatterbelts: region btw two powerful
cultural landscape; Andes Mountain btw Argentina & states
Bolivia; US & Canada (49th parallel) Consequent: Ethnic Cleansing: mass killing of unwanted ethnic/religious
evolved as cultural landscape developed; Pakistan group
Subsequent: established after settlement of local Ethnic Enclave: area w/ high ethnic concentration and
cultural groups Relic: no longer functional, but has cultural identity UNICEF: gives humanitarian aid to children
physical remains; Berlin Wall Superimposed: created by around the world
external powers w/o regard for locals Militarized: NAT : military alliance btw North America & European
heavily guarded, trying to prevent crossing; US/Mexico countries UNCLS: international agreement on laws of
pen: crossing is unrestricted; EU boundary agreements the sea
Definitional: established by legal bindings (treaties); all United Nations: goal to maintain peace btw countries
pol. Bdr. Maritime: countries claim 12 miles of sea from rganic Theory: states & nations behave same way as
shoreline organism in act of survival; will consume land as
Allocational B Dispute: conflict over resources divided by organism does food
border perational B Dispute: what is the function of Heartland Theory: power in center of Eurasia will control
the boundary? the world Rimland Theory: controlling coastal areas of
Locational B Dispute: question over definition of boundary Eurasia would allow for world domination; area outside
of heartland in Eurasia
Unitary: governed by one gov. body; UK, France, Domino Theory: one nation comes under communist
China, Japan Federal: head organization divided power control, all surrounding countries will follow suit
w/ local gov; US, India Compact: distance from center to
border is roughly equal; Romania Elongated: long &
narrow; Chile, Norway
Prorupted: part of state extends out of main body;
Thailand Perforated: surrounds another state; Italy to
Vatican City Fragmented: several pieces of land make
up the state; Indonesia Land-locked: surrounded by
land on all sides; Mongolia, Paraguay Microstate: small
pop. or small area size; Monaco, San Marino

Sovereignty: right & power to govern itself

Nationalism: identifying and supporting one's own nation
power Patriotism: identifying one's own nation and
valuing responsibility Irredentism: claiming back lost or
previously owned territory
Ethnonationalism: identifying and supporting one's
ethnicity Supranationalism: 3 or more countries form an
alliance for benefits Imperialism: expanding state’s power
into foreign territories Colonialism: having ruling power
in other territories & imposing own religion, customs,
etc; Britain with a majority of the world Neocolonialism:
using pressures to influence a state; US w/ Iraq
Democratization: introduce democracy into states
Devolution: transferring power to lower level; national to cities
 -- Agriculture £ Rural Land-Use --
.
Agrarian: in relation to rural affairs
Agribusiness: large-scale farming enterprise Agriculture Mixed Crop
Agricultural Landscape: land that is farmed on & Livestock Grain
Agriculture: practice of cultivating land & raising stock to Farming
produce food Dairy Farming
Animal Domestication: taming of animals Commercial Gardening &
Aquaculture: breeding aquatic animals and plants for Fruit Livestock Farming
food Biotechnology: tech engineered to aid in biological Mediterranean Farming
processes and create products in the area of biology
Collective Farm: group of farms run by the government
Intensive Commercial Agriculture: efficient farming on small
plots of land to maximize crop yield and profit (more effort,
more yield) Extensive Commercial Agriculture: farming using
mostly manpower & natural fertilizers; smaller amounts of
physical labor in relation to area being farmed (smaller
effort, smaller yield)
Crop Rotation: growing different crops in the same field to
avoid exhausting the soil of vital nutrients; reduces need for
pesticide Double Cropping: harvesting twice a year from
same field
Environmental Modification: changes in environment due to
human activity; desertification, pesticides, soil erosion
Desertification: turning of arable land into desert (big
problem today in Africa & rural countries; not enough
land to farm) Extensive Subsistence Agriculture: crops are
used for local/family on large areas of land with minimal
input
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: crops are used for
local/family on large areas of land with maximal input for
maximum yield
Shifting Cultivation: field are rotated; used for few years
and left to rest for long periods of time to let is
rejuvenate
Slash & Burn: cutting & burning of trees to enrich the soil
(typically used in tropical forest regions w/ small
populations)
Milpa: planting of multiple crops on a single field
(Mesoamerica) Nomadic Herding/Pastoralism: raising of
livestock for food by moving them from field to field to find
new land to graze on
Extractive Industry: activities involved in exploring &
developing the non-regenerative resources on Earth
Intertillage: clearing fields using manual equipment
Planned Economy: centralized gov. controls production of
goods Plant Domestication: selective breeding of plants
to modify it Renewable Resources: easily replaced; solar,
hydro, plants & animals Nonrenewable Resources: not
easily replaced; fossil fuels, coal Specialization: skills in
specific type of work
Staple Grains: can be used & stored all year long
Sustainable Yield: highest rate to indefinitely use a renewable
resource w/o reducing current available supply
Mechanization: implementing technology into equipment
Chemical Farming: specialized chemicals that enhance
yield Tragedy of the Commons: people use up resources for
their own
good w/o regard for others, leading to a community-wide
disaster Transhumance: seasonal migration of livestock
from lowland pastures to mountains
Commercial
1st Agri. Revolution: 10,000 years ago; plant & animal pesticides; they face allegations for serious
domestication 2nd Agril. Revolution: tech, fertilizer, & environMental daMage; yet controversy exists on the
adv. methods introduced 3rd Agri. Revolution: dev. of evidence to back this + counterevidence
GM s
Biorevolution: revolution of biotechnology to help in farming
intro. of pesticides & higher yields (less effort,
same amount of land, more food for cheaper; beneficial for
environment, led to development of industry, & overall
economic growth due to focus being shifted from
satisfying hunger needs to secondary needs)

Long Lots: narrow parcels of land stretching from rivers,

roads, or lines of transportation
Metes & Bounds: uses physical features and
landmarks Township & Range: used for
dividing property for sale Rectangular:
divide lands into rectangular parcels

Primary Economic Activity: extraction of natural resources

from the environment; agriculture, mining, lumbering
Secondary Economic Activity: related directly to processing
raw minerals or materials; manufacturing sector
Tertiary Economic Activity: related to the servicing industry;
education, banking, retailing, transportation
Quaternary Economic Activity: processing and sharing of
information; information technology, media, research &
development
Quinary Economic Activity: top-level decisions are made;
researchers, government, healthcare, business officials

- Increased
of water, soil, & other vegetation; can also
harM wildlife (birds, fish, & beneficial insects)
-
into coMplex ecosysteMS; this
weakens the environMent as any one little thing like a
single disease could wipe out the entire breed in one
go; not stable or strong for surviving and adapting
long terM
- Bolivia agreed on a deal to be forgiven on hundreds of
Millions of dollars of debt in exchange for preserving
over a Million square Miles of rainforest
- South AMerica has the

to stiMUlate cash flow; AMazon forest is

being cleared out at a rapid rate, presenting a serious
eco. ProbleM
- Topsoil erosion is a huge probleM as crops grow in
the first few inches of soil; however, due to long terM
USe, the nutrients in the soil dry up and they can take
thousands of years to replenish
-
dropped by US in
fear of
restricted econoMy growth
- (genetically Modified organisMS) ae crops that
have been breed and had its’ original DNA altered in
order to produce the best and Most “perfect” version
of itself;

- Pop is expected to grow by 2.2 billion by

2050 so food production needs to
increase btw 25% -70%
- Monsanto (agrocheMical & agricultural biotech
corp.) is responsible for engineering GMOs and
 -- Cities £ Urban Land-Use --
Globalization: spread of goods, ideas, info, jobs, etc around the Acid Rain: rain that turns acidic after contact froM atMospheric
world Gross DoMestic Product (GDP): total Market value gases; causes breathing probleMS and worsen pre-existing
for goods and services produced within a country; wealth diseases
of country Air Pollution: presence of toxic cheMicals in
Gross National Product (GNP): chiefly GDP with breathing air Fossil Fuels: nonrenewable energy;
international profits HuMan DevelopMent Index (HDI): coal, oil, natural gas
MeasureMents of life expectancy, education, literacy, GDP, Global WarMing: rise of avg. teMp. causing rising sea-levels,
etc; priMarily for telling standard of living Purchasing extreMe weather (deadlier hurricane), Melting of glaciers
Power Parity (PPP): way for Measuring & coMparing value ) Greenhouse Effect: trapping of heat within the atMosphere
of goods in different countries (exchange cost in country 1
cost in country 2
EcotourisM: tourisM appealing to ecologically conscious people
rate =
AggloMeration: collection of econoMic activities in one area district)
DegloMeration: spreading away of econoMic activities Location Theory: explains locations of econoMic activity
Industry: processing of raw Materials into goods; IT, Locational Interdependence Theory: rival coMpanies will locate
healthcare, retail Industrialization: developMent of industries next to each other in order to constrain the other’s custoMer
on a large scale; Manufacturing of goods through base; why car Space-TiMe CoMpression: increased feelings of
Mechanization over Manual labor Deindustrialization: decline connectedness despite long distances due to technology
in industrial activity; happened in UK due to it being cheaper (texting, calling, social Media)dealerships are next to each
to iMport goods than Manufacture it other
AsseMbly Line/FordisM: systeM of Mass production where
people has one specific job, so they only need one special MDC: More developed country
skill that they repeat; i.e. in a car factory one person puts on LDC: less developed country
the left door, another the right, etc Carrier Efficiency: airway NIC: newly industrialized country
shipMent is fastest, but Most expensive; waterway shipping
is cheapest & can travel further, but takes More tiMe
CoMparative Advantage: an entity’s ability to provide good or
service at a coMpetitive price; lower opportunity cost
BUlk-Reducing/Gaining Industries: produces goods that weigh
less/More after Manufacturing
Capitalist World EconoMy: profit-based global econoMy (Make
Money) CongloMerates: coMpanies that are present in
several different industries through acquisitions & Mergers;
Honeywell, SaMSUng, Google Export-Oriented Industry: strategy
where countries grow industries in which the goods are in
high deMand; thus Making Money by exporting it Footloose
Industry: location of anything does not Matter; tech corps.
Infrastructure: facilities & capital needed for the functioning of
an area International Division of Labor: asseMbly of a good is
spread around the world; different parts are Manufactured
in different countries
Labor Intensive Industry: high labor costs within an industry;
Mining NAFTA (North AMerican Free Trade AgreeMent):
free trade in NA Offshoring: business relocation to a foreign
country due to lower costs Horizontal Integration: business
acquisition of saMe-level production; Heinz & Kraft Merging
into one giant food production coMpany
Vertical integration: business acquisition of different
production levels; Target and WalMart, both produce soMe
of their own goods & sell it

Dependency Theory: resources froM the poorer periphery area

goes to the wealthier, core area; but the poorer periphery
area depend on the wealthy area; unjust inequality btw the
areas
World SysteMS Theory: wealthy benefit froM exploiting poor
countries Bid Rent Theory: price and deMand for real
estate lower further out froM CBD (central business
PriMary EconoMic Activity: extraction of natural resources
froM the environMent; agriculture, Mining, luMbering
Secondary EconoMic Activity: related directly to processing
raw Minerals or Materials; Manufacturing sector
Tertiary EconoMic Activity: related to the servicing industry;
education, banking, retailing, transportation
Quaternary EconoMic Activity: processing and sharing of
inforMation; inforMation technology, Media, research &
developMent
Quinary EconoMic Activity: top-level decisions are Made;
researchers, governMent, healthcare, business officials

Stage 1 Traditional Society: dependent on rural econoMy &

agriculture Stage 2 Transitional Stage: inc. productivity
within agriculture, Modern Manufacturing eMerges, education
inc, currency is established
Stage 3 Take Off: inc in industry, Money flow, growth of
Modern econoMy Stage 4 Drive to Maturity: evolution for
Modern tech & industry, inc in iMports & investMents,
entrepreneurial skills include producing anything Stage 5
High Mass ConsuMption: GDP inc, durable goods are
produced, inc in exports, More social wellness prograMS,
service sector is iMportant

NeocolonialisM: holding strong influence over foreign

countries Third World: developing countries
Canadian Industrial Heartland: Canada has a centralized
Manufacturing sector in central canada, specializing in the
autoMobile industry Distance Decay: decrease in presence
of soMething further froM origin Friction of Distance: inc in
tiMe & cost due to inc. distance
Post-Industrial Societies:
reliant on servicing of info
& entertainMent Social
DevelopMent: process by a
which a child learns to
interact with others,
coMMUnicate effectively, &
develop individuality
Break-of-BUlk: area where
goods are transferred to
different carrier Special
EconoMic Zones: areas w/
tax incentives & benefits
to attract foreign
investMent/business
Sustainable
DevelopMent:
developMent that will not
coMproMise futures
generations ability to
Meet their needs
Trading Blocs: countries with forMalized trade agreeMents
Gender: socially constructed roles; feMininity, Masculinity,
or neuter Sex: biological identification as Male or feMale
Cultural Convergence: coMbining of cultures the More they
interact w/ one another; i.e. English language (borrows
words froM MUlt. Langs.
DevelopMent: iMproveMent of an area due to advanceMent &
increase in technology, architecture, & education
 -- Industrial £ Economic Development --
heaping together; buildings in a city
squatter settleMents retail & office activities are
price & deMand for real estate changes further away ancient clustered
cities
froM the CBD you get (likely decreases) dividing of an area into sections w/ different purposes
real estate agents scare white hoMeowners into
selling their hoMe for cheap by saying that black people will Concentric Zone Model: social
Move in the area areas broken to organize city structure
population census stats MoveMent of people, A: Central Business District
capital, & ideas into a central city spreading B: Factories & Industry
C: Working Class Housing
of services outward froM central city
D: Middle Class
there is only one large central city also providing for
Housing E: Commuter
sMaller surrounding towns in any specific region
Zone
transforMation of an area into a city
Moving froM Urban to rural areas in dev.
ctrys
dev. of industry; More Manufacturing of
goods Moving away froM Manufacturing
where basic industries are located within a
region workforce is divided into priMary
(agriculture), secondary (Manufacturing), & tertiary
(servicing) sectors transforMation of lower-
incoMe neighborhoods into a higher end neighborhood due
to the initial cheap price for land & proxiMity to the city
center; probleM of displacing people living there
agricultural systeM dependent on large-
scale, governMent-Managed water dispersing systeM
developing eMpty lots within a built-up area’
econoMic activity that is untaxed, nor Monitored
by the governMent or included in GNP; artisans, baby sitting,
street vendors facilities, buildings, equipMent,
transportation, schools, power plants; anything that helps
run a certain region
the Moving up in social class and/or
being successful after iMMigrating into a new area; iMMigrants
in the US
traveling between suburbs
inc in spending will inc national spending, thus
consuMption inc & overall econoMy output will be greater than
spending
area w/ highest capital value &
Market (hip & trendy) art is
incorporated into the
architecture (Burj Al Arab is inspired by a sailboat), nature is
eMbraced in architecture More and historical buildings are
preserved real estate agents use race to push
people into Moving in or out of hoMes & neighborhoods
if cities in a country are ranked by population,
then the population of that city ranked n will be 1/nth size
of the largest city refusal to provide service froM
bank or federal agency within areas bordered by redlines;
used as an effort to enforce segregation
discriMination in sale of property
distinguishing of different races & providing
theM with unequal treatMent
very populated urban area w/ substandard housing
MiniMUM # of soMething needed
 collection of people & buildings that is the hub of culture &
services city w/ retailers & offices at the edge of
an urban city
city growing at a fast rate; Jakarta, Manila,
MuMbai city linking regions or countries; NY,
MiaMi, LA, Boston
neighborhood in city occupied by people of siMilar
social status, Minority status, culture, legal reasons, or
econoMic pressure (Money)
cities w/ population greater than 1 Million
people share Mental, physical, &
cultural traits run-down neighborhood on the
edge of town
areas with booMing high tech
businesses area around a central area
native city, center of pop. capital, culture,
industry, etc cities of the Middle ages
neighborhoods surrounding right outside the
CBD area forMing a coMMUnity
region with a densely populated core &
slightly less populated surrounding areas filled with industry &
housing; New York City (New York, New Jersey, Connecticut,
Pennsylvania)
Metropolitan areas with population greater
than 10 Million 2 Metropolitan areas
that soMewhat overlap
or are continuous in the region btw theM; NYC & Long Island
carefully planned & designed
area area w/ several offices grouped
together
Manufacturing to service based city
disproportionately the largest city in a region
or country
closely packed together w/ farMS
alongside it spread out hoMes &
businesses; pop is low density long &
narrow territory (Manhattan)

Multiple Nuclei
Model: social &
economic groups are
grouped together

John Borchert’s
Model: 4 periods
of time
1. Sail Wagon: low tech
2.Iron Horse: steam power
3. Steel Rail: Industrial Rev
4.Auto-Air-Amenity: gas-
power combustion
engine
5. High-Tech: service &
info based economy